The birth of the Renaissance movement in the West ushered the scholars as well
as the masses into a broader perspective of learning and knowledge seeking. The spirit
of the Renaissance paved the way forward for scholars to gain freedom of speech and
liberation from their old mindset. Europe that was bursting with new philosophical and
scientific ideas also gave its people a wide range of perspectives in understanding man
and personality. Secularism and modernism that came as a result of the Renaissance
movement caused a shift in the understanding on man and his personality from a religious
to a scientific one. In this study, the researchers would like to venture into the
areas of man and personality from the Western perspective. Very precisely, the researchers
would like to conduct a survey on the shifting paradigms in the field of Western
psychology, pertaining to the study on man and personality. Upon performing the
survey, the researchers would like to identify and analyze the underlying factors that
caused the emergence of the different paradigms in Western psychology.
Man and Creativity: A Contrastive Analysis between Western and Islamic Psycho...mohd abbas abdul razak
This document provides an overview of concepts of creativity and human nature from Western and Islamic perspectives. It discusses how Western psychology, including Freudian psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and humanism, have differing views on human nature ranging from pessimistic to neutral to optimistic. Islamic psychology presents a holistic view of human nature based on the Quran and hadith, seeing humans as having physical, social, psychological and spiritual dimensions. The document then defines creativity and explores how creativity is perceived differently in various cultural contexts before contrasting Western and Islamic views on creativity.
Islamic Psychology and the Call for Islamization of Modern Psychology (Journa...Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak
The shifting of paradigms in modern psychology has left modern men in a state
of confusion on the issues pertaining to what should be the paramount concern
of psychology and in the proper understanding on the topic of human nature. In a contrastive manner Islamic psychology which has been promoted by Muslim
scholars alongside with the process of Islamization of knowledge and education, has its roots in the philosophical ideas of early Muslim scholars. Its resurgence, which started some two decades ago, is seen as an initiative to introduce Islamic understanding on man to the conflicting ideas prevalent in modern psychology. Its approach, which is mainly philosophical in nature, goes back to the ideas on
man mentioned in the two primary sources of Islam, the Qur’an and Hadith. Islamic psychology with its comprehensive ideas on human nature has been seen by Muslim scholars as a new perspective in psychology that can fill in the lacunae present in the modern psychological thoughts on man, and clears the mist that surrounds most Western theories on man. This paper represents anattempt to analyze and also synthesize Western psychology and Islamic psychology in terms of their nature, development, contributions, and problems.
Man and Creativity: A Contrastive Analysis between Western and Islamic Psycho...Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak
Among all creations of God living in this planet, man is the most intelligent, innovative and creative. Imbued with these qualities, man was able to plan, create and recreate new things using the resources available in the environment. Man’s position as God’s best creation and as the recipient of the creative intelligence from his Creator has further advanced him in mastering science and technology. As a result of his advancement in knowledge and science in one way or another has ushered man into creating great civilizations. While the discussion goes on as to whether man’s creativity is an inborn or a learned behaviour, this paper intends to explore and analyze some of the existing concepts on human creativity found in Western and Islamic psychologies. Very particularly, the researchers would like to examine the concept of creativity put forward by Freudian Psychoanalysis, Behaviorists, Humanistic and Islamic psychologies. It is expected that the findings of this research can motivate mankind to be more dynamic and productive in bringing upon the much needed positive change to the present world conditions.
Abstract
Human nature is a widely and popularly discussed topic not only in the East but also in
the West. This topic has drawn people from diverse backgrounds of knowledge to
explore and investigate who or what man is in relation to his Creator and other
creations that exist in the universe. The research on man and the attempts to answer
many of the intricate questions related to his creation and existence which started in the
ancient past is still on-going. The fact that the latest findings on man have added
information to the existing body of knowledge makes the study on human nature a
dynamic and perennial one. Within the scope of thispaper, the researcher has made an
attempt to discuss the topic on human nature from the Islamic perspective. In
discussing the nature of man, the researcher has ventured into the physical and
metaphysical realms of his existence as described in the Qur’an. Besides that, the
researcher has also entertained some discussions on how man has been perceived in the
mainstream Western and Islamic psychologies. In concluding the paper, the researcher
has anchored the discussion as to why the study on human nature is important
This document provides an introduction to the course "Introduction to Psychology". It discusses the objectives of understanding how psychology has developed as a social science. It defines psychology as the study of the mind and behavior. The subject matter of psychology is described as affecting behavior and cognition. The document then discusses how an understanding of psychology can help students in business and economics fields. Finally, it provides a detailed overview of the historical background of psychology, from ancient Greek and Islamic philosophers to the modern scientific period.
Human Nature & Motivation: A Comparative Analysis between Western and Islamic...mohd abbas abdul razak
In the fi eld of psychology, the topics on human nature and motivation
have been quite extensively discussed. These two topics are interrelated
and inseparable. Any endeavor to understand man and his potentials makes
it necessary for one to venture into the study of human nature. Major topics
in psychology like motivation, personality, creativity, psychotherapy, mental
health, etc. could be well understood with a proper understanding on human
nature. In the light of this reality, what makes this research an appealing and
interesting one is the fact that the researchers had comparatively analyzed the
ideas on human nature and motivation showcased to the world by Western and
Islamic psychologies. The fact that there exist a great number of schools of
thought in Western psychology, the researchers had narrowed their scope of
investigation to three only. As such, they discussed the ideas on human nature
and motivation as conceptualized in Psychoanalysis, Radical Behaviorism and
Humanistic psychology. Upon analyzing Western theories, the researchers
performed a compare and contrast analysis with ideas provided by Islamic
psychology on human nature and motivation. This academic exercise was done
in the hope of identifying as to whether there exist any similarity and difference between the two psychologies. Since the nature of this study was a qualitative
one, the researchers conducted a library research to collect the relevant data.
In analyzing the data related to the study, the researchers used the content and
textual analysis methods.
Coaching draws from theories in related fields like psychology. Psychology has been influenced by four major forces - Freudian, Behavioral, Humanistic, and Transpersonal approaches. Key theorists like William James, Sigmund Freud, B.F. Skinner, Abraham Maslow, and Carl Rogers contributed to developing these approaches and shifting the view of human nature. Coaching also utilizes research on human development across the lifespan to better assist clients in achieving their goals and potential.
Ibn Rushd (1126-1198 AD) was an influential Muslim philosopher and scholar from Al-Andalus (Islamic Spain). He received an excellent education focused on Islamic theology, philosophy, astronomy, mathematics and medicine. He became famous for his commentaries reconciling Aristotle's works with Islam. While his ideas made him popular, they also earned him powerful critics. Ibn Rushd believed religion and philosophy could be compatible if properly understood. His writings helped spread Aristotle's ideas during the European Renaissance and brought more tolerance to Islamic thought. He died in 1198 in Marrakech at an unspecified cause likely due to old age.
Man and Creativity: A Contrastive Analysis between Western and Islamic Psycho...mohd abbas abdul razak
This document provides an overview of concepts of creativity and human nature from Western and Islamic perspectives. It discusses how Western psychology, including Freudian psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and humanism, have differing views on human nature ranging from pessimistic to neutral to optimistic. Islamic psychology presents a holistic view of human nature based on the Quran and hadith, seeing humans as having physical, social, psychological and spiritual dimensions. The document then defines creativity and explores how creativity is perceived differently in various cultural contexts before contrasting Western and Islamic views on creativity.
Islamic Psychology and the Call for Islamization of Modern Psychology (Journa...Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak
The shifting of paradigms in modern psychology has left modern men in a state
of confusion on the issues pertaining to what should be the paramount concern
of psychology and in the proper understanding on the topic of human nature. In a contrastive manner Islamic psychology which has been promoted by Muslim
scholars alongside with the process of Islamization of knowledge and education, has its roots in the philosophical ideas of early Muslim scholars. Its resurgence, which started some two decades ago, is seen as an initiative to introduce Islamic understanding on man to the conflicting ideas prevalent in modern psychology. Its approach, which is mainly philosophical in nature, goes back to the ideas on
man mentioned in the two primary sources of Islam, the Qur’an and Hadith. Islamic psychology with its comprehensive ideas on human nature has been seen by Muslim scholars as a new perspective in psychology that can fill in the lacunae present in the modern psychological thoughts on man, and clears the mist that surrounds most Western theories on man. This paper represents anattempt to analyze and also synthesize Western psychology and Islamic psychology in terms of their nature, development, contributions, and problems.
Man and Creativity: A Contrastive Analysis between Western and Islamic Psycho...Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak
Among all creations of God living in this planet, man is the most intelligent, innovative and creative. Imbued with these qualities, man was able to plan, create and recreate new things using the resources available in the environment. Man’s position as God’s best creation and as the recipient of the creative intelligence from his Creator has further advanced him in mastering science and technology. As a result of his advancement in knowledge and science in one way or another has ushered man into creating great civilizations. While the discussion goes on as to whether man’s creativity is an inborn or a learned behaviour, this paper intends to explore and analyze some of the existing concepts on human creativity found in Western and Islamic psychologies. Very particularly, the researchers would like to examine the concept of creativity put forward by Freudian Psychoanalysis, Behaviorists, Humanistic and Islamic psychologies. It is expected that the findings of this research can motivate mankind to be more dynamic and productive in bringing upon the much needed positive change to the present world conditions.
Abstract
Human nature is a widely and popularly discussed topic not only in the East but also in
the West. This topic has drawn people from diverse backgrounds of knowledge to
explore and investigate who or what man is in relation to his Creator and other
creations that exist in the universe. The research on man and the attempts to answer
many of the intricate questions related to his creation and existence which started in the
ancient past is still on-going. The fact that the latest findings on man have added
information to the existing body of knowledge makes the study on human nature a
dynamic and perennial one. Within the scope of thispaper, the researcher has made an
attempt to discuss the topic on human nature from the Islamic perspective. In
discussing the nature of man, the researcher has ventured into the physical and
metaphysical realms of his existence as described in the Qur’an. Besides that, the
researcher has also entertained some discussions on how man has been perceived in the
mainstream Western and Islamic psychologies. In concluding the paper, the researcher
has anchored the discussion as to why the study on human nature is important
This document provides an introduction to the course "Introduction to Psychology". It discusses the objectives of understanding how psychology has developed as a social science. It defines psychology as the study of the mind and behavior. The subject matter of psychology is described as affecting behavior and cognition. The document then discusses how an understanding of psychology can help students in business and economics fields. Finally, it provides a detailed overview of the historical background of psychology, from ancient Greek and Islamic philosophers to the modern scientific period.
Human Nature & Motivation: A Comparative Analysis between Western and Islamic...mohd abbas abdul razak
In the fi eld of psychology, the topics on human nature and motivation
have been quite extensively discussed. These two topics are interrelated
and inseparable. Any endeavor to understand man and his potentials makes
it necessary for one to venture into the study of human nature. Major topics
in psychology like motivation, personality, creativity, psychotherapy, mental
health, etc. could be well understood with a proper understanding on human
nature. In the light of this reality, what makes this research an appealing and
interesting one is the fact that the researchers had comparatively analyzed the
ideas on human nature and motivation showcased to the world by Western and
Islamic psychologies. The fact that there exist a great number of schools of
thought in Western psychology, the researchers had narrowed their scope of
investigation to three only. As such, they discussed the ideas on human nature
and motivation as conceptualized in Psychoanalysis, Radical Behaviorism and
Humanistic psychology. Upon analyzing Western theories, the researchers
performed a compare and contrast analysis with ideas provided by Islamic
psychology on human nature and motivation. This academic exercise was done
in the hope of identifying as to whether there exist any similarity and difference between the two psychologies. Since the nature of this study was a qualitative
one, the researchers conducted a library research to collect the relevant data.
In analyzing the data related to the study, the researchers used the content and
textual analysis methods.
Coaching draws from theories in related fields like psychology. Psychology has been influenced by four major forces - Freudian, Behavioral, Humanistic, and Transpersonal approaches. Key theorists like William James, Sigmund Freud, B.F. Skinner, Abraham Maslow, and Carl Rogers contributed to developing these approaches and shifting the view of human nature. Coaching also utilizes research on human development across the lifespan to better assist clients in achieving their goals and potential.
Ibn Rushd (1126-1198 AD) was an influential Muslim philosopher and scholar from Al-Andalus (Islamic Spain). He received an excellent education focused on Islamic theology, philosophy, astronomy, mathematics and medicine. He became famous for his commentaries reconciling Aristotle's works with Islam. While his ideas made him popular, they also earned him powerful critics. Ibn Rushd believed religion and philosophy could be compatible if properly understood. His writings helped spread Aristotle's ideas during the European Renaissance and brought more tolerance to Islamic thought. He died in 1198 in Marrakech at an unspecified cause likely due to old age.
The Vision of Wholeness from the Viewpoint of PsychosynthesisEwa Danuta Bialek
This document provides an overview of psychosynthesis from the viewpoint of Ewa Białek. The key points are:
1) Psychosynthesis views the individual as a multidimensional whole and aims to integrate all parts (mind, body, emotions, spirit) around the personal center.
2) It emphasizes will as central to human experience and identity, seeking to develop will constructively for self-realization and harmony with others.
3) The goal is to broaden consciousness beyond the personal to connect with higher spiritual dimensions and experience unity with all life.
Stoicism is a philosophical doctrine that consists of logic, ethics, and physics. It is based on empiricism where all knowledge comes from sense perception. Stoic logic includes rhetoric and dialectic. Epistemology holds that the soul imprints presentations from the senses. Ethics teaches living virtuously and consistently with fate and providence in the cosmos. The goal is to attain a state of clear judgment and live in accordance with nature.
The document discusses the Islamic concepts of 'ilm (knowledge) and makrifah (cognition). It provides definitions from early Muslim scholars for these terms and examines the differences between them. The document also outlines two categories of knowledge in the Islamic tradition: transmitted religious sciences and rational intellectual sciences. It emphasizes the integration of revelation, reason, and nature in the Islamic epistemological framework.
The document provides an introduction to the topic of auras from various perspectives. It discusses how auras have been described throughout history in various spiritual traditions and more recently in scientific research. While the concept of auras may be dismissed by some as pseudoscience, empirical research by organizations like the HeartMath Institute have found measurable electromagnetic fields and interactions between people, proving auras cannot be fully dismissed. The document also notes that while many perspectives on auras exist, exploring this complexity can provide a rich journey of continual discovery into this fascinating topic.
Man: A Contrastive Analysis between Western and Islamic PsychologiesMohd Abbas Abdul Razak
1) The document presents a contrastive analysis between Western and Islamic psychologies and their differing views of human nature.
2) Western psychologies like Freudian psychoanalysis and behaviorism portray negative or mechanistic views of human nature, seeing humans as irrational, driven by instincts, or entirely shaped by environment.
3) In contrast, Islamic psychology and humanistic psychology present more positive views of human nature, seeing humans as inherently good, possessing qualities like free will, spirituality, and striving for self-actualization.
The document discusses the meaning and branches of philosophy. It begins by explaining that philosophy comes from the Greek words "philos" meaning love and "sophia" meaning wisdom. The main branches of philosophy are defined as metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and logic. Metaphysics is the study of existence and reality, epistemology is the study of knowledge, axiology is the study of values and ethics, and logic is the study of reasoning. Specific topics studied within these branches include ontology, cosmology, rationalism vs empiricism, and different types of knowledge such as revealed, authoritative, intuitive, rational, and empirical knowledge.
During the Islamic Golden Age from the 9th to 12th centuries, Muslim philosophers flourished and advanced knowledge in fields like mathematics, medicine, and philosophy. Major figures included Al-Kindi, who introduced Greek philosophy to the Muslim world; Al-Farabi, who wrote on logic, politics, and Plato's ideal state; Avicenna, whose Canon of Medicine was a standard medical text and who distinguished the soul from the body; and Averroes, who argued philosophy and religion could be reconciled and was influential in Western secular thought.
Philosophy of science 2 intro ii and qualitative researchDavid Engelby
This document discusses qualitative research methods and theories of perception in philosophy. It covers several topics:
1. Classic experimental psychology from the 1880s which viewed perception as constructed from sensory parts. Later gestalt psychology viewed perception as relating to the mapping of the brain and physical world.
2. Sigmund Freud's theory that subconscious motivation can change perception to align with one's self-image.
3. Jerome Bruner's theory that perception is a dynamic interaction between the observer and observed, influenced by categories, concepts, language and social status.
4. Social constructivism holds that knowledge and perception are shaped by one's social relations and context rather than objective qualities alone. Observation must precisely define the
On the Relation Between Philosophy and ScienceWinda Widyanty
This document discusses the relationship between philosophy and science. It outlines three main roles for philosophy: (1) an integrative role to develop an overall understanding of how different fields relate; (2) an incubator role where speculative ideas developed in philosophy influence and inform empirical sciences; and (3) an educational role within universities to teach critical thinking skills. The document argues that while philosophy has no monopoly on developing new ideas, it is well-suited to play an incubator role due to its culture of exploring integrative questions and developing highly general models.
The document discusses epistemology and the scientific method. It defines epistemology as the study of knowledge and how knowledge is gained. The scientific method is presented as the standard process for building valid knowledge and includes formulation of problems, hypotheses, experimentation, and conclusions. Scientific knowledge must be consistent with previous theories and match empirical facts. There are different stages of cultural and scientific development and various patterns of explanation used in science.
Al Ghazali (11th Century Muslim Philosopher)Rehan Shaikh
Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali was an influential 11th century Islamic scholar who made contributions across several fields including philosophy, law, theology, and Sufism. He sought to address divisions between rationalists and traditionalists by finding a middle ground. His major work, The Revival of Religious Sciences, aimed to balance different trends in Islamic thought. Later in life, Ghazzali took a more mystical approach like Sheikh Rabbani, balancing religious law and mysticism. He challenged philosophers' views on reason and the universe, and cleansed Sufism of excesses while upholding orthodox religion and the importance of genuine mysticism. Ghazzali was one of Islam's greatest theologians and his
The document discusses several philosophical schools of thought including existentialism, phenomenology, analytic philosophy, hermeneutics, postmodernism, deconstructionism, skepticism, pragmatism, feminism, utilitarianism, rationalism, and empiricism. It provides a brief overview of each school, focusing on key ideas and notable philosophers associated with each approach. References are provided at the end for further reading.
This document provides an introduction and overview of philosophy. It defines philosophy as the systematic study of fundamental human knowledge and the pursuit of wisdom. The document traces the origin of the term "philosophy" to ancient Greek roots meaning "love of wisdom". It outlines the main goals of philosophy as discovering the nature of truth and knowledge. The document also describes the scope and key branches of philosophy, and emphasizes philosophy's importance in clarifying beliefs, stimulating thinking, and developing analytical abilities.
Human nature is a widely and popularly discussed topic not only in the East but also in
the West. This topic has drawn people from diverse backgrounds of knowledge to
explore and investigate who or what man is in relation to his Creator and other
creations that exist in the universe. The research on man and the attempts to answer
many of the intricate questions related to his creation and existence which started in the
ancient past is still on-going. The fact that the latest findings on man have added
information to the existing body of knowledge makes the study on human nature a
dynamic and perennial one. Within the scope of this paper, the researcher has made an
attempt to discuss the topic on human nature from the Islamic perspective. In
discussing the nature of man, the researcher has ventured into the physical and
metaphysical realms of his existence as described in the Qur’an. Besides that, the
researcher has also entertained some discussions on how man has been perceived in the
mainstream Western and Islamic psychologies. In concluding the paper, the researcher
has anchored the discussion as to why the study on human nature is important.
Human nature is a widely and popularly discussed topic not only in the East but also in the West. This topic has drawn people from diverse backgrounds of knowledge to explore and investigate who or what man is in relation to his Creator and other creations that exist in the universe. The research on man and the attempts to answer many of the intricate questions related to his creation and existence which started in the ancient past is still on-going. The fact that the latest findings on man have added information to the existing body of knowledge makes the study on human nature a dynamic and perennial one. Within the scope of this paper, the researcher has made an attempt to discuss the topic on human nature from the Islamic perspective. In discussing the nature of man, the researcher has ventured into the physical and metaphysical realms of his existence as described in the Qur’an. Besides that, the researcher has also entertained some discussions on how man has been perceived in the mainstream Western and Islamic psychologies. In concluding the paper, the researcher has anchored the discussion as to why the study on human nature is important.
Islamic Psychology and the Call for Islamization of Modern Psychologymohd abbas abdul razak
The shifting of paradigms in modern psychology has left modern men in a state
of confusion on the issues pertaining to what should be the paramount concern
of psychology and in the proper understanding on the topic of human nature. In
a contrastive manner Islamic psychology which has been promoted by Muslim
scholars alongside with the process of Islamization of knowledge and education,
has its roots in the philosophical ideas of early Muslim scholars. Its resurgence,
which started some two decades ago, is seen as an initiative to introduce Islamic
understanding on man to the conflicting ideas prevalent in modern psychology.
Its approach, which is mainly philosophical in nature, goes back to the ideas on
man mentioned in the two primary sources of Islam, the Qur’an and ×adÊth.
Islamic psychology with its comprehensive ideas on human nature has been
seen by Muslim scholars as a new perspective in psychology that can fill in the
lacunae present in the modern psychological thoughts on man, and clears the
mist that surrounds most Western theories on man. This paper represents an
attempt to analyze and also synthesize Western psychology and Islamic psychology
in terms of their nature, development, contributions, and problems.
Man and Creativity: A Contrastive Analysis between Western and Islamic Psycho...mohd abbas abdul razak
Among all creations of God living in this planet, man is the most intelligent, innovative and creative. Imbued with these qualities, man was able to plan, create and recreate new things using the resources available in the environment. Man’s position as God’s best creation and as the recipient of the creative intelligence from his Creator has further advanced him in mastering science and technology. As a result of his advancement in knowledge and science in one way or another has ushered man into creating great civilizations. While the discussion goes on as to whether man’s creativity is an inborn or a learned behaviour, this paper intends to explore and analyze some of the existing concepts on human creativity found in Western and Islamic psychologies. Very particularly, the researchers would like to examine the concept of creativity put forward by Freudian Psychoanalysis, Behaviorists, Humanistic and Islamic psychologies. It is expected that the findings of this research can motivate mankind to be more dynamic and productive in bringing upon the much needed positive change to the present world conditions.
Man and Creativity: A Contrastive Analysis between Western and Islamic Psycho...Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak
Among all creations of God living in this planet, man is the most intelligent, innovative and creative. Imbued with these qualities, man was able to plan, create and recreate new things using the resources available in the environment. Man’s position as God’s best creation and as the recipient of the creative intelligence from his Creator has further advanced him in mastering science and technology. As a result of his advancement in knowledge and science in one way or another has ushered man into creating great civilizations. While the discussion goes on as to whether man’s creativity is an inborn or a learned behaviour, this paper intends to explore and analyze some of the existing concepts on human creativity found in Western and Islamic psychologies. Very particularly, the researchers would like to examine the concept of creativity put forward by Freudian Psychoanalysis, Behaviorists, Humanistic and Islamic psychologies. It is expected that the findings of this research can motivate mankind to be more dynamic and productive in bringing upon the much needed positive change to the present world conditions.
Man and Creativity: Contrastive Analysis between Western and Islamic Psycholo...mohd abbas abdul razak
Among all creations of God living in this planet, man is the most intelligent, innovative and creative. Imbued with these qualities, man was able to plan, create and recreate new things using the resources available in the environment. Man’s position as God’s best creation and as the recipient of the creative intelligence from his Creator has further advanced him in mastering science and technology. As a result of his advancement in knowledge and science in one way or another has ushered man into creating great civilizations. While the discussion goes on as to whether man’s creativity is an inborn or a learned behaviour, this paper intends to explore and analyze some of the existing concepts on human creativity found in Western and Islamic psychologies. Very particularly, the researchers would like to examine the concept of creativity put forward by Freudian Psychoanalysis, Behaviorists, Humanistic and Islamic psychologies. It is expected that the findings of this research can motivate mankind to be more dynamic and productive in bringing upon the much needed positive change to the present world conditions.
Introduction to schools & perspectives of psy.pptxanayanoor28
The document provides an overview of various schools and perspectives in psychology including:
- Structuralism focused on analyzing the basic elements of consciousness. Prominent figures included Wundt and Titchener.
- Functionalism examined how the mind helps people adapt to their environment. Figures included William James and John Dewey.
- Biological perspectives studied heredity, genes, and endocrine glands to understand behavior. The document also briefly mentions psychodynamic, behaviorist, cognitive, humanistic, existential, Gestalt, and socio-cultural perspectives.
The Vision of Wholeness from the Viewpoint of PsychosynthesisEwa Danuta Bialek
This document provides an overview of psychosynthesis from the viewpoint of Ewa Białek. The key points are:
1) Psychosynthesis views the individual as a multidimensional whole and aims to integrate all parts (mind, body, emotions, spirit) around the personal center.
2) It emphasizes will as central to human experience and identity, seeking to develop will constructively for self-realization and harmony with others.
3) The goal is to broaden consciousness beyond the personal to connect with higher spiritual dimensions and experience unity with all life.
Stoicism is a philosophical doctrine that consists of logic, ethics, and physics. It is based on empiricism where all knowledge comes from sense perception. Stoic logic includes rhetoric and dialectic. Epistemology holds that the soul imprints presentations from the senses. Ethics teaches living virtuously and consistently with fate and providence in the cosmos. The goal is to attain a state of clear judgment and live in accordance with nature.
The document discusses the Islamic concepts of 'ilm (knowledge) and makrifah (cognition). It provides definitions from early Muslim scholars for these terms and examines the differences between them. The document also outlines two categories of knowledge in the Islamic tradition: transmitted religious sciences and rational intellectual sciences. It emphasizes the integration of revelation, reason, and nature in the Islamic epistemological framework.
The document provides an introduction to the topic of auras from various perspectives. It discusses how auras have been described throughout history in various spiritual traditions and more recently in scientific research. While the concept of auras may be dismissed by some as pseudoscience, empirical research by organizations like the HeartMath Institute have found measurable electromagnetic fields and interactions between people, proving auras cannot be fully dismissed. The document also notes that while many perspectives on auras exist, exploring this complexity can provide a rich journey of continual discovery into this fascinating topic.
Man: A Contrastive Analysis between Western and Islamic PsychologiesMohd Abbas Abdul Razak
1) The document presents a contrastive analysis between Western and Islamic psychologies and their differing views of human nature.
2) Western psychologies like Freudian psychoanalysis and behaviorism portray negative or mechanistic views of human nature, seeing humans as irrational, driven by instincts, or entirely shaped by environment.
3) In contrast, Islamic psychology and humanistic psychology present more positive views of human nature, seeing humans as inherently good, possessing qualities like free will, spirituality, and striving for self-actualization.
The document discusses the meaning and branches of philosophy. It begins by explaining that philosophy comes from the Greek words "philos" meaning love and "sophia" meaning wisdom. The main branches of philosophy are defined as metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and logic. Metaphysics is the study of existence and reality, epistemology is the study of knowledge, axiology is the study of values and ethics, and logic is the study of reasoning. Specific topics studied within these branches include ontology, cosmology, rationalism vs empiricism, and different types of knowledge such as revealed, authoritative, intuitive, rational, and empirical knowledge.
During the Islamic Golden Age from the 9th to 12th centuries, Muslim philosophers flourished and advanced knowledge in fields like mathematics, medicine, and philosophy. Major figures included Al-Kindi, who introduced Greek philosophy to the Muslim world; Al-Farabi, who wrote on logic, politics, and Plato's ideal state; Avicenna, whose Canon of Medicine was a standard medical text and who distinguished the soul from the body; and Averroes, who argued philosophy and religion could be reconciled and was influential in Western secular thought.
Philosophy of science 2 intro ii and qualitative researchDavid Engelby
This document discusses qualitative research methods and theories of perception in philosophy. It covers several topics:
1. Classic experimental psychology from the 1880s which viewed perception as constructed from sensory parts. Later gestalt psychology viewed perception as relating to the mapping of the brain and physical world.
2. Sigmund Freud's theory that subconscious motivation can change perception to align with one's self-image.
3. Jerome Bruner's theory that perception is a dynamic interaction between the observer and observed, influenced by categories, concepts, language and social status.
4. Social constructivism holds that knowledge and perception are shaped by one's social relations and context rather than objective qualities alone. Observation must precisely define the
On the Relation Between Philosophy and ScienceWinda Widyanty
This document discusses the relationship between philosophy and science. It outlines three main roles for philosophy: (1) an integrative role to develop an overall understanding of how different fields relate; (2) an incubator role where speculative ideas developed in philosophy influence and inform empirical sciences; and (3) an educational role within universities to teach critical thinking skills. The document argues that while philosophy has no monopoly on developing new ideas, it is well-suited to play an incubator role due to its culture of exploring integrative questions and developing highly general models.
The document discusses epistemology and the scientific method. It defines epistemology as the study of knowledge and how knowledge is gained. The scientific method is presented as the standard process for building valid knowledge and includes formulation of problems, hypotheses, experimentation, and conclusions. Scientific knowledge must be consistent with previous theories and match empirical facts. There are different stages of cultural and scientific development and various patterns of explanation used in science.
Al Ghazali (11th Century Muslim Philosopher)Rehan Shaikh
Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali was an influential 11th century Islamic scholar who made contributions across several fields including philosophy, law, theology, and Sufism. He sought to address divisions between rationalists and traditionalists by finding a middle ground. His major work, The Revival of Religious Sciences, aimed to balance different trends in Islamic thought. Later in life, Ghazzali took a more mystical approach like Sheikh Rabbani, balancing religious law and mysticism. He challenged philosophers' views on reason and the universe, and cleansed Sufism of excesses while upholding orthodox religion and the importance of genuine mysticism. Ghazzali was one of Islam's greatest theologians and his
The document discusses several philosophical schools of thought including existentialism, phenomenology, analytic philosophy, hermeneutics, postmodernism, deconstructionism, skepticism, pragmatism, feminism, utilitarianism, rationalism, and empiricism. It provides a brief overview of each school, focusing on key ideas and notable philosophers associated with each approach. References are provided at the end for further reading.
This document provides an introduction and overview of philosophy. It defines philosophy as the systematic study of fundamental human knowledge and the pursuit of wisdom. The document traces the origin of the term "philosophy" to ancient Greek roots meaning "love of wisdom". It outlines the main goals of philosophy as discovering the nature of truth and knowledge. The document also describes the scope and key branches of philosophy, and emphasizes philosophy's importance in clarifying beliefs, stimulating thinking, and developing analytical abilities.
Human nature is a widely and popularly discussed topic not only in the East but also in
the West. This topic has drawn people from diverse backgrounds of knowledge to
explore and investigate who or what man is in relation to his Creator and other
creations that exist in the universe. The research on man and the attempts to answer
many of the intricate questions related to his creation and existence which started in the
ancient past is still on-going. The fact that the latest findings on man have added
information to the existing body of knowledge makes the study on human nature a
dynamic and perennial one. Within the scope of this paper, the researcher has made an
attempt to discuss the topic on human nature from the Islamic perspective. In
discussing the nature of man, the researcher has ventured into the physical and
metaphysical realms of his existence as described in the Qur’an. Besides that, the
researcher has also entertained some discussions on how man has been perceived in the
mainstream Western and Islamic psychologies. In concluding the paper, the researcher
has anchored the discussion as to why the study on human nature is important.
Human nature is a widely and popularly discussed topic not only in the East but also in the West. This topic has drawn people from diverse backgrounds of knowledge to explore and investigate who or what man is in relation to his Creator and other creations that exist in the universe. The research on man and the attempts to answer many of the intricate questions related to his creation and existence which started in the ancient past is still on-going. The fact that the latest findings on man have added information to the existing body of knowledge makes the study on human nature a dynamic and perennial one. Within the scope of this paper, the researcher has made an attempt to discuss the topic on human nature from the Islamic perspective. In discussing the nature of man, the researcher has ventured into the physical and metaphysical realms of his existence as described in the Qur’an. Besides that, the researcher has also entertained some discussions on how man has been perceived in the mainstream Western and Islamic psychologies. In concluding the paper, the researcher has anchored the discussion as to why the study on human nature is important.
Islamic Psychology and the Call for Islamization of Modern Psychologymohd abbas abdul razak
The shifting of paradigms in modern psychology has left modern men in a state
of confusion on the issues pertaining to what should be the paramount concern
of psychology and in the proper understanding on the topic of human nature. In
a contrastive manner Islamic psychology which has been promoted by Muslim
scholars alongside with the process of Islamization of knowledge and education,
has its roots in the philosophical ideas of early Muslim scholars. Its resurgence,
which started some two decades ago, is seen as an initiative to introduce Islamic
understanding on man to the conflicting ideas prevalent in modern psychology.
Its approach, which is mainly philosophical in nature, goes back to the ideas on
man mentioned in the two primary sources of Islam, the Qur’an and ×adÊth.
Islamic psychology with its comprehensive ideas on human nature has been
seen by Muslim scholars as a new perspective in psychology that can fill in the
lacunae present in the modern psychological thoughts on man, and clears the
mist that surrounds most Western theories on man. This paper represents an
attempt to analyze and also synthesize Western psychology and Islamic psychology
in terms of their nature, development, contributions, and problems.
Man and Creativity: A Contrastive Analysis between Western and Islamic Psycho...mohd abbas abdul razak
Among all creations of God living in this planet, man is the most intelligent, innovative and creative. Imbued with these qualities, man was able to plan, create and recreate new things using the resources available in the environment. Man’s position as God’s best creation and as the recipient of the creative intelligence from his Creator has further advanced him in mastering science and technology. As a result of his advancement in knowledge and science in one way or another has ushered man into creating great civilizations. While the discussion goes on as to whether man’s creativity is an inborn or a learned behaviour, this paper intends to explore and analyze some of the existing concepts on human creativity found in Western and Islamic psychologies. Very particularly, the researchers would like to examine the concept of creativity put forward by Freudian Psychoanalysis, Behaviorists, Humanistic and Islamic psychologies. It is expected that the findings of this research can motivate mankind to be more dynamic and productive in bringing upon the much needed positive change to the present world conditions.
Man and Creativity: A Contrastive Analysis between Western and Islamic Psycho...Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak
Among all creations of God living in this planet, man is the most intelligent, innovative and creative. Imbued with these qualities, man was able to plan, create and recreate new things using the resources available in the environment. Man’s position as God’s best creation and as the recipient of the creative intelligence from his Creator has further advanced him in mastering science and technology. As a result of his advancement in knowledge and science in one way or another has ushered man into creating great civilizations. While the discussion goes on as to whether man’s creativity is an inborn or a learned behaviour, this paper intends to explore and analyze some of the existing concepts on human creativity found in Western and Islamic psychologies. Very particularly, the researchers would like to examine the concept of creativity put forward by Freudian Psychoanalysis, Behaviorists, Humanistic and Islamic psychologies. It is expected that the findings of this research can motivate mankind to be more dynamic and productive in bringing upon the much needed positive change to the present world conditions.
Man and Creativity: Contrastive Analysis between Western and Islamic Psycholo...mohd abbas abdul razak
Among all creations of God living in this planet, man is the most intelligent, innovative and creative. Imbued with these qualities, man was able to plan, create and recreate new things using the resources available in the environment. Man’s position as God’s best creation and as the recipient of the creative intelligence from his Creator has further advanced him in mastering science and technology. As a result of his advancement in knowledge and science in one way or another has ushered man into creating great civilizations. While the discussion goes on as to whether man’s creativity is an inborn or a learned behaviour, this paper intends to explore and analyze some of the existing concepts on human creativity found in Western and Islamic psychologies. Very particularly, the researchers would like to examine the concept of creativity put forward by Freudian Psychoanalysis, Behaviorists, Humanistic and Islamic psychologies. It is expected that the findings of this research can motivate mankind to be more dynamic and productive in bringing upon the much needed positive change to the present world conditions.
Introduction to schools & perspectives of psy.pptxanayanoor28
The document provides an overview of various schools and perspectives in psychology including:
- Structuralism focused on analyzing the basic elements of consciousness. Prominent figures included Wundt and Titchener.
- Functionalism examined how the mind helps people adapt to their environment. Figures included William James and John Dewey.
- Biological perspectives studied heredity, genes, and endocrine glands to understand behavior. The document also briefly mentions psychodynamic, behaviorist, cognitive, humanistic, existential, Gestalt, and socio-cultural perspectives.
This presentation on ‘The Call for Islamization of Modern Psychology’ elucidates the nature and focus of psychology in the West and Muslim world. Since the West has gone through a period of shifting of paradigms in its views on man and psychology, and the fact that there exist a myriad of schools in psychology, the presenters would like to restrict their scope of analysis to only three schools from the western mainstream psychology. Among others that include psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and humanistic psychology. In a contrastive manner ideas on Man from the three schools will be compared with what has been conceptualized in Islamic psychology. Due to the fact that at times western schools of psychology agree and complement one another in matters related to man and at other times they are at loggerhead with one another, has created an opportunity for the introduction of Islamic psychology. It is the conviction of the presenters that Islamic ideas on man which are comprehensive and all-encompassing can act as a ‘peace-maker’ to the polemical issues that are prevalent in western schools of psychology. It is believed that ideas provided by Islamic psychology can harmonize many of the differences found in western mainstream psychology.
This document discusses different conceptions of human flourishing from ancient Greek philosophers like Aristotle to modern times. It explores how human flourishing has changed as science and technology have advanced, allowing people to live more comfortably. The document also examines the scientific method and different theories about what distinguishes science, including verification theory and falsification theory. It notes that some philosophers see science as a social endeavor influenced by its cultural context.
Toward Islamic Anthropology by Akbar S. Ahmed.pdfccccccccdddddd
This document provides an overview of the field of anthropology, including its origins in the colonial era and development as an academic discipline. It discusses how early anthropologists sought to understand other cultures but were limited by Eurocentric biases. Modern anthropology aims to appreciate human diversity and recognize our shared humanity. The document also examines the theoretical frameworks that emerged in Western anthropology to analyze social structures, kinship, religion, economics, and processes of social change.
Paul Schimmel (2014). Sigmund Freud’s Discovery of Psychoanalysis: Conquistad...iosrjce
This book is an attempt to discover the conceptual structure of psychoanalysis and relate it to the
history of psychoanalysis. It however attempts to do so from the point of view of Sigmund Freud’s fantasy of
being both a romantic ‘conquistador’ and ascientific ‘thinker.’These two co-ordinates serve then as a form of
‘essential tension’ in Freud’s attempts to formulate the theory and practice of psychoanalysis since, as the
founder of the analytic discourse, he had to both discover and deploy psychoanalysis effectively in his attempts
to find a place for it in the world. In addition to setting out the main theoretical themes and clinical techniques
in psychoanalysis, the book also examines the important role played by Freudian meta-psychology in not only
defining the conceptual structure of psychoanalysis, but in situating Freud’s status as an important thinker for
our times.
This document provides an introduction to an introductory psychology course. It outlines the course objectives which are to provide basic knowledge of psychology concepts and ensure students understand psychology as a scientific approach. It also discusses why psychology is studied, defining key terms, and providing an overview of the subject matter and historical background of psychology. The historical background section summarizes some of the early contributors to the field from the Greek, Islamic, and scientific periods. It also outlines some of the major schools of thought in psychology including structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, and others.
This document provides an introduction to the course "Introduction to Psychology". It discusses the definition and subject matter of psychology. It then covers the historical background of psychology in detail, separating it into the pre-scientific period (including Greek, Middle Ages and Islamic periods) and scientific period (including Renaissance and modern periods). Key figures from each period are mentioned along with their important contributions to the early understanding and development of psychology.
Using the modules below, answer the following essay questions.docxdickonsondorris
Using the modules below, answer the following essay questions:
Short Answer
Respond to 1of the following short answer questions. Your response should be at least 1-2 paragraphs long and written in full sentences. (10 points possible)
Option 3: Describe the role of religion in supporting people and culture. Please provide specific examples to illustrate and support your answer.
Essay Question
Answer 1of the following essay questions. Your response will be graded in terms of
accuracy, completeness, and relevancy of the ideas expressed. For full points, your answer should be written in complete sentences and be at least 5 paragraphs long with a recognizable introduction, and conclusion. Support your statements with specific examples from the course material, cite your sources both within the text of your essay and at the end of your essay. (15 points possible)
Choose one of the forms, and and discuss the "emic" and etic views of why this form of marriage "makes sense" (i.e., is adaptive) using specific examples from the course or course readings.
Use these modules:
1. What Is Anthropology?
The Subject Matter of Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of what it is to be human in the past and present, the things about people that are the same, and the things about them that are different. Anthropologists try to understand and describe the way in which humans think and behave and why we think and behave as we do. They help us recognize that much of what we think and do has been learned from the cultural worlds we walk in and that others do not necessarily experience or understand the world in the same way we do.
To understand humanity, anthropologists must study all of humanity, not just the most familiar or convenient human populations. Anthropology is cross-cultural. It seeks to understand how life is lived, experienced, and interpreted in different settings and at different times. It also seeks to understand how different people's unique histories and positions in larger contexts, such as the global economy, shape their lives. By studying people in their own contexts, anthropologists guard against conclusions that may be true for some, but not all. Anthropologists resist assumptions that any particular behavior, idea, or way of being is "natural" unless they are sure that no others do it, think about it, experience it, or interpret it differently. They challenge ethnocentrism wherever and whenever they find it.
Think about it:
Ideas about where infants should sleep can reflect notions of the "ideal" person a society is trying to develop. Many Americans, for example, highly value independence, individualism, and personal space and think, therefore, that infants "must" learn to sleep in their own cribs, often in their own rooms. People from other traditions, however, may find this practice cruel. Where do you think infants should sleep? Why? What does your opinion say about your values and traditions?
The Development of Anthropology
...
Psychology emerged from philosophy and early explanations of human behavior centered on supernatural concepts. Key developments included Wundt establishing the first psychology laboratory in 1879, marking the beginnings of modern scientific psychology. Early schools of thought guiding psychological work included structuralism, which used introspection to study the mind's fundamental elements, and functionalism, which focused on what the mind does.
The document discusses the importance of kinship in cultural anthropology. It notes that kinship has traditionally been a key topic as all humans have kinship and are related to others through it. Additionally, many early societies studied by anthropologists were organized primarily through kinship. Functionalism and structuralism focused on how kinship forms social groups and the rights/duties of individuals based on their relations. Meanwhile, cultural anthropologists focused more on the symbolic meanings and identities associated with different kinship roles. Kinship provides crucial insights into how social organization and cultural understandings of relationships develop in human societies.
Philosophy originated from the Greek word for "love of wisdom". To the ancient Greeks, philosophy referred to the quest for truth and knowledge rather than a fixed body of doctrine. Philosophy has taken different forms across cultures and civilizations. In China, it focused more on practical and social matters like Confucianism. Hindu philosophy encompasses diverse schools of thought in Hindu texts. Islamic philosophy aimed to reconcile revelation and reason. The main branches of Western philosophy are logic, aesthetics, ethics, politics, and metaphysics including ontology and epistemology.
The discussion on the mind and body continues to be debated by
philosophers and psychologists. Ever since the Renaissance, Western scholars
have shifted their research on the man from a religious to a scientific one. They
argued that spirituality cannot be scrutinized using science and scientific tools.
Yet, they are not any closer to finding a comprehensive solution to many of
man’s psychological problems. In realizing that man’s spiritual dimension is an
area avoided by Western mainstream psychology, this study analyzes some
aspects of the soul entity and its varied manifestations from an Islamic
perspective. Through a review of related literature and documentary analysis,
this study highlights the spiritual dimension of man as understood by Muslims
scholars and psychologists.
Similar to Shifting Paradigms in the Study of Personality: A Retrospective Survey of Western Ideas (20)
STABILIZING MUSLIM MARRIAGES: SOME REFLECTIONS ON ETHICAL MANAGEMENT OF FAMIL...mohd abbas abdul razak
Marriage breakdowns and family instability with their debilitating after-effects on women and children are the hallmark of greatly mechanized global community at present time. To remedy the situation, social scientists have diagnosed a multitude of variables as the precursor for the upward trends in marriage breakdowns and family disintegration. In Malaysian context, women`s financial independence, easy access to multimedia and early marriage are among the factors which account for the rising phenomenon of divorce even during the early years of marriage among Muslims. To remedy the situation, marriage counseling, law reform and pre-marriage courses are mostly emphasized by both mainstream legal scholars and women right activists. It is my considered opinion that these formalistic approaches if not integrated with the emphasis on ethical side of Islamic law may cause more marriage breakups than enhancing families. The bigger issues in terms of ethical management of Muslim family, such as marriage fidelity, sense of commitment to care for women and children, and spousal mutual empathy and responsibility may help a great deal in acculturating our society from early childhood to adolescence and through adulthood. The paper, therefore, argues for the more concentrated ethical approach for addressing the underlying causes of marriage disability in order to give more effect and meaning to the existing formalistic social and legal measures by reforming Muslims` mindset and outlook towards family.
This document outlines Iqbal's model of personality development, which involves obeying God, attaining self-control, fulfilling one's role as God's representative, utilizing resources to enrich one's spiritual status, and developing virtues while avoiding vices. The model has three stages to reach the status of insan al-kamil, or the ideal person who earns God's pleasure, with the Prophet Muhammad as the role model.
Slides on the topic of Human Nature. The focus is on the concept of the human at showcased by Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, Humanistic Psychology and Islamic Psychology.
Impact of Multicultural Environment of Islamic Educational Institutes on Stud...mohd abbas abdul razak
The study focuses on the effect of exposure to Multicultural and international environment of an Islamic educational institution on the acculturation of its students. Acculturation has been used in this study with a wide sense of meaning that underscores the sense of co-existence and feeling of unity. This study investigated whether the Internationalization process of the International Islamic University, Malaysia, with intergroup contact taking place under optimal conditions helps its students to, appreciate the differences that other cultures bring, be comfortable with differences and also seek diversity of contact. The study employed Miville-Guzman Universality – Diversity Scale, (M-GUDS-S) to collect data by survey method from 400 IIUM undergraduate students selected using Quota sampling. 200 of them were the first year students and the rest were fourth-year students. The result showed that there is a significant improvement in the feeling of unity among the students. The fourth year students showed more appreciation for other cultures and comfort with differences. Based on the finding it has been suggested that if efforts are made to establish optimal conditions for positive intergroup contact to take place, intergroup prejudice can be reduced and problems of co-existence in the Muslim countries and communities can thus be addressed.
This presentation emphasizes the importance of knowledge and learning from the Islamic perspective. In Islam, seeking knowledge should be a continuous process from cradle to death. The Qur'an states that man of knowledge is held high in the sight of God. A well-educated individual should enjoy good relationship with God, his/her self, flora and fauna, and humanity at large.
This presentation is focused on lifelong learning beyond school. As such, education should not be confined to the four walls of the classroom. Anything can be learning experience under the sun.
The magazine article focuses on the kind of relationship Man should have with the environment. Many of the destructions to flora and fauna happen due to Man's negligence.
Islam seeks to develop the human minds to a total submission to Allah the
Almighty. Through its divine guidance, the Qur’an ushered a large section of
the masses in Arabia from the darkness of ignorance into knowledge and
enlightenment of their souls. Islam grew from a humble beginning into a
mighty civilizational force. Islamic civilization like all other civilizations,
started to decline after reaching its pinnacle of success. Ever since the fall of
Baghdad in 1258, the Muslim world has been confronted with endless
problems in all fields of life. Colonization of Muslim lands by the West had
created the knowledge and technological gap between them and their
colonizers. Being subjected to colonization, neo-colonization, and now
globalization, Muslims are lagging behind other communities of the world. The
Muslim minds which once came up with great ideas, discoveries, innovation
and inventions, at the moment somehow become less prolific, and experiencing
a state of lethargy and malaise. In realizing the great challenges faced by the
Muslims in the modern world, this research intends to re-visit Iqbal’s ideas to
remedy the awful situations experienced by the Ummah.
This document provides a contrastive analysis of Western and Islamic perspectives on the concept of man and creativity. It discusses concepts of man in psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and humanism. In psychoanalysis, man is driven by instincts and lacks free will. Behaviorism views man as a product of his environment conditioned by stimuli. Humanism sees man as having a tendency for growth. Islamic psychology views man as possessing a creative intelligence, having free will but also weaknesses, and being created in the best form. The document then examines concepts of creativity in these perspectives and in Islamic psychology, which sees creativity as existing within man's soul and fitrah. It concludes that understanding different concepts of creativity requires understanding perspectives on human nature and that Islamic psychology
This study in the area of philosophical psychology is a contrastive analysis on the personality theories that have been showcased to the world by Freud and Iqbal. In analyzing the data pertinent to the study, the researcher has used the historical and content analysis methods. As a prelude to the kernel of the research, the researcher has explored the historical and philosophical developments that have taken place in the areas of human nature and personality in the West and Islamic world. The fact that both Iqbal and Freud believed the inner dimension of man, particularly the ego, which plays a pivotal role in all human behaviours has drawn the interest of the researcher to explore their concepts on the human psyche, and on how personality development takes place in individuals. Through the contrastive analysis, it has come to light that Freud and Iqbal had conceptualized their theories on personality as a response to the demands and challenges of their time. Besides that, factors like their personality, philosophy towards life, education and their travels have influenced directly or indirectly their conceptualization of their theories.
This document discusses globalization and its impact on the Muslim world. It explores how globalization has affected various areas of life like economics, politics, culture, and education. The paper also examines the Muslim era of globalization, noting that it aimed to peacefully share knowledge and call humanity to justice, not force religion or culture on others. While globalization has helped disseminate information through technology, some scholars argue it is actually Western re-colonization in disguise that benefits Western nations. The conclusion calls for Muslims to engage thoughtfully with globalization and find solutions, rather than total rejection or isolation, while also asking the West to move past past mentalities of domination.
Iqbal’s Ego Philosophy and Its Importance in Awakening Man’s Spiritualitymohd abbas abdul razak
History reveals the fact that the coming of modernity and secularism has allured
modern man towards a materialistic concept of life, ignoring his spiritual needs in respect
of his role as the vicegerent of God. This predicament has not only marred man’s
relationship with God but has also failed him toward understanding his true nature and
mission in life. The large segment of humanity today is on the brink of losing its human
and spiritual values, resulting in severe environmental degradation, racism, terrorism,
war, poor mental health, and other psychopathological illnesses. This paper intends to
explore and draw out conclusions from the philosophical thoughts of Muhammad Iqbal
(1877-1938) with regard to his ego philosophy that explains man’s relationship with
God, community and the universe (flora and fauna). Lessons drawn out from Iqbal’s
ideas can be of great use in awakening man’s spirituality and improving his quality of
life by establishing a harmonious relationship with God, environment and fellow human
beings.
Early ideas on human nature and personality were presented by Muslim scholars during the Golden Age of Islam (750-1258). The decline of the Islamic civilization and the dawn of the era of European colonization has somehow dwindled the study on man and his personality until the poet-philosopher Mohammed Iqbal (1879-1938) came up with his philosophy on the Ego (Khudi). Using philosophy and poetry as his vehicles, Iqbal called upon the Muslims to pay attention to the development and maintenance of the human Ego. Given Iqbal‟s fame in the East and West, it is pertinent to explore his ideas on human nature, philosophy of Ego or self, and personality. This study surveys the underlying factors that challenged Iqbal to conceptualize a theory on personality which is very different from others in the Islamic world.
Since ancient times, scholars in the West have shown great enthusiasm towards understanding
the subject on man and personality. Driven by this zeal, there appeared a multitude
of theories discussing man and his nature. Various concepts on man showcased by
the scholars, quite often, complemented one another and, at times, their ideas contradicted
and discredited one another. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) the founding father of
psychoanalysis presented to the world a concept on man and his personality which
turned out to be a controversial one. His idea of man seems to have shaped the western
culture and human psyche in general. What appears from the impact of Freud’s concept
of man and personality is that it has denigrated man. This paper represents an appraisal
of his idea of man and personality from human angle.
Ramadan and Eid are highly anticipated events in Malaysia. During Ramadan, families wake up early to eat sahur before the start of the daily fast. Iftar is an important meal to break the fast together. As Ramadan ends, preparations begin for Eid, including making new clothes and traditional foods. On Eid day, millions attend mosque prayers dressed in their finest attire, expressing gratitude and forgiveness. People spend the day visiting family and friends, strengthening social bonds and celebrating their faith with food and goodwill.
The Concept on Man: A Contrastive Analysis between Western and Islamicmohd abbas abdul razak
Being placed in the highest pedestal in the hierarchy of creations, man has been the focus in many areas of research, be it in religion, psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc. Regardless in the East or West, the study on man which started in the ancient past is still an on-going one. In the West, the research on man which started with the Greek philosophers has not ended for the reason there does not exist a comprehensive conclusion on the many enigmatic questions that surround the study on man. This scenario has opened the opportunity in West for the emergence of a divergent concept on man. In the Islamic world ever since the heydays of the Islamic civilization (750-1258), Muslim scholars have been constantly researching on the many dimensions of man stated in the Qur’an and Sunnah. Since the quest to understand man is a perennial one, this paper intends to explore and make an exposition on the concepts of man provided by the mainstream Western psychology; namely psychoanalysis, behaviorism and humanistic psychology. In this research too, in a contrastive manner the researchers would like to compare the Western theories on man with that mentioned in the Islamic psychology.
The Islamic world has witnessed the emergence of great number of
Muslim scholars. The names of those who made positive
contributions are mentioned till to these days. The poet-philosopher
Allama Muhammad Iqbal is one of those great scholars who have
left a legacy behind to be followed by other scholars particularly in
the area of how to deal with the West. His own reconciliatory
approach in dealing between the West and the Islamic world should
be an interesting one. Within the confines of this paper, the
researcher would like to explore and analyze the life, works and
mission of Iqbal, focusing on his philosophical approach to Muslim
ummah.
Early Muslims were able to embellish their civilization with great achievements in the areas of science and technology. The Holy Qur‟an not only speaks about spirituality but also on science and the natural world. The Qur‟an was the driving force in encouraging the Muslim scholars to go into science and research. The zeal to understand the hidden message of Allah, in the natural world, made them learn from contributions made by earlier civilizations. In taking knowledge from others, early Muslims used the methodology of adopt, adapt and integrate. During their heydays, Muslim scholars were pioneers in many areas of knowledge and sciences; natural and social. The peak of Islamic civilization drew Europeans scholars to their centers of learning. In modern times, the European renaissance movement which started in the 14th century got the impetus from the culture of learning, doing research and exploration that was shown by the Muslim scholars of the Golden Age of Islam (750-1258). The decline of the Islamic empires and the internal conflicts within the Ummah in some ways made the Muslims to lag behind others in science and technology. This paper intends to explore the ideas of Iqbal (1873-1938) on science and what are the obstacles highlighted by him that hindered the Muslims‟ march towards making this world a better place for them and others as well.
History indicates that before the coming of modern globalization, the Muslims
had their own version of globalization. During the Muslim era of globalization
which coincides with the Golden Age of the Muslims, the West benefited
immensely from the scholastic works produced by Muslim scientists and
scholars. Modern globalization which started during the era of Western
colonization of the East has now gone to every nook and cranny of the world.
The usage of internet and other modern electronic media directly or indirectly
has speeded up the process of transporting modern globalization to the world
community. Modern globalization has brought about radical change in aims of
education; it has marginalized local culture and language; it has caused brain
drain everywhere in the world. Muslims, it seems, are perceiving globalization as
identical to re-colonization. This paper intends to explore and investigate how
modern globalization heralded by the west is different from Muslim
globalization in the past.
In the history of Islam, the fall of Baghdad in 1258 indicates the decline of the Islamic empires.
The fall of the empires also marked the fall of the Islamic civilization and intellectualism. As the Islamic empires
fell one after another, starting with Baghdad, this left the Muslims in a pathetic condition, hardly able to regain
the prestigious position once they held on the world stage. The internal conflicts within the Ummah, also in a
way failed them in making any significant contribution during the great Industrial Revolution that happened
in the West. After that, Western colonization of Muslim lands, to some extent deprived them the success of
reconstructing and regaining the great civilization once they had during their heydays. Evers since the fall of
Baghdad, the Muslims are constantly bombarded with challenges they have to face in maintaining their faith,
culture and heritage. In modern times, after their independence, one of the serious problems they have to face
is globalization. Globalization which started some time ago is an ongoing thing that cannot be stopped. It is a
multi-faceted phenomenon which ramifies into all areas of the human life. Since the idea of globalization is a
thing that comes from the rich and affluent countries of the West, many in the developing and third world
countries welcome it with much delight as it offers them a great deal in terms of capital flow which promises
prosperity. Others perceive it with a doubtful and skeptical attitude by questioning as to what are the hidden
agendas of globalization. To them, globalization is a new agenda of the West to re-colonize the East. It is seen
as a new approach of how the Western hegemony can be imposed on the political, economic, social, cultural
and other aspects of the people in the East, particularly in the Muslim world. In the light of the present world
scenario, this paper intends to explore what globalization is all about, what sort of impact it has on the Islamic
civilization, very particularly in the areas of education and culture. Since globalization is irreversible, the paper
also aims at discussing on how the Muslim countries should strategize in facing the ferocious onslaught of
the tidal waves of globalization that have touched their shores
(June 12, 2024) Webinar: Development of PET theranostics targeting the molecu...Scintica Instrumentation
Targeting Hsp90 and its pathogen Orthologs with Tethered Inhibitors as a Diagnostic and Therapeutic Strategy for cancer and infectious diseases with Dr. Timothy Haystead.
ESA/ACT Science Coffee: Diego Blas - Gravitational wave detection with orbita...Advanced-Concepts-Team
Presentation in the Science Coffee of the Advanced Concepts Team of the European Space Agency on the 07.06.2024.
Speaker: Diego Blas (IFAE/ICREA)
Title: Gravitational wave detection with orbital motion of Moon and artificial
Abstract:
In this talk I will describe some recent ideas to find gravitational waves from supermassive black holes or of primordial origin by studying their secular effect on the orbital motion of the Moon or satellites that are laser ranged.
Sexuality - Issues, Attitude and Behaviour - Applied Social Psychology - Psyc...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Mending Clothing to Support Sustainable Fashion_CIMaR 2024.pdfSelcen Ozturkcan
Ozturkcan, S., Berndt, A., & Angelakis, A. (2024). Mending clothing to support sustainable fashion. Presented at the 31st Annual Conference by the Consortium for International Marketing Research (CIMaR), 10-13 Jun 2024, University of Gävle, Sweden.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
Travis Hills of MN is Making Clean Water Accessible to All Through High Flux ...Travis Hills MN
By harnessing the power of High Flux Vacuum Membrane Distillation, Travis Hills from MN envisions a future where clean and safe drinking water is accessible to all, regardless of geographical location or economic status.
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
The cost of acquiring information by natural selectionCarl Bergstrom
This is a short talk that I gave at the Banff International Research Station workshop on Modeling and Theory in Population Biology. The idea is to try to understand how the burden of natural selection relates to the amount of information that selection puts into the genome.
It's based on the first part of this research paper:
The cost of information acquisition by natural selection
Ryan Seamus McGee, Olivia Kosterlitz, Artem Kaznatcheev, Benjamin Kerr, Carl T. Bergstrom
bioRxiv 2022.07.02.498577; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.02.498577
The cost of acquiring information by natural selection
Shifting Paradigms in the Study of Personality: A Retrospective Survey of Western Ideas
1. International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) Journal of Islam in Asia, Vol.11, No. 2
December 2014
Shifting Paradigms in the Study of Personality
A Retrospective Survey of Western Ideas
Peralihan Paradigma dalam Kajian Personaliti
Satu Tinjauan Retrospektif Idea Barat
Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak , & Nik Ahmad Hisham
Abstract
The birth of the Renaissance movement in the West ushered the scholars as well
as the masses into a broader perspective of learning and knowledge seeking. The spirit
of the Renaissance paved the way forward for scholars to gain freedom of speech and
liberation from their old mindset. Europe that was bursting with new philosophical and
scientific ideas also gave its people a wide range of perspectives in understanding man
and personality. Secularism and modernism that came as a result of the Renaissance
movement caused a shift in the understanding on man and his personality from a reli-
gious to a scientific one. In this study, the researchers would like to venture into the
areas of man and personality from the Western perspective. Very precisely, the re-
searchers would like to conduct a survey on the shifting paradigms in the field of West-
ern psychology, pertaining to the study on man and personality. Upon performing the
survey, the researchers would like to identify and analyze the underlying factors that
caused the emergence of the different paradigms in Western psychology.
Keywords: Shifting, Paradigms, Study of Personality, Retrospective, Survey,
Western Ideas.
Abstrak
Kewujudan gerakan Renaissance di Barat mengiringi para ulama dan juga rakyat
jelata ke perspektif pengajian dan pencarian ilmu yang lebih luas. Semangat
Renaissance telah membuka jalan bagi ulama untuk memperoleh kebebasan untuk
Assistant Professor at the Department of Fundamental & Inter-Disciplinary Studies,
Kulliyyah of Islamic
Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, International Islamic University
Malaysia, maarji2020@yahoo.com/maarji@iium.edu.my
Professor at the Institute of Education, International Islamic University Malaysia,
nikahmad@iium.edu.my
2. Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak, & Nik Ahmad Hisham ���
bersuara dan kebebasan daripada cara pemikiran lama mereka. Eropah penuh dengan
idea-idea falsafah dan saintifik yang baru dan juga memberi rakyatnya pelbagai
perspektif dalam pemahaman manusia dan personaliti. Sekularisme dan modenisme
yang diakibatkan daripada pergerakan Renaissance yang menyebabkan peralihan
pemahaman manusia dan keperibadiannya dari segi agama kepada segi saintifik. Dalam
kajian ini, penyelidik ingin menerokai bidang manusia dan personalitinya daripada
perspektif Barat. Secara tepat, penyelidik ingin menjalankan survei mengenai peralihan
paradigma dalam bidang psikologi Barat, yang berkaitan dengan kajian manusia dan
personalitinya. Setelah melaksanakan survei itu, penyelidik ingin mengenal pasti dan
menganalisis faktor-faktor asas yang menyebabkan kemunculan paradigma yang
berbeza dalam psikologi Barat.
Kata Kunci: Iqbal, Falsafah Ego, Manusia, Kerohanian.
Introduction
Study on personality is a quite wide area. Even from the Western
perspective it is very vast and as there exists myriad of theories. This pa-
per will only focus on some major views on human nature and personal-
ity put forward by Western mainstream psychology, making a survey in a
retrospective manner, and highlighting the shifts and turns that have
taken place in the understanding of the Western scholars in dealing with
the topics on human nature and personality. The history on Western psy-
chology reveals the fact that studies on personality development in the
West have come a long way. Early studies on personality development
were initiated by the Greek philosophers. Ever since then, personality
studies have grown in numbers giving rise to a wide range of divergent
theories. In the West, what seemed to have started as a philosophical ap-
proach to the study on personality changed later into an empirical and
scientific one. This paradigm shift in the West should be rightly attrib-
uted to the advancement of knowledge and the scholars’ obsession to sci-
entific approach in finding answers to the problems faced by humanity.
By going through the existing researches and their results achieved by
Western psychologists, one will discover that many of the researches
done by the Western scholars on personality reveal that personality de-
velopment in an individual is evolutionary in nature that emerges as a
result of one’s learning experience, interaction with others and the envi-
ronment, and also due to the intrinsic and extrinsic motivations.1
The fol-
�
Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak, Iqbal’s theory of personality: a contrastive analysis with
freud.( Saarbrucken, Germany: Lap Lambert Academic Publishing, 2013), pp. 139-140.
3. ��� Shifting Paradigms in the Study of Personality
Retrospective Survey of Western Ideas
lowing will be an exposition on the developments that have taken place
in the study on personality in the West.
Personality Studies in the Ancient Times
In the ancient past, the topic on human personality was subjected to
interpretation albeit using mystical and superstitious beliefs. Notably in
Greece and probably in other parts of the world too, such beliefs were
prevalent. Hired astrologers predicted and interpreted the personality of
the masses. According to such beliefs, one’s personality in life can be
predicted and determined by observing the position of the orbiting plan-
ets during the time when one is born. As such, during that time the as-
trologers occupied an esteemed position in the society for the expertise
they possessed in prophesising the fate and personality of the masses.
Although this might be seen as something irrational in the contacts of
modern life, this tradition of reading other people’s fate and personality
is still very much alive in some communities of the world.2
A shift from the above notion on personality happened when Mar-
cus Tullius Cicero (106-43 B.C) asserted, “The face is the image of the
soul”. This knowledge that was promulgated by some experts stated the
idea, that it is possible to read the personality of an individual through
intense observation of the face of an individual. This art of reading the
face was known as physiognomy. It was believed that via physiognomy
the experts would be able to read the hidden terrain of personality by ob-
serving the facial traits, the shape of the body and the way an individual
walks. Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) also believed in this knowledge of the
ancient past when he said: “I am not much in fear of these fat, sleek fel-
lows, but rather of those pale, thin ones”. This ancient art of predicting
the personality of others lives on till today when people without realizing
judge other people’s character and behaviour by merely looking at their
faces.3
The other development that followed in the study of personality
was the emergence of pseudo-science known as phrenology. This ancient
knowledge of skull reading of the Greek survived for many generations
until it became a defunct field of study during the 19th
century. Before its
demise, phrenology had a substantial influence on psychiatry and modern
2
See Robert S. Feldman & Joel A. Feinman, Who you are: Personality and its
Development. (New York: Franklin Watts, 1992).
3
Morton Hunt, The story of psychology (New York: Anchor Books, 1994), pp.12-33.
4. Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak, & Nik Ahmad Hisham ���
neuroscience. Phrenologists like Johann Spurzheim (1776-1832), George
Combe (1788-1858), Orson Squire Fowler (1809-1887) and Lorenzo
Niles Fowler (1811-1896) made great names for themselves during the
heydays of phrenology in America in the early 19th
century. According to
phrenologists, the personality traits of a person can be determined
through the careful observation of the bumps and fissures present in the
skull. In the history of personality study, phrenology was considered to
be more advanced than the medical theory of humours.4
One of the popular theories on personality prevalent during the
Greek civilization was the humoural theory of Hippocrates (460-377
BC). According to this ‘Father of Medicine in the West’, the human body
contains four different types of fluids, otherwise known as “humours”
that correspond to the four elements of nature. Blood in the human body
corresponds to fire, phlegm to water, black bile to earth, and yellow bile
to air. In his view, a person enjoys good health when there is a proper
balance of these bodily fluids. Hippocrates also prescribed the same in
order for someone to have a good state of mental health. He wrote the
following in one of his works on medicine:
Men ought to know that from the brain, and the brain only,
arise our pleasure, joys, laughter, and jests, as well as our sorrows,
pain, grief, and tears…. These things that we suffer all come from the
brain when it is not healthy but becomes abnormally hot, cold, moist,
or dry… Madness comes from its moistness. When the brain is ab-
normally moist, of necessity it moves, and when it moves, neither
sight nor hearing is still, but we see or hear now one thing and now
another, and the tongue speaks in accordance with the things seen and
heard on any occasion. But when the brain is still, a man is intelligent.
The corruption of the brain is caused not only by phlegm but by bile.
You may distinguish them thus: those who are mad through phlegm
are quiet, and neither shout nor make a disturbance; those maddened
through his bile are noisy, evil-doing, and restless… The patient suf-
fers from causeless distress and anguish when the brain is chilled and
contracted contrary to custom; these effects are caused by phlegm,
and it is these very effect that cause loss of memory.5
4
Thomas Hardy Leahey, A history of Psychology. (New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall,
2004), pp. 312-313.
5
Hippocrates in David Michael Lindsey. (2005). The beast in sheep’s clothing:
exposing the lies of godless human science. (Louisiana: Pelican Publishing Company,
Inc., 2005), pp. 217-218.
5. ��� Shifting Paradigms in the Study of Personality
Retrospective Survey of Western Ideas
With regard to personality, the above ideas of Hippocrates have
been adopted by one of his followers by the name Galen (131-201 CE).
By incorporating ideas taken from his teacher, Galen conceptualized his
own theory on personality referring to the four fluids present in the hu-
man body. According to him, human temperament can be subjected to
the excessive presence of any one of the four humours. In his description
he said, a phlegmatic person suffers from excess phlegm, a choleric one
from an excess of yellow bile, a melancholic one from excess of black
bile and sanguine one from an excess of blood.6
In this way the humoural theory relates personality and the well-
being of a person to the proper balance of the bodily fluids. Though this
is an outdated theory during this age of scientific revolution, there have
been claims made by some from the scientific community that it has
some truth in it. Latest findings by neurophysiologists and brain scien-
tists have confirmed that substances produced by brain cells have effect
over the human thought processes, and likewise induced drugs and other
chemicals to the brain disrupt the thought processes. In relation to these
latest ideas from the field of neurophysics, the knowledge passed on by
Hippocrates, Galen and his followers on the human brain and the hu-
mours that influence the personality, were ideas spoken of without con-
ducting prior research using any form of methodology and test conducted
in the laboratories to validate their reliability.7
Defining Personality
Personality, which forms a major part of psychology, discusses the
nature of man and his characteristics. Human beings have characteristics,
which are displayed in unique ways in most instances form as a reaction
to the common situations in life. The typical manner, in which an indi-
vidual reacts, distinctly depicts of his or her personality. Over the ages,
different people had different meanings attached to the word personality.
Going by the etymology of the word, personality goes back to the Latin
word ‘persona’, which refers to the mask put on by an actor or actress on
stage during the ancient Greek civilization. Thus, initially the word ‘per-
sona’ carried the connotation of a false image or appearance. Similarly,
�
Ian Stuart-Hamilton, Key ideas in psychology. (London and Philadelphia: Jessica Kin
ley Publishers,�����, pp. ��-��.
7
Morton Hunt, Op.Cit., pp. 17-19.
6. Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak, & Nik Ahmad Hisham ���
in modern day understanding, some thought that the word implies to an
individual’s superficial attractiveness that is seen by others. Therefore,
there has been a false notion conceived by most laypersons looking at
personality only as the outward behaviour of an individual. In contrast to
this false notion, going by the definitions given by modern scholars, the
meaning of personality, which just refers to behaviour, is an incompre-
hensive one, as it does not explain the more elaborate meaning that has
been embedded to what is said to be personality.8
Apart from the above understanding of the word personality, most
philosophers viewed personality as something that is real and something
that emanates from within an individual. To put it differently, personality
is none other than the inner essence of an individual that emerges and
manifests itself in the observable behaviour of an individual. This inner
core or otherwise known as the ultimate reality of an individual not only
organises but also controls the behaviour of an individual. Modern psy-
chologists on the other hand, take a neutral course in explaining what is
meant by personality. According to them, behaviour alone is not consid-
ered to be personality as it only describes one part of a larger picture of
what is meant by the word personality. In addition to that, they believe
personality is neither the false image nor the ultimate cause of an indi-
vidual. Most psychologists assert that personality emerges as the out-
come of the interaction that happens between the individual’s biological
structures and the environment. As such, they describe personality as the
individuality that is formed as a result of the interaction that takes place
between the biological organism with that of the social and physical
world.9
A further elucidation on the word personality by the experts in
psychology can clear the mist that surrounds this word. One of the com-
prehensive meanings given to the word personality is one that has been
given by James Drever (1968) in his compilation of terms and terminol-
ogies used in psychology. In his book entitled ‘A Dictionary of Psychol-
ogy’, Drever cogently explained the word personality as:
A term used in various senses, both popularly and psychologi-
cally, the most comprehensive and satisfactory being the integrated
and dynamic organization of the physical, mental, moral, and social
8
Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak, Contribution of Iqbal’s Dynamic Personality Theory to
Islamic Psychology: A Contrastive Analysis with Freud and Selected Mainstream
Western Psychology (Selangor: International Islamic University Malaysia, 2011), pp.
52-58.
9
Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak, op. cit., p. 128-131.
7. ��� Shifting Paradigms in the Study of Personality
Retrospective Survey of Western Ideas
qualities of the individual, as that manifests itself to other people, in
the give and take of social life; on further analysis it would appear in
the main to comprise the natural and acquired impulses, habits, inter-
ests, and complexes, the sentiments and ideals, the opinions and be-
liefs as manifested in his relations with his social milieu.10
In modern times, psychologists in the West have come up with a
more simplified explanation on what personality is all about. Richard M.
Ryckman (2003) defined the word personality as: “A dynamic and organ-
ized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences
his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviours in various situa-
tions”.11
In another definition given by Schultz & Schultz (1994) we read
“Personality is the sum total of a person’s conceptions, beliefs, emotional
(reactions), thoughts, actions, appearance, which interacts with the envi-
ronment to distinguish the individual from other people”.12
Meanwhile,
Kendra Van Wagner (2008) in her ‘Psychology Guide’ webpage gives
the following definition to what she perceives as personality: “Personal-
ity is made up of the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and be-
haviour that make a person unique. In addition to this, personality arises
from within the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout
life”.13
After providing some definitions on what has been described as
personality from the modern Western contexts, this survey will venture
to explore some of the Western theories and the developments that have
taken place in the area of personality development.
Freud’s View on Personality
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) who initially started as a medical doc-
tor later became interested in neurology and eventually turned into a
clinical psychologist. Through the trainings acquired during his travel to
France and other parts of Europe, he learned to be a psychotherapist.
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11
Richard M. Ryckman. Theories of personality. (8th
edn.) (Belmont, CA: Thom-
son/Wadsworth, 2003), p. 4.
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8. Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak, & Nik Ahmad Hisham ���
Very particularly, through his acquaintance with Jean-Martin Charcot
(1825-1893), a neurologist, Freud learned the knowledge and skill of
how to prod and search into the unconscious of his clients by using hyp-
notism and talking therapy. By using information collected from his cli-
ents, he conceptualized a theory on how human personality develops. His
theory is very much different from all other pre and post-Freudian theo-
ries. Though different in its nature, his theory of personality later had a
profound influence on the masses, mainly the media, novelists, movie-
makers and other professionals who more often used the key concepts
used by Freud in describing the image of man and his behaviour.14
Freud’s ideas on man and personality contradict with the descrip-
tion given to the concept of man as explained in the Old and New Testa-
ments. He gave one of the pessimistic views on the human species based
on his assumption that man is evil and selfish at the same time.15
As a
psychologist, he analyzed the human psyche and arrived at a conclusion
that man is not very different from the rest of the animal kingdom. As an
admirer of Darwin(1809-1882), Freud’s ideas seems to be in line with
what had been illustrated by Darwin in his ‘On the Origin of Species’
first published in 1859.16
In his theory of personality, Freud is of the
opinion that the human personality is empowered by the psychic energy
of an individual. Besides that, he also believed that personality of an in-
dividual emanates as a result of the interplay of the three psychological
forces that are engaged in mutual rivalry to be the dominant force in the
human psyche. Through his theory on personality Freud explained the
three forces of the human psyche are the id, ego and superego.17
Freud’s concept on human personality is a deterministic concept as
it explains that every individual person is being subjected to his or her
psychosexual developments in life. He is of the contention that man is no
different than an animal enslaved to his sexual impulses. He further
thought that man is controlled by his libidinal impulses and therefore
should be un-socialized and irrational in his behaviour. As such, Freud
14
Richard Webster. Freud. (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003), pp. 6-18.
15
Gerald Corey.Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy (3rd
. ed.). (Cali-
fornia:Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1986), pp.11-13.
16
See Charles Darwin (2008) On the Origin of Species. (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2008).
17
Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak. Human nature: A comparative study between Western
and Islamic Psychology (Kuala Lumpur: International Islamic University Malaysia,
1997), pp. 47-50.
9. ��� Shifting Paradigms in the Study of Personality
Retrospective Survey of Western Ideas
believed that man has no freedom to cut loose from the shackles of his
psychosexual developments. As a result of not having the freedom of
choice, man’s behaviour is determined by the warring parties of his psy-
che; namely the id, ego and superego. An exploration into Freud’s ideas
on the human psyche and personality reveals the fact that he believed
man undergoes endless tension, stress, conflict, dilemma, chaos, and
other psychopathological problems due to the imbalance created by the
psychic forces. Freud’s theory on personality explains that the formation
of a strong personality is only possible when the ego is strong. On the
contrary, he also stressed on the point that a weak ego produces an indi-
vidual who is weak in his personality. To Freud, the ego is one of the
psychic components of man. It acts as the mediator and peacemaker be-
tween the id, and superego on one side and the external world on the
other side. In Freud’s understanding, the ego’s inability to handle the
chaos that goes on within the human psyche which is caused by the irra-
tional demands of the id and the unrealistic moral standard imposed by
the superego, and the true reality that exists in the external world, can
lead an individual to a state of neurosis.18
Freud’s Theory
Freud presented a controversial theory on how the human personal-
ity development takes place. Through his theory, he explained that hu-
man beings go through five stages during which personality develops.
The five stages which he called as the psychosexual development, is cen-
tred on his theory on ‘libido’. His concept on personality became highly
controversial due to the elements of vulgarity and profanity found in it.
In developing his theory, Freud admitted that he had used ideas spoken
of by early philosophers and psychologists. In studying his theory, one
would discover that it was the genius of Freud to erect a theory out of the
bits and pieces of information which he has gathered from others, going
back as early as Plato’s views on man. In addition to the information
gathered from his predecessors and friends, Freud also used data col-
lected from his clients during the many sessions of psychotherapy which
he had with them.
18
R. L. George & T. S. Cristiani. Counseling: Theory and practice (3rd
edn.). (Boston:
Allyn and Bacon, 1990), pp. 40-41.
10. Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak, & Nik Ahmad Hisham ���
By equating man to an animal, Freud in his theory only highlighted
the negative aspects of man and left out the element of goodness found in
man. This better part of the human being was only highlighted later by
the other schools of Western psychology, mainly the humanistic psy-
chology. Much of the negative aspects on man spoken of by his prede-
cessors like Darwin (1809-1882), Schopenhauer (1788-1860) and
Nietzsche (1844-1900) found centre-stage in the drama he enacted on
man, and how the human personality emanates. From Darwin he assimi-
lated the idea that man is an animal like the rest of the ape family, sex is
the most powerful instinct in man as stated by Schopenhauer, and man is
mainly controlled by the forces of his unconscious, an idea stated by
Nietzsche.19
��
Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak. Contribution of Iqbal’s dynamic personality theory to Is-
lamic psychology: A contrastive analysis with Freud and selected mainstream wester
!!!!!!!!!!! ! ! # , D * @ &
11. ��� Shifting Paradigms in the Study of Personality
Retrospective Survey of Western Ideas
Freud’s Structural Model on Personality
Id
(Works on Pleas-
ure Principle)
(Biological)
Ego
(Works on
Reality Principle)
(Psycho-
logical)
Superego
(Works on
Moral/Ideal Principle)
(Social)
Notes:
- The id, ego and superego fight for dominance in the human
psyche
- The human personality, mental health, creativity, motivation,
psychotherapy, etc. are all related to the interplay of the id, ego and
superego.
- A stable condition in the human psyche is sustained when the
ego is able to balance the moderate demands of the id and superego.
- An individual develops a strong personality when the ego is
strong and dominant compared to the id and the superego.20
In presenting his theory on personality, Freud divided the human
psyche into three contending elements; id, ego, superego, which perpetu-
ally fight one another for the dominance of the human psyche. In reading
Freud’s theory, one would discover that the id which forms the biological
component of the psyche resembles what one finds in the principle of
hedonism. As such, the id is propelled by the pleasure principle. Freud
further explained that the id driven by this principle is reckless, adamant
and selfish in getting its needs fulfilled. On the other hand, the ego which
forms the psychological component of the psyche is propelled by ration-
ality. Due to this nature of the ego, it works on the reality principle. But
the superego which forms the social component of the psyche is pro-
pelled by morality. For this reason the superego works on the ideal prin-
ciple. Freud’s theory on personality is a concept that he kept on con-
stantly changing and revising over a period of half a century. Being an
authoritative person in his field, Freud had been toying around with
many of the concepts in psychoanalysis. In answering what is personal-
ity, he started with the topographical model using terms like; uncon-
scious, preconscious and conscious. Later presented it in a more aca-
demic manner using terms like; id, ego and superego. As a researcher, at
��
Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak, Ibid. 2011, p. 321.
12. Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak, & Nik Ahmad Hisham ���
certain stage of his investigation into the nature of the human psyche and
personality, Freud frankly admitted his mistakes in conceptualizing some
aspects of his theory. In realizing it, he would immediately present the
same old data with a slightly modified version.21
Personality According to Behaviourism
The behaviourist school of psychology came to exist in the West at
the same time with the emergence of psychoanalysis. Among the great
figures in this school of psychology were Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), J.B.
Watson (1878-1958) and B.F. Skinner (1904-1990). To the behaviourists,
psychology is a science that focuses on the observable behaviour of man.
As such, psychology is an objective science that depends on data col-
lected through experimentation. With regards to the human behaviour, all
actions are the outcome of the physiochemical process that happens in
the human body. They also believe that every human behaviour can be
predicted as a result of the type of stimulus received by man. In the be-
haviourist school of psychology, environmental factors are assumed as
the dominant factors in producing the different types of personality. Be-
ing inclined in introducing and applying scientific approach in psychol-
ogy, the behaviourists came to the assumption that any human behaviour
can be studied by taking man to the laboratory for observation and ex-
perimentation. Furthermore, they also generalized results obtained from
experiments and studies conducted on animals on human beings. The
reason for this is because, like Freud, Watson too believed that man is
similar to the animals.22
Behaviourism as a school of thought in psychology has its roots in
John Locke's (1632-1704) theory of associationism. J.B. Watson the
founding father of Behaviourism shared the same idea with Locke, which
says that the child’s mind is a ‘tabula rasa’ at birth- so pure and clean like
the tablecloth, waiting to be written on by its experiences.23
With the as-
sumption that a child is a ‘tabula rasa’ at birth, this school of psychology
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N. Hayes. Foundations of psychology (New York: Routledge, 1995), pp. 249-250.
13. ��� Shifting Paradigms in the Study of Personality
Retrospective Survey of Western Ideas
does not entertain the notion that a child is born with some form of innate
knowledge. According to them, man is nothing more than a mechanical
object that can be conditioned and programmed to do any task. J.B. Wat-
son strongly believes that a child comes to this world in a state of neutral-
ity without any inborn potentials. He further believes that under the most
conducive environment the child can be moulded into any desired type of
personality, either good or bad, through the system of education and by
the nurturing of the parents and teachers.
Unlike the psychoanalysts, the behaviourists have a different con-
cept on human nature and personality. In their concept of human nature,
much emphasis has been laid to explain that man is nothing more than an
outcome of his own environment. In the behaviourist concept, the envi-
ronment refers to the physical as well as the social condition of family,
society and the country at large. According to the behaviorists, the hu-
man personality is nothing more than the sum of learned behaviors. Peo-
ple are different from one another because they experience different rein-
forcement in their lives. Both Watson and Skinner disregarded the exist-
ence of the mind, or any kind of internal self in man. In explaining man’s
behaviour they are of the opinion and emphasized that man’s behaviour
is a result of how he responds to the stimuli that come from the environ-
ment.24
Since behaviorists believe that human behaviour and personality
are something learned and they involve a process of learning, they are
against the Freudian concept of personality that explains that the human
personality is something that emerges out of the ongoing battle among
the id, ego and superego in the human psyche in relation to the external
world of reality.
In stating that learning is the key to behaviour formation, Watson
stated the following: “It is what happens to individuals after birth that
makes one a hewer of wood and a drawer of water, another a diplomat, a
thief, a successful business man or a far-famed scientist”.25
By emphasis-
ing the act of learning that leads to character and behaviour formation,
the behaviourists use scientific approach in understanding personality of
others. Watson among others suggested the following should be given
due consideration in the study of personality by a researcher:
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14. Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak, & Nik Ahmad Hisham ���
(1) By studying the educational chart of the individual; (2) by
studying the individual’s achievement chart; (3) by using psychologi-
cal tests; (4) by studying the spare time and recreation record of the
individual record of the individual; (5) by studying the emotional
make-up of the individual under the practical situations of daily liv-
ing.26
Personality According to Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic psychology, which appeared as an alternative force to
the previous schools of psychology in the West, started in the 1950’s and
has gained much influence through its concept of human nature. As the
‘Third Force’ in Western psychology, much of its existence and estab-
lishment has been inspired by the principles found in the existential and
phenomenology philosophies that emphasized much on the ‘here and
now’ in the human life. It got its name from the basic belief that every
individual has basic goodness, and his or her needs have to be respected.
By this outlook on man, it came with a kinder or compassionate concept
of human nature compared to psychoanalysis and behaviourism. The
main icons of humanistic psychology were Abraham Maslow (1908-
1970) and Carl Rogers (1902-1987).27
This school of psychology has
propelled much with the ideas of these two personalities. In tracing the
reason for its establishment, one would discover that the main underlying
factor was no more than a reaction to the unsatisfactory concepts of hu-
man nature given by the earlier schools of psychology in the West,
namely psychoanalysis and behaviourism. Very particularly, humanistic
psychology was not happy with Freud's concept of human nature that de-
picted man as an animal full of sexual and aggressive energy that drives
him wild and reckless in the pursuit of his selfish motives.28
One among
the many concerns of humanistic psychology is to highlight the many
positive parts of human nature that have been overlooked by earlier
schools of psychology. They paid much attention and emphasized
strongly on the parts of human nature that are uniquely of human poten-
tials such as reflection, reasoning, judgment, self-awareness, rationality
and creative imaginations. Moreover, humanistic psychologists, believe
that every individual has a freedom of choice, a tendency to enjoy inter-
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Mohd Abbas, Op.Cit., 1997, p. 59-60.
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15. ��� Shifting Paradigms in the Study of Personality
Retrospective Survey of Western Ideas
personal relationship, can have his or her own intention and purpose in
life and also able to undergo spiritual experience otherwise called as
‘peak experience’ in one’s life.
Even though humanistic psychologists emphasized a great deal on
the above unique potentials of man, they did not fail to acknowledge the
existence of the unconscious and irrational motives as part of human na-
ture. To them what was more important than the unconscious and irra-
tional motives are the conscious planning and rational choice in human
behaviour. Furthermore humanistic psychologists believed and empha-
sized that each person is unique due to his or her learning and personal
experience. According to them, the uniqueness of an individual should
draw the attention of that person to discover who he or she is, and to find
out what sort of a person he or she wants to be. Only through such an ef-
fort one can fully develop his or her potential as a self-directing human
being.29
The humanistic concept of human nature is very different from the
psychoanalysis and behaviourist schools of psychology. Humanistic psy-
chologists are against the ideas previously conceptualized by the earlier
schools of psychology. With psychoanalysis, they disagreed with its con-
cepts that state that man is irrational, un-socialized and self-destructive.
While with behaviourism they disagreed when it conceptualized the idea
stating that man is merely a mechanical being that reacts to the stimulus
that comes from the environment. On the contrary, humanistic psycholo-
gists present a very optimistic and positive concept of human nature. Be-
sides that, they also believe man is very much different from animals as
he can plan and carryout things according to his plan, capable of creating,
developing and transmitting cultural values and passing them to the next
generation. Their overall perception of man is that man is good intrinsi-
cally and can guide, regulate and control himself towards a ‘fully-
functioning person’ and towards ‘self-actualization’.30
Personality in the humanistic concept is very much different from
the psychoanalysis and behaviourist schools of psychology. The human-
istic approach is more philosophical than empirical. Humanistic psy-
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Bem P. Allen. Personality theories: development, growth and diversity. (Boston,MA:
Allyn and Bacon, 2000), pp. 219-241.
16. Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak, & Nik Ahmad Hisham ���
chologists do not view the structure of personality as the way viewed by
Freud, which is made-up of three competing psychological forces,
namely the id, ego and superego. Besides that, they also disagree with
Watson, Skinner, and others from behaviourism, who viewed personality
as nothing more than the outcome of one’s responses towards the stimuli
that come from the environment. In the contexts of the humanistic psy-
chology, the human self or psyche is regarded as one indivisible con-
struct with the absence of any conflicting element in it. Humanistic psy-
chologists also believe that the self comes to exist when a child is born
into this world. Contrary to the ‘tabula rasa’ theory present in the behav-
iourist psychology, the humanists believe that the child is not a blank
slate at birth but born with the innate knowledge or latent tendencies em-
bedded on the self. As such, the human self, right from birth has the ca-
pacity for growth. Since the concept of the self is very important in hu-
manistic psychology, the self takes a pivotal role in their theory of per-
sonality. Carl Rogers developed his theory of personality based on the
notion that the human self has the potentiality for growth and called his
theory as ‘the self theory of personality’.31
According to Rogers, personality is the unique, subjective experi-
ence of every individual personality. Human behaviour and actions are
the outcome of the way an individual perceives, interprets and responds
to the events that are happening in his or her life. He further believed that
each person knows better of his or her true nature (self) better than any-
one else. Moreover, an individual has the freedom of choice either to re-
spond or not to respond in all situations of life. This view on the freedom
of choice directly contradicts the deterministic views on human nature
put forward by the psychoanalysts and behaviourists.32
Rogers agreed with much of what Maslow explained in his hierar-
chy of needs and the characteristics of people who experience self-
actualisation. In addition to the ideas on self-actualisation, Rogers also
believed that in order to develop a healthy personality an individual
needs an environment that provides him or her with, i) congruence (genu-
ineness, or realness), ii) unconditional positive regard (acceptance and
caring), and iii) accurate emphatic understanding ( an ability to deeply
grasp the subjective world of another person). As a strong believer on
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W. Mischel. Introduction to personality. (5th
edn.), (Orlando: Harcout Brace Jovano-
vich College Publishers, 1993), p. 237.
17. ��� Shifting Paradigms in the Study of Personality
Retrospective Survey of Western Ideas
these ideas, Rogers was against the assumption put forward by others
outside of humanistic psychology that states people cannot be trusted and
as such need to be directed, motivated, instructed, punished, rewarded,
controlled, and managed by others who act as superior and expert.33
Other Western Views on Personality
The foregoing discussion was mainly focused on the ideas on per-
sonality put forward by the main icons of psychoanalysis, behaviourism
and humanistic psychology. However, in this segment of the study, the
researchers would like to state briefly some of the ideas on personality
put forward by other psychologists in the West. These ideas that came
later than the ones stated earlier on are actually modified versions of
what had been stated by the founding fathers of the Western mainstream
psychology. Psychologists like Carl Jung (1875-1961), Alfred Adler
(1870-1937), Karen Horney (1885-1952), Erich Fromm (1900-1980) and
Hary Stack Sullivan (1892-1949), who disagreed with some of Freud’s
basic contentions with regard to the topics on human nature and person-
ality, later went on to form splinter groups of their own.34
Carl Jung as one of the neo-Freudians believed that human person-
ality develops mainly due to the activity of the ego. For him, the ego re-
fers to the conscious mind or that segment of human personality that
deals with feelings and thinking. Furthermore, he is of the opinion that
the way people behave or react to the environment is related to the type
of personality they belong to, either extroversion or introversion. People
who are extroverts have a positive attitude that reflects their eagerness to
explore and get acquainted with the environment and other people. The
personality of the extroverts is described to be more expressive in their
words and actions. Introverts on the other hand, are more close to their
own feelings and are also seen as those who are withdrawn from others.
With regard to personality development, Jung believes that it is a con-
scious act of an individual of what he or she hopes to be and of what one
has been doing in life. This idea is contrary to Freud’s idea which states
that personality is mainly a product of one’s past experiences that have
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18. Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak, & Nik Ahmad Hisham ���
been repressed into the unconscious during early childhood.35
In giving a
detailed classification of the two types of personality: extroversion and
introversion, Jung gave the following:
1. The extroverted thinking people
2. The extroverted feeling type
3. The extroverted sensing type
4. The extroverted intuiting type
5. The introverted thinking type
6. The introverted feeling type
7. The introverted sensing type
8. The introverted intuiting type 36
However, for Adler, the ego is the conscious mind. As such, con-
sciousness is the centre of personality. The goals in life provide the moti-
vation for growth, and in bringing security, and in overcoming human
inferiority complex. Human creativity is the outcome when one is able to
overcome one’s feelings of inferiority. Moreover, the state of one being
inferior propels an individual to mastery, superiority and perfection.
Adler strongly believed that human beings are not merely a product of
heredity and environmental factors but they have the propensity to influ-
ence and create events in their lives. Adler’s model of personality devel-
opment is grounded in the philosophy that states individuals can be re-
educated and the society can be reshaped. In addition to that, he also
made ‘striving for superiority’ as the cornerstone to his ideas on person-
ality. Adler was one of the early psychologists who believed in the inter-
nal determinants of man that have considerable influence on his or her
behaviour such as values, individual perception towards life, goals, be-
liefs, interest and attitude.37
Gordon Willard Allport (1897-1967) who thought that Freud had
gone too deep and the behaviourists too flimsy on their explanation on
how human personality develops emphasised that the study on personal-
ity should focus on the uniqueness of an individual. Supplementary to
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See G. M. Karim (1984). The Islamisation of psychology, paper presented at the
Third International
Seminar on Islamic Thought, International Institute of Islamic Thought, Kuala
Lumpur, 26-31 July, 1984, pp. 2-6.
19. ��� Shifting Paradigms in the Study of Personality
Retrospective Survey of Western Ideas
that, he also called that the ‘here and now’ should be given preference
over the probing of the past history in answering what gives rise to the
personality of an individual. Allport, who was one of the pioneers in the
study of personality in America, introduced the trait approach in studying
personality. He initiated his approach by listing down words found in the
dictionary that describe personality traits. Out of the eighteen thousand
words found in the dictionary and after identifying similar meanings de-
scribed by the words, Allport brought down the number close to five
thousand. In identifying the human personality traits, he categorised them
into individual traits and common traits. The former explains the unique-
ness of an individual, while the latter can be found common among the
member of a culture or society that can change over time. Later, Allport
developed and divided his ideas on traits into three categories: cardinal,
central and secondary.38
Other researchers in the area of personality had a different ap-
proach than Allport. In their effort to find out which personality trait
played a dominant role in deciding the individual’s type, they used factor
analysis which involves the use of questionnaire, computer and mathe-
matical techniques. Raymond Bernard Cattell (1905-1998) who has been
ranked the 16th
most influential and eminent psychologist of the 20th
cen-
tury was one of those who used factor analytical method in understand-
ing the basic dimensions of personality. By employing the scientific
method in the study of personality he conducted tests to measure person-
ality traits. Overwhelmed with the scientific approach in the study of
human nature and personality, and much to the polemics on the topics of
human nature and personality development prevalent earlier on, he said
the following comment in favour of a scientific understanding of man:
Psychology appeared to be a jungle of confusing, conflicting,
and arbitrary concepts. These pre-scientific theories doubtlessly con-
tained insights which still surpass in refinement those depended upon
by psychiatrists or psychologists today. But who knows, among the
many brilliant ideas offered, which are the true ones? Some will claim
that the statements of one theorist are correct, but others will favour
the views of another. Then there is no objective way of sorting out the
truth except through scientific research.39
38
Robert S. Feldman & Joel A. Feinman, Op.Cit., 1992, pp. 42-51.
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Raymond Bernard Cattell. The Scientific Analysis of Personality. (Harmondsworth
(Engl &# " . / & '
20. Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak, & Nik Ahmad Hisham ���
As his contribution towards the study on personality, Cattell in-
vented an instrument, which has been used by many in their study on
personality, famously known as the “Sixteen Personality Factor Ques-
tionnaire” or the “16 PF”. Cattell believed that these sixteen factors are
present in individuals universally. Through empirical test results, he was
convinced that personality and behaviour of an individual could be
measured and predicted. Cattell also asserted that traits are relatively
permanent reaction tendencies that form the basic structural units of per-
sonality.
It seems that Cattell’s concept on the sixteen personality traits was
not a final thing that was agreed upon by other researchers in the study of
personality traits. Hans Eysenck (1916-1997) who disagreed with Cattell
came up with his own research and concluded that personality can be an-
swered by using two dimensions or traits. Eysenck postulated that indi-
viduals could be either introvert or extrovert. Though the idea that per-
sonality of an individual can be classified into two categories; introver-
sion or extroversion, is a thing already stated by Carl Jung earlier on, but
what makes Eysenck’s theory different is that he used factorial analysis
which made it of a scientific nature compared to Jung’s which is of a phi-
losophical nature. Eysenck introduced two sets of questionnaire that can
be instrumental in analysing personality are: ‘Maudsley Personality In-
ventory’ and the ‘Eysenck Personality Inventory’. Besides Eysenck, oth-
ers too did their factorial analysis and found different number of basic
traits with regard to the study of personality. The Five-Factors Model or
the ‘Big Five’ developed by Robert R. McCrae and Paul T. Costa, Jr. be-
came quite popular among researchers on personality traits.40
The fac-
tors normally measured by using the ‘Big Five’ are:
a) Neuroticism: worried, insecure, nervous, highly strong.
b) Extroversion: sociable, talkative, fun-loving, affectionate.
c) Openness: original, independent, creative, daring.
d) Agreeableness: good-natured, soft-hearted, trusting, courte-
ous.
e) Conscientiousness: careful, reliable, hard-working, organ-
ize.41
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21. ��� Shifting Paradigms in the Study of Personality
Retrospective Survey of Western Ideas
In spite of being scientific and sophisticated, personality studies us-
ing factorial analysis still have their drawbacks. Some researchers believe
that explanation on human personality traits do not provide sufficient in-
formation as to why people develop a particular trait. Moreover, traits too
do not tell us of how people change, as they get older. Due to these rea-
sons, and the fact that not even one school out of the myriad of Western
psychology, was able to provide a comprehensive explanation on the top-
ics on human nature and personality development, at the moment and
perhaps in the future, psychologists and counsellors view man and hu-
man nature from an eclectic perspective rather than just confined to one
school of thought.
Analysis of the Western Views on Personality
This study has indicated that research on human nature and person-
ality development in the West go back as early as the Greek philoso-
phers. Researchers use the word ‘personality’ synonymously to describe
‘human nature’. By interchangeably using the two words they describe
the psychological make-up of man who responds to his physical, mental
and emotional needs. The history of personality study in the West started
with the most superstitious belief of gazing at the stars and planets in the
night sky corresponding to the day one is born. According to these ex-
perts, by observing the position of the planets, the type of personality one
is bound to cherish can be predicted.
From the art of reading the planets the study on personality further
advanced on a new direction. The new approach which is known as
‘physiognomy’ makes prediction of an individual’s personality by read-
ing the facial traits and body language of the individual. This develop-
ment was followed with yet another new pseudo-science known as
‘phrenology’. Experts in this area would be able to state the personality
of an individual by carefully studying the structure of the skull for its
bumps and fissures. After phrenology, Western ideas on personality
moved on to the ‘humoural theory’ which is also known as the type the-
ory. According to this theory, human personality is determined by the
excessive presence of any one of the four humours present in the human
body; blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile.
Modern day theories on personality in the West start with Freud
when he tried to explain personality in relation to what goes on in the
human psyche. In the beginning, Freud showcased his research on the
22. Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak, & Nik Ahmad Hisham ���
human psyche to the world by using the ‘topographical model’ which is
made up of three levels; the unconscious, preconscious and conscious.
Later he employed the ‘structural model’ to explain how personality de-
velops in an individual. Through his structural model he explained that
there exist three components in the human psyche which perform differ-
ent functions. The three components of the psyche are id, ego and super-
ego. Freud also explained that the three components of the psyche are not
regions of the human mind but they are mere mental constructs used by
him to describe the hidden forces that reside within the human psyche
which are responsible in producing the human behaviour and personality.
Through the structural model Freud propounded that the unconscious
forms the important part of the human psyche as it gives the impetus and
driving force for all of man’s activities. Moreover his theory also states
that the development of personality in an individual, his state of mental
health, creativity, motivation in life, psychotherapy are all related to the
interplay of the id, ego and superego which form the hidden forces of his
psyche. Freud’s theory on personality states that an individual develops a
strong personality when the ego is strong and dominant when compared
to the other two components of the psyche; the id and the superego. On
the contrary, the development of a weak personality is attributed to the
ego’s weak position in the human psyche. In Freud’s opinion, a weak ego
gives in to the demands of the id and superego. A stable condition in the
human psyche is sustained when the ego is able to balance between the
moderate demands of the id and the superego. With regard to how per-
sonality develops in an individual, Freud divided the development into
five phases or stages, namely the oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital
stages. Freud’s theory on personality gives much importance to the role
of the psychic forces than to the social environment that surrounds an
individual’s life. As such, man’s personality development is very closely
linked to his childhood experiences of his psychosexual development. By
placing too much importance to the roles of the id, ego and superego of
the human psyche Freud overlooked the significant roles played by the
environment, peer groups and the society during an individual’s process
of growing up with regards to personality development.
The behaviourists who came as an alternative to psychoanalysts
presented a theory on man based on the principle laid by John Locke
(1632-1704) in his ‘tabula rasa’ theory. As a continuity of this theory,
behaviourists emphasized much on the environment and kept themselves
far from acknowledging aspects like innate or inborn potentials of man.
On the issue of how personality develops in human beings, they are of
23. ��� Shifting Paradigms in the Study of Personality
Retrospective Survey of Western Ideas
the contention that it develops out of man’s learning experience. Very
precisely, they believed that personality of an individual is nothing more
than how he responds to the stimuli that come from the environment. Be-
sides that they also believe that the way an individual behaves is based
on his previous learning experience. As such, the way a person would
behave in a particular situation with regards to his personality can be
predicted. On the overall, reading their theory on how personality devel-
ops gives one the understanding that the behaviourists presented an over-
simplified view on man and personality development. In the behaviour-
ists’ concept, man’s position is no more than a mechanical object. Being
too inclined towards the scientific approach in understanding man they
generalized many of the research done on animals to the human condi-
tion without considering the fact that man is different from animals in
many ways.
In contrast with what has been said by the behaviourist school of
thought on how personality develops, humanistic psychologists gave a
different view. Based on their positive views on man they believe that
man has many latent potential within his Self. Supplementary to that they
believe that the manner in which man reacts to the many demands that
come from the environment cannot be predicted as what has been sug-
gested by the behaviourists, as the choice to respond is left to the indi-
vidual himself. To the humanists, personality is the unique and subjective
experience of an individual. With such a contention, the humanistic psy-
chologists believe that personality is the reflection of the inner state of
the Self of an individual. In other words, the human behaviour and ac-
tions are the outcome of the way an individual perceives, interprets and
responds to the unfolding events that happen in one’s life. Moreover,
they also believe that through self-actualization an individual is able to
manifest many of the positive aspects of him. By stating this, they tied up
the topic on personality development of an individual to the self-
actualization process.
In the West, the theories that came after the humanistic theory on
personality became more scientific than philosophical. Their appearance
in the West marked the introduction of laboratory, questionnaire, com-
puters and even statistical analysis in assessing the personality of an in-
dividual. The ‘trait theory’ on personality identified in people that there
exists what is termed as individual traits and common traits. The trait
24. Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak, & Nik Ahmad Hisham ���
theory classified traits found in human beings into three categories; car-
dinal, central and secondary.
In assessing the history of the Western theories on personality, one
would discover that modern theorists have built their conceptual frame-
work on the philosophical explanation provided by earlier theories on
human nature and personality development. Despite the many ap-
proaches employed by Western psychologists to explain the concept on
human nature and personality, one thing that has come clear through this
survey on the historical and philosophical developments in the area of
personality study, is that, there is no consensus among the Western
scholars on describing what is the true nature of man and what is meant
as personality. Besides that, Western psychology with the utilization of
modern and sophisticated methods is still far from finding a successful
and comprehensive answer to the many enigmatic problems that sur-
round the study on man and personality. Nevertheless, all the different
paradigms in Western psychology have contributed in their own way in
explaining what seems to be a complex notion in the understanding on
what is the true nature of man. This study has also made it clear that in
the Western theories of psychology there is an absence of a good role
model in explaining what constitutes to be a good personality. This situa-
tion has left the Western schools of thought in psychology unable to draw
out a distinction between what subscribes to a good and bad personality
in constructing a theory on personality development.
It should be indicated here that many of the theories on man and
personality that came during the modern era of Western civilization have
been greatly influenced by the Darwinian theory of evolution. This the-
ory by Darwin on the human evolution states that man’s existence in this
planet is the continuity of his ancestors who belonged to the ape family.
Influenced by the Darwinian Theory on man, Western scholars paid
much attention to the few characteristics that are commonly shared by
man with the animals and neglected the uniqueness and honoured posi-
tion occupied by man in the hierarchy of God’s creations. As a result of
the Darwinian factor, personality psychology in the West which by right
should be more interested in the study on man in relation to his soul be-
came more diligently occupied in studying man’s physical appearance
and behaviour. In their defence they claimed that the study on the entity
of the human soul is no not possible as it is not a visible and tangible
thing that can be measured. They further claimed, anything that cannot
be measured, that thing does not exist. In the Western mainstream psy-
chology, the idea equating man to animals is a thing clearly seen in the
25. ��� Shifting Paradigms in the Study of Personality
Retrospective Survey of Western Ideas
concepts on human nature and personality given by the Freudian and Be-
haviourist schools of thought. The researchers of the present study be-
lieve that any study on personality will be incomprehensive until and
unless some consideration is given to the study on the human soul. Since
the word psychology refers to the study on the human soul, Western
theories should entertain some discussion on human nature and personal-
ity in relation to the human soul. It is the conviction of the researchers
that Islamic psychology which pays a great deal of emphasis on the exis-
tent of the human soul can come to the rescue in filling the lacuna found
in the study of man and personality in most Western theories. Man’s
spiritual dimension explained by medieval Muslim scholars and philoso-
phers through Islamic psychology that describes the role of the Nafs,
Qalb, R h and ‘Aql in the bringing upon his moral, ethical, emotional,
psychological and personality developments can be of great help to mod-
ern Western theories. Like in the Golden Age of the Muslims (750-
1258), Western scholars should once more again be prepared to borrow
ideas from the Muslim scholars pertaining to man and personality. Ideas
of Al-GhazÉlÊ (1058-1111), Ibn SÊnÉ (980-1037), Al-FÉrÉbi (872-950),
Ibn Rush (1126-1198), Ibn KhaldËn (1332-1406) and others can be of
great value to provide a comprehensive understanding on human nature
and personality. Simply put, the researchers believe that in many ways
man’s external behaviour and personality are the reflection of the condi-
tion of the soul entity that lives within his physical body.
Conclusion
This study on man and his personality has indicated that the re-
search on man in the West which started during the ancient Greek civili-
zation has not ended. The European Renaissance that came as a revolt
against religion somehow undermined the validity of the religious ideas
on man and personality. Despite giving preference to science and scien-
tific study on man, Western scholars with their arduous effort and a con-
stant shift in their paradigms are unable to solve all issues pertaining to
the understanding of man and his personality. As such, they are not able
to provide a comprehensive theory on man and personality. As a result of
purely applying the empirical approach and the inability in answering
many of the perplexing issues pertaining to human nature and personality
has made some scholars in the West to call for an eclectic approach; a
combination of religious, philosophical and scientific approach in the
study of man. Since man is a unique and complex creation of God when
26. Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak, & Nik Ahmad Hisham ���
compared to other life forms in this planet, any latest findings on man
pertaining to human nature and personality will be added information to
the existing knowledge and science on man. This nature of the study on
man makes the research on human nature and personality a perennial
one.