Single-subject research involves intensively studying a small number of participants to focus on individual behavior over time. It has been used in psychology since its beginnings. Some key features include repeatedly measuring a dependent variable under different conditions designated by letters (e.g. A, B, C). Researchers wait for steady responding before changing conditions. Common designs are reversal/ABA designs where a baseline is compared to a treatment condition, and multiple-baseline designs where the treatment is introduced at different times across subjects, behaviors, or settings. Data is typically graphed and analyzed visually for changes in level, trend or latency. Advantages include flexibility, ability to see quick effects of treatments, and strong conclusions about variable control. Disadvantages include
Types of research design
Within group/ repeated measure design
Two repeated treatments design
Several repeated treatments design
Order of participants in repeated treatments design
Advantages of repeated treatments design
Disadvantages of repeated treatments design
Between group design
Two randomized group design
More than two randomized group design
Matched group design
Way of matching
Methods of matching
Factorial design
Characteristics of factorial design
Advantages of factorial design
Disadvantages of factorial design
Validity:
Validity refers to how well a test measures what it is purported to measure.
Types of Validity:
1. Logic valididty:
Validity which is in the form of theory, statements. It has 2 types.
I. Face Validity:
It is the extent to which the measurement method appears “on its face” to measure the construct of interest.
• Example:
• suppose you were taking an instrument reportedly measuring your attractiveness, but the questions were asking you to identify the correctly spelled word in each list
II. Content Validity:
Measuring all the aspects contributing to the variable of the interest.
Example:
For physical fitness temperature, height and stamina are supposed to be assess then a test of fitness must include content about temperatures, height and stamina.
2. Criterion
It is the extent to which people’s scores are correlated with other variables or criteria that reflect the same construct
Example:
An IQ test should correlate positively with school performance.
An occupational aptitude test should correlate positively with work performance.
Types of Criterion Validity
Concurrent validity:
• When the criterion is something that is happening or being assessed at the same time as the construct of interest, it is called concurrent validity.
• Example:
Beef test.
Predictive validity:
• A new measure of self-esteem should correlate positively with an old established measure. When the criterion is something that will happen or be assessed in the future, this is called predictive validity.
• Example:
GAT, SAT
Other types of validity
Internal Validity:
It is basically the extent to which a study is free from flaws and that any differences in a measurement are due to an independent variable and nothing else
External Validity
• It is the extent to which the results of a research study can be generalized to different situations, different groups of people, different settings, different conditions, etc.
Types of research design
Within group/ repeated measure design
Two repeated treatments design
Several repeated treatments design
Order of participants in repeated treatments design
Advantages of repeated treatments design
Disadvantages of repeated treatments design
Between group design
Two randomized group design
More than two randomized group design
Matched group design
Way of matching
Methods of matching
Factorial design
Characteristics of factorial design
Advantages of factorial design
Disadvantages of factorial design
Validity:
Validity refers to how well a test measures what it is purported to measure.
Types of Validity:
1. Logic valididty:
Validity which is in the form of theory, statements. It has 2 types.
I. Face Validity:
It is the extent to which the measurement method appears “on its face” to measure the construct of interest.
• Example:
• suppose you were taking an instrument reportedly measuring your attractiveness, but the questions were asking you to identify the correctly spelled word in each list
II. Content Validity:
Measuring all the aspects contributing to the variable of the interest.
Example:
For physical fitness temperature, height and stamina are supposed to be assess then a test of fitness must include content about temperatures, height and stamina.
2. Criterion
It is the extent to which people’s scores are correlated with other variables or criteria that reflect the same construct
Example:
An IQ test should correlate positively with school performance.
An occupational aptitude test should correlate positively with work performance.
Types of Criterion Validity
Concurrent validity:
• When the criterion is something that is happening or being assessed at the same time as the construct of interest, it is called concurrent validity.
• Example:
Beef test.
Predictive validity:
• A new measure of self-esteem should correlate positively with an old established measure. When the criterion is something that will happen or be assessed in the future, this is called predictive validity.
• Example:
GAT, SAT
Other types of validity
Internal Validity:
It is basically the extent to which a study is free from flaws and that any differences in a measurement are due to an independent variable and nothing else
External Validity
• It is the extent to which the results of a research study can be generalized to different situations, different groups of people, different settings, different conditions, etc.
Diabetes triad, physiology, role of physical activity, effects of exercise, clinical implications, potential adverse effect of exercise, evaluation, types of physical activity, peripheral and autonomic neuropathy, summary
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Rehabilitation psychology, definition, scope and methods. Functions of rehabilitation psychology, work setting of rehabilitation psychologists
Psychological approach to rehabilitation: assessment, diagnosis, treatment and certification
Role of psychologist in disability rehabilitation.
Overview of Sullivan interpersonal theory, biography, tensions, dynamisms, personifications, levels of cognition, stages of development, psychological disorders, psychotherapy, salience, critique of Sullivan
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Definition of forensic Psychology
History of forensic Psychology
Forensic Psychology in court
Subfields of forensic Psychology
Difference in the function of forensic and clinical psychology
Difference in forensic and clinical assessment
Roles of forensic Psychology
Ethical considerations
Mood and affect
Feeling and emotion
Normal emotional reactions
Classification of emotion
Abnormal emotional reactions
Abnormal expression of emotion
Abnormal predispositions
Morbid expression of emotion
Disorder of emotion
What is consciousness
Characteristics of consciousness
Dimension of consciousness
Disturbance of consciousness
Active and passive consciousness
Distractibility
Dream like change of Consciousness
Unconsciousness
Memory : immediate memory, short term memory, long term memory
Autobiographical memory
Organic impairment of memory
Psychogenic amnesia
Organic amnesias
Other amnesias
Organic impairment of memory
Various disturbances of memory
Confabulation
Screen memory
Subjective motor Disorders
Objective motor Disorders
Disorders of adaptive movements
Disorders of reactive movements
Disorders of goal directed movements
Disorders of non adaptive movements
Sterotype
Parakinesia
Involuntary movements
Tremors, chorea, athetosis, spasmodic torticollis
Abnormal induced movements
Motor speech disturbances
Disorders of posture
Abnormal complex patterns of behaviour
Movement Disorders associated with antipsychotic medication
Affect and Mood
Describing affect: Type / quality, Range / variability, Degree / intensity, Stability / reactivity, Congruence, Appearance
Affect has three functions
Describing mood: Type / quality, Stability, Pattern of mood disturbance
Emotion, Classification of emotion, Normal emotional reactions, Abnormal emotional reactions, Abnormal reaction of emotion, Morbid expression of emotion, Communication of mood, Categories of emotion, Pathological changes in mood, Feeling of loss, Anhedonia, Feeling of impending disaster, Ecstasy, Feelings attached with the perception of objects, Feelings directed towards people, Free floating emotion, Experience and expression of emotion, Vital feelings, Religious feelings, Manic Depressive mood, Suicidal thoughts, Depersonalization, Internal restlessness, Cyclothymia and related conditions, Depression and loss, Grief, Helplessness and hopelessness, Mania, Manic thoughts
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
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International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
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Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
2. History of Studying the Individual
Psychology, though, actually began with intensive, prolonged study of
the individual. This single-participant research strategies followed
from the earlier scientific paradigms employed by physiologists.
The individual approach of Gustav Fechner in 1860 had earth-shaking
consequences for the development of a new science of psychology
when he developed our methods of psychophysics and also
formalized Weber’s famous law.
Ivan Pavlov who studied the long-term conditioning history of his
dogs to provide us with our contemporary principles of conditional
responses.
Wihelm Wundt and other early psychologists studied mental
processes under one or more sequential conditions, all within the
same person.
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1913) early use of single-subject resarch in
psychology.
3. Single-Subject research
Single-subject research—which involves testing a small number of
participants and focusing intensively on the behaviour of each
individual—is an important alternative to group research in
psychology.
Single-subject studies must be distinguished from case studies, in
which an individual case is described in detail. Case studies can be
useful for generating new research questions, for studying rare
phenomena, and for illustrating general principles. However,
they cannot substitute for carefully controlled experimental or
correlational studies because they are low in internal and
external validity.
Single-subject research has been around since the beginning of the
field of psychology. Today it is most strongly associated with the
behavioural theoretical perspective, but it can in principle be
used to study behaviour from any perspective.
4. General Features of Single-
Subject Designs
First, the dependent variable (represented on the y-
axis of the graph) is measured repeatedly over time
(represented by the x-axis) at regular intervals.
Second, the study is divided into distinct phases, and
the participant is tested under one condition per
phase. The conditions are often designated by capital
letters: A, B, C, and so on.
The conditions are often designated by capital
letters: A, B, C, and so on. Thus Figure represents a
design in which the participant was tested first in one
condition (A), then tested in another condition (B),
and finally retested in the original condition (A).
5. General Features of Single-Subject Designs
Another important aspect of single-subject research is that the
change from one condition to the next does not usually occur
after a fixed amount of time or number of observations.
Instead, it depends on the participant’s behaviour.
Specifically, the researcher waits until the participant’s
behaviour in one condition becomes fairly consistent from
observation to observation before changing conditions. This
is sometimes referred to as the steady state strategy (Sidman,
1960)
6. Reversal Designs
The most basic single-subject research design is the reversal
design, also called the ABA design.
During the first phase, A, a baseline is established for the
dependent variable. This is the level of responding before any
treatment is introduced, and therefore the baseline phase is a kind of
control condition.
When steady state responding is reached, phase B begins as the
researcher introduces the treatment. There may be a period of
adjustment to the treatment during which the behaviour of interest
becomes more variable and begins to increase or decrease.
Again, the researcher waits until that dependent variable reaches
a steady state so that it is clear whether and how much it has
changed. Finally, the researcher removes the treatment and again
waits until the dependent variable reaches a steady state. This
basic reversal design can also be extended with the reintroduction
of the treatment (ABAB), another return to baseline (ABABA),
and so on.
8. Multiple-Baseline Design
Sometimes, a researcher may be interested in addressing
several issues for one student or a single issue for several
students. In this case, a multiple-baseline design is used.
“In a multiple baseline across subjects design, the researcher
introduces the intervention to different persons at
different times. The significance of this is that if a behavior
changes only after the intervention is presented, and this
behavior change is seen successively in each subject’s
data, the effects can more likely be credited to the
intervention itself as opposed to other variables.
Multiple-baseline designs do not require the intervention
to be withdrawn. Instead, each subject’s own data are
compared between intervention and non-intervention
behaviors, resulting in each subject acting as his or her
own control (Kazdin, 1982).
9. Multiple-Baseline Design
An added benefit of this design, and all single-case designs,
is the immediacy of the data. Instead of waiting until post-
intervention to take measures on the behavior, single-case
research prescribes continuous data collection and
visual monitoring of that data displayed graphically,
allowing for immediate instructional decision-making.
In a multiple-baseline design, baselines are established for
different participants, different dependent variables, or
different settings—and the treatment is introduced at a
different time on each baseline. If the introduction of the
treatment is followed by a change in the dependent variable
on each baseline, this provides strong evidence of a treatment
effect.
11. Data Analysis in Single-
Subject Research
Single-subject researchers typically analyze their
data by graphing them and making judgments
about whether the independent variable is
affecting the dependent variable based on level,
trend, and latency.
12. Advantage of Single-Subject Research
Group means could conceal patterns that appear in
individuals' data.
Big effects - only clinically significant effects are
likely to be found.
Ethical and practical advantages (eg; can not
withhold treatment; too few subjects).
Flexibility.
13. Advantage of Single-Subject Research
Those who use the single-subject approach find it both a
powerful and satisfying research method. One reason for
this is that the method provides feedback quickly to the
investigator about the effects of the treatment
conditions. The experimenter knows relatively soon whether
the treatment is working or not working. Day-to-day
changes can be observed first hand, quickly and in
individual participants. In contrast to the single-subject
approach, a large sample statistical approach may take
weeks or months of testing participants, calculating
means, then performing statistical analyses, etc., and
unfortunately, often nothing may be known about the effects
of the treatment conditions until the final statistical analysis is
complete
14. Advantage of Single-Subject Research
The single-subject method also allows us to draw strong
conclusions regarding the factors controlling the
dependent variable, yet the method does not use random
assignment. The method allows strong conclusions
because investigators employing it use procedures that
provide rigorous control over environmental-
experimental conditions with great emphasis on obtaining
stable behavior with each participant. To be an acceptable
scientific work, the research must demonstrate for each
participant that behavior is controlled by the treatment
condition and he or she must also show both intra- and
inter-participant replication. That is, control must be
shown both within a single participant and also between the
participants.
15. Disadvantage of Single-Subject Research
Can not examine any between-subject effects.
Can not detect small effects.
May be less generalizable.
16. Disadvantage of Single-Subject Research
One obvious limitation of the single-subject approach is that
the method is unsuitable for answering actuarial types of
questions. Questions such as, "How many of the one-
hundred people exposed to a particular treatment will
respond favorably and how many will respond
unfavorably?" A similar question relates to studies
comparing two or more different treatments on the same
behavioral measure. For example, which of the various
treatments is the most effective? Ineffective?
Debilitating? The method cannot be used if you are
interested in treating an entire group of participants,
such as a classroom, in an identical way on a daily basis, i.e.,
when changes in procedures are made, they are made for
everyone in the group at the same time and for the same
period. A different method is also required if "after the
fact" studies (ex post facto, correlational, passive
observational) are of interest.
17. Disadvantage of Single-Subject Research
Single-subject approach makes heavy time demands.
Establishing a criterion and acquiring stable baselines for the
response of interest are sometimes very difficult. Further,
determining whether variability in behavior is intrinsic or
extrinsic can be troublesome. Non-reversible (irreversible)
behavior poses its own set of problems and it precludes the
use of a design in which the researcher removes the treatment to
observe a return to baseline levels of responding. Failure to
obtain intra- and inter-participant replication for whatever
reason creates problems for the single subject approach.
Sometimes decisions regarding the necessary number of
both intra- and inter-participant replications are largely
subjective.
Nevertheless, in spite of the limitations and problems described
here, the single-subject method does provide researchers
with another powerful way to assess behavior.