Slides_Mtivation.pdf

Shafiqul Islam
PhD (in progress), The University of Auckland, New Zealand
MPhil( Norway), MSc (Sweden, Norway & UK), MSS & BSS (DU)
Assistant Professor
School of Business and Economies
United International University

What is Motivation?
 Factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and
other organisms.
 Instinct's Inborn patterns of behaviour that are biologically
determined rather than learned. (Module 29)
 Instinct approaches to motivation The explanation of
motivation that suggests people and animals are born
preprogramed with sets of behaviours essential to their
survival. (Module 29)
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Motivation/Spring2022/ShaIs/UIU

Nature of Motivation?
 The concept of motivation focuses on explaining
what moves behavior .
 It was derived from the Latin word ‘movere’
meaning movements.
 Motivation is one of the determinates of behavior
 Instincts, drives, needs, goals and incentives
come under the broad cluster of motivations
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The Motivational Cycle
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Need
Drive
Arousal
Goal-
directed
behavior
Achievement
Reduction of
Arousal

Theories of Motivation
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Instinct Approaches
Born to Be Motivated
 Instincts: Inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically
determined rather than learned.
 Biologically determined rather than learned.
 People and animals are born preprogramed with sets of
behaviours essential to their survival.
 Those instincts provide the energy that channels behaviour in
appropriate directions. Hence, sexual behaviour may be a
response to an instinct to reproduce.
 Instinct approaches play a role in certain theories, especially
those based on evolutionary approaches that focus on our
genetic inheritance. Furthermore, Freud’s work suggests that
instinctual drives of sex and aggression motivate behavior.
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Instinct Approaches
Criticism:
*Psychologists do not agree on what, or even how many, primary
instincts exist. One early psychologist, William McDougall (1908),
suggested that there are 18 instincts. Other theorists came up with
even more-with one sociologist Bernard (1924) claiming that there
are exactly 5,759 distinct instincts.
*Instinct approaches are unable to explain why certain patterns of
behavior, and not others, have evolved in a given species.
*Although it is clear that a great deal of animal behavior is based
on instincts, much of the variety and complexity of human behavior
is learned and thus cannot be seen as instinctual.
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Drive-Reduction Approaches
 Hull, 1943
 Drive-reduction theories are also known as
Homeostasis theory
 Satisfying Our Needs
 Suggest that a lack of some basic biological
requirement such as lack of water produces a drive to
obtain that requirement
 Drive-Motivation tension, or arousal, that
energized behavior to fulfill a need
 Primary drives
 Secondary drives
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 Homeostasis
 Body’s tendency to maintain a steady internal
state-underlies primary drives
 Uses feedback loops -When deviations from
the ideal state occur, the body adjusts in
an effort to return to an optimal state.
 Need for food, water, stable body temperature
and sleep
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12/11/2022 10
Need
(as for food, water)
Drive
(hunger, thirst)
Drive-reducing
behavior
(eating, drinking)

Criticism:
 Some behaviors seem to be motivated by nothing more than curiosity,
such as rushing to check e-mail messages. Similarly, many people pursue
thrilling activities such as riding a roller coaster.
 Such behaviors certainly don’t suggest that people seek to reduce all
drives as drive-reduction approaches would indicate (Begg & Langley,
2001; Rosenbloom & Wolf, 2002).
 Both curiosity and thrill-seeking behavior, then, shed doubt on drive-
reduction approaches as a complete explanation for motivation.
 In both cases, rather than seeking to reduce an underlying drive, people and
animals appear to be motivated to increase their overall level of
stimulation and activity.
 To explain this phenomenon, psychologists have devised an
alternative: arousal approaches to motivation.
12/11/2022 11

Incentive Approaches
 Motivation’s Pull
 Suggest that motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued
external goals, or incentives.
 In this view, the desirable properties of external stimuli-whether
grades, money, affection, food, or sex-account for a person’s
motivation (Festinger et al., 2009).
 Many psychologists believe that the internal drives proposed by
drive-reduction theory work in tandem with the external
incentives of incentive theory.
 Example: We seek to satisfy our underlying hunger needs (the
push of drive-reduction theory), we are drawn to food that
appears very appetizing (the pull of incentive theory). Rather than
contradicting each other, then, to “push” and “pull” behavior.
12/11/2022 12

Cognitive Approaches
 The Thoughts Behind Motivation
 Suggest that motivation is a product of people’s
thoughts, expectations, and goals.
E.g. The degree to which people are motivated to study for
a test is based on their expectation of how well studying
will pay off in terms of a good grade or future career.
 Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation causes us to participate in an
activity for our own enjoyment rather than for any
actual or concrete reward that it will bring us.
12/11/2022 13

Cognitive Approaches
• Extrinsic motivation
In contrast, extrinsic motivation causes us to do something
for money, a grade, or some other actual, concrete reward.
Example: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
*When a sportsman works long hours because he loves
sports, intrinsic motivation is prompting him; if he works
hard to make a lot of money, extrinsic motivation underlies
his efforts.
* Similarly, if we study a lot because we love the subject
matter, we are being guided by intrinsic motivation. On the
other hand, if all we care about is the grade we get in the
course, that studying is due to extrinsic motivation
12/11/2022 14

Maslow’s Hierarchy: Ordering of Motivational Needs
 Ordering Motivational Needs
 Suggests that before more sophisticated, higher-order
needs can be met, certain primary needs must be satisfied
 Abraham Maslow
 Self-actualization
 State of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest
potential
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Maslow’s Hierarchy
12/11/2022 16

A pyramid can represent the model with the more basic needs at the
bottom and the higher-level needs at the top (see Figure 3). To activate
a specific higher-order need, thereby guiding behavior, a person must
first fulfill the more basic needs in the hierarchy.
• The basic needs are primary drives: needs for water, food, sleep, sex,
and the like. To move up the hierarchy, a person must first meet
these basic physiological needs.
• Safety needs come next in the hierarchy; Maslow suggests that
people need a safe, secure environment in order to function
effectively. Physiological and safety needs compose the lower-order
needs.
• Only after meeting the basic lower-order needs can a person
consider fulfilling higher-order needs, such as the needs for love and
a sense of belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. Love and
belongingness needs include the needs to obtain and give affection
and to be a contributing member of some group or society.
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• After fulfilling these needs, a person strives for esteem. In
Maslow’s thinking, esteem is the result of understanding that
others recognize and value one’s competence.
• After these four sets of needs are fulfilled—no easy task—a
person is able to strive for the highest-level need, self-
actualization. Self-actualization is a state of self-fulfillment in
which people realize their highest potentials in their own
unique way. Although Maslow first suggested that self-
actualization occurred in only a few famous individuals, he
later expanded the concept to encompass everyday people.
• E.g.
• In a sense, achieving self-actualization reduces the striving and
yearning for greater fulfillment that mark most people’s lives
and instead provides a sense of satisfaction with their current
state of affairs
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Self full Filament
Status
Friendship
Stability of income
Hunger
Achievement of Goal
Job Title
Cordial relation with
colleague
Pension Plan
Basic Salary
Esteem Needs
Love & Social
Belongingness needs
Basic Psychological
Needs
Safety/Security
Needs
Self Actualization
A state of self-fulfillment

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Some Criticism of Maslow’s Theory
 Not everyone has the same needs
 Our perception of what is important at work
will vary
 Not realistic that most employees will reach
the top of the hierarchy
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Understanding Emotional Experiences
 What are emotions, and how do we experience them?
 What are the functions of emotions?
 What are the explanations for emotions?
 How does nonverbal behavior relate to the expression of
emotions?
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What is Emotion?
 Feelings that generally have both physiological and
cognitive elements and that influence behavior
 A subjective state of being that we often describe as our
feeling
 Emotion =A mix of ….
* Psychological arousal
* Expressive behavior
* Cognitive processing
12/11/2022 23

The Functions of Emotions
 Preparing us for action
Emotions act as a link between
events in our environment
and our responses to them.
For example, if you saw an angry
dog charging toward you, your
emotional reaction (fear) would
be associated with physiological
arousal of the sympathetic
division of the autonomic
nervous system, the activation of
the “fight-or-flight” response
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How do we
respond to our
environment ?

The Functions of Emotions
 Shaping our future behavior
Emotions promote learning that will help
us make appropriate responses in the
future. For instance, your emotional
response to unpleasant events teaches
you to avoid similar circumstances in the
future.
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How will we make
appropriate
response in the
future?
 Helping us interact more effectively
with others
We often communicate the emotions we
experience through our verbal and
nonverbal behaviors, making our
emotions obvious to observers. These
behaviors can act as signals to observers,
allowing them to understand better what
we are experiencing and to help them
predict our future behavior.
How do we
interact with
others?

Determining the Range of Emotions: Labeling Our Feelings
 There are various ways of categorizing emotions
 Most researchers suggest that basic emotions include:
 Happiness
 Anger
 Fear
 Sadness
 Disgust
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Determining the Range of Emotions: Labeling Our Feelings
12/11/2022 27
Unlimited….
500 Examples (Averill, 1975)
Common: Happiness, Fear
Uncommon: Pensiveness

The Roots of Emotions
 The James-Lange Theory
 Do gut reactions equal
emotions?
 Emotions are a result of
physiological changes
that produce specific
sensations
 The brain interprets
these sensations as
specific kinds of
emotional experiences
12/11/2022 28
Proposes that
emotion is our
reaction to
Physiological
factors

 The James-Lange Theory: Criticism
 Visceral experience may not be simultaneously
(problem with source of immediate experience)
 Visceral experience may not be sufficient to produce
emotion
 Many emotions actually are associated with relatively
similar sorts of visceral changes, a fact that contradicts
the James-Lange theory.
12/11/2022 29

 The Cannon-Bard
Theory
 Assumes that both
physiological arousal and
the emotional experience
are produced
simultaneously by the
same nerve stimulus,
which emanates from the
thalamus in the brain
12/11/2022 30
The belief that
both physiological
arousal and
emotional
experience are
produced
simultaneously by
the same nerve
stimulus.

James-Lange Theory
Heart Beat Fast
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Physiological
Response
Feeling Emotion
Tiger
See Stimulus
I am scared

Canon-Bird Theory
Feeling Emotion
12/11/2022 32
Physiological
Response
Heart beat Fast +
Sweating
Tiger
See Stimulus
I am scared
Both this occur simultaneously

Shachter-Singer Theory
Feeling Emotion
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Physiological
Response
Heart beat Fast +
Sweating
Tiger
See Stimulus
I am scared
Both this occur
simultaneously
“My heart is
beating fast and I
am sweating
because there is a
tiger that could
attack or hurt me.
Therefore, I am
scared

Theories of Emotion
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 Contemporary Perspectives on Neuroscience of Emotions
 Specific patterns of biological arousal are associated with
individual emotions.
 Amygdala
 Provides a link between the perception of an emotion-producing
stimulus and the recall of that stimulus later
 Hippocampus
 Aids in the consolidation of memories
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 Making Sense of the Multiple Perspectives on Emotion
 Emotions are complex phenomena
 Encompass both biological and cognitive aspects
 No single theory has been able to explain fully all the
facets of emotional experience
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12/11/2022 37

Thanks for Today !
12/11/2022 38

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