Psychology emerged from philosophy and early explanations of human behavior centered on supernatural concepts. Key developments included Wundt establishing the first psychology laboratory in 1879, marking the beginnings of modern scientific psychology. Early schools of thought guiding psychological work included structuralism, which used introspection to study the mind's fundamental elements, and functionalism, which focused on what the mind does.
The document discusses the history of psychology and outlines different perspectives on the origins of human knowledge and capabilities. It describes the nativist view proposed by Descartes that humans are born with innate understanding versus the empiricist view of John Locke that knowledge comes from experience. The document then summarizes key figures and developments in the fields of philosophy, physiology, and the emergence of scientific psychology with pioneers like Wundt, James, Freud, Pavlov, Skinner, and Rogers. It also covers the history of psychology in different countries.
1. Structuralism was a theory developed by Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener that attempted to analyze the structure of the mind by breaking down consciousness into its fundamental elements using introspection.
2. Titchener believed consciousness could be broken down into sensations, images, and affections, which had properties like quality, intensity, duration, etc.
3. Structuralism was the first school of psychology but eventually lost favor because introspection was difficult to validate scientifically and could not be measured objectively like other mental processes.
The document discusses different types of interviews used in psychology: structured, semi-structured, and unstructured. A structured interview involves asking all candidates the same predetermined questions in the same order to allow for objective comparison. A semi-structured interview involves both predetermined and spontaneous questions to provide a more personalized approach. An unstructured interview has no predetermined questions and follows a free-flowing conversation format to explore topics in depth. The document outlines the key characteristics, steps, advantages, and disadvantages of each interview type.
The Cannon-Bard theory argues that physiological arousal and emotional experiences occur simultaneously in response to an event. When walking alone at night and hearing footsteps, one would experience increased heart rate, breathing, and trembling of the body (physiological arousal) at the same time as feeling fear (the emotion). The theory assumes that emotional states and physiological reactions are triggered independently but simultaneously by the same nerve impulse. It rejects the idea that physiological arousal alone causes emotions.
The document summarizes four major theories of information processing:
1) The stage theory proposes information is processed and stored in three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
2) The levels-of-processing theory states retrieval depends on the depth of elaboration during encoding, from superficial to deep semantic analysis.
3) Parallel distributed processing theory posits information is processed simultaneously across networks rather than sequentially as in stage theory.
4) Connectionist theory emphasizes information storage in networks of brain connections that become stronger through elaboration.
Modern psychology is divided into several subdisciplines focused on different models of behavior. New fields have emerged like industrial/organizational psychology examining the workplace, and health psychology studying how psychology factors influence illnesses. Environmental psychology researches how people react to their environments. Other new areas include counseling, school, forensic, and community psychology.
Cognitive psychology is the study of how people think. This chapter outlines the history of cognitive psychology from its philosophical roots in Plato and Aristotle through approaches like structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, and Gestalt psychology. It describes the emergence of cognitive psychology due to challenges to behaviorism from researchers like Chomsky and Turing. The chapter then discusses common research methods in cognitive psychology like experiments, neuroimaging, self-reports, and computer modeling before concluding with key themes such as the interaction of cognitive processes and the need for diverse research methods.
The document provides a brief history of psychology, beginning with Aristotle who is considered the father of psychology and wrote one of the first books on the soul. It discusses key figures like Descartes who proposed mind-body dualism, Gall who developed phrenology, Locke's tabula rasa theory, Darwin applying psychology to animals, Wundt establishing introspection, William James changing views of emotion, Freud developing the id/ego/superego model of the psyche, Watson promoting behaviorism and his controversial Little Albert study.
The document discusses the history of psychology and outlines different perspectives on the origins of human knowledge and capabilities. It describes the nativist view proposed by Descartes that humans are born with innate understanding versus the empiricist view of John Locke that knowledge comes from experience. The document then summarizes key figures and developments in the fields of philosophy, physiology, and the emergence of scientific psychology with pioneers like Wundt, James, Freud, Pavlov, Skinner, and Rogers. It also covers the history of psychology in different countries.
1. Structuralism was a theory developed by Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener that attempted to analyze the structure of the mind by breaking down consciousness into its fundamental elements using introspection.
2. Titchener believed consciousness could be broken down into sensations, images, and affections, which had properties like quality, intensity, duration, etc.
3. Structuralism was the first school of psychology but eventually lost favor because introspection was difficult to validate scientifically and could not be measured objectively like other mental processes.
The document discusses different types of interviews used in psychology: structured, semi-structured, and unstructured. A structured interview involves asking all candidates the same predetermined questions in the same order to allow for objective comparison. A semi-structured interview involves both predetermined and spontaneous questions to provide a more personalized approach. An unstructured interview has no predetermined questions and follows a free-flowing conversation format to explore topics in depth. The document outlines the key characteristics, steps, advantages, and disadvantages of each interview type.
The Cannon-Bard theory argues that physiological arousal and emotional experiences occur simultaneously in response to an event. When walking alone at night and hearing footsteps, one would experience increased heart rate, breathing, and trembling of the body (physiological arousal) at the same time as feeling fear (the emotion). The theory assumes that emotional states and physiological reactions are triggered independently but simultaneously by the same nerve impulse. It rejects the idea that physiological arousal alone causes emotions.
The document summarizes four major theories of information processing:
1) The stage theory proposes information is processed and stored in three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
2) The levels-of-processing theory states retrieval depends on the depth of elaboration during encoding, from superficial to deep semantic analysis.
3) Parallel distributed processing theory posits information is processed simultaneously across networks rather than sequentially as in stage theory.
4) Connectionist theory emphasizes information storage in networks of brain connections that become stronger through elaboration.
Modern psychology is divided into several subdisciplines focused on different models of behavior. New fields have emerged like industrial/organizational psychology examining the workplace, and health psychology studying how psychology factors influence illnesses. Environmental psychology researches how people react to their environments. Other new areas include counseling, school, forensic, and community psychology.
Cognitive psychology is the study of how people think. This chapter outlines the history of cognitive psychology from its philosophical roots in Plato and Aristotle through approaches like structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, and Gestalt psychology. It describes the emergence of cognitive psychology due to challenges to behaviorism from researchers like Chomsky and Turing. The chapter then discusses common research methods in cognitive psychology like experiments, neuroimaging, self-reports, and computer modeling before concluding with key themes such as the interaction of cognitive processes and the need for diverse research methods.
The document provides a brief history of psychology, beginning with Aristotle who is considered the father of psychology and wrote one of the first books on the soul. It discusses key figures like Descartes who proposed mind-body dualism, Gall who developed phrenology, Locke's tabula rasa theory, Darwin applying psychology to animals, Wundt establishing introspection, William James changing views of emotion, Freud developing the id/ego/superego model of the psyche, Watson promoting behaviorism and his controversial Little Albert study.
The document discusses different aspects of attention. It defines attention as concentrating the mind on one task and withdrawing from others. There are two types of attention discussed - selective attention which involves focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others, and divided attention which involves sharing cognitive resources between two or more stimuli. Studies on selective and divided attention show that simultaneous performance across tasks is poor but improves with practice. Sustained attention refers to attending to stimuli over prolonged periods and can deteriorate due to fatigue. Automaticity develops from repetition and frees up cognitive resources.
Perception: The process by which sensory information is actively organized and interpreted by the brain.
Factors of Perception.
Kinds of Perception
Laws of Perceptual Organisation
Types of Perceptual Constancy
Illusion:Something that looks or seems different from what it is something that is false or not real but that seems to be true or real.
All above information is included in presentation/
Good Luck
Sensation is the detection of sensory stimuli by the senses, while perception is the interpretation of sensory information. The eyes, ears, skin, nose, and tongue contain receptor cells that receive stimuli and transmit it as neural impulses to the brain. Perceptual processes like selection, organization, and interpretation occur in the brain. Both objective factors like intensity, size, and movement and subjective factors like motives, experiences, and culture influence our perceptions.
Neuropsychology is the study of relationships between brain function and behavior. It has developed over hundreds of years from early Greek philosophers linking the brain to behaviors. Key figures like Franz Gall theorized personality was related to brain features. Neurons are the basic structural and functional units of the nervous system, consisting of a cell body, dendrites, axon, and synapses. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit signals across synapses, like acetylcholine, dopamine, glutamate, and serotonin. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord. The brain is divided into the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The limbic system regulates emotion. Neurotransmitters transmit signals between neurons.
THE PRESENTATION INCLUDES :
INTRODUCTION
STRUCTURE OF THE PSYCHE OR MIND:
CONCEPT OF CONSCIOUS, SUBCONSCIOUS, AND
UNCONSCIOUS MIND
CONCEPT OF ID, EGO, AND SUPEREGO:
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF FREUD’S THEORY
CONCLUSION
THIS PRESENTATION IS FOR YOUR REFERENCE. HOPE IT HELPED YOU :)
This document summarizes several major schools of thought in psychology:
Structuralism aimed to analyze the structure of the mind through introspection. Functionalism shifted focus to how the mind functions to help organisms adapt. Psychoanalysis proposed unconscious drives influence behavior and proposed methods like dream analysis and free association. Behaviorism studied only observable behavior and pioneered classical and operant conditioning principles through stimuli, responses, and consequences.
This document discusses different states of consciousness including levels of consciousness like the conscious, nonconscious, preconscious, subconscious, and unconscious levels. It also discusses sleep cycles and stages from light sleep to deep sleep to REM sleep. Several sleep disorders are outlined like insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, night terrors, and sleepwalking. Dreams and theories about dreams are explained. Hypnosis and theories of hypnosis are covered. Finally, the document categorizes different types of drugs and their effects, including stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, and opiates.
Functionalism was the first school of thought in American psychology, founded by William James in the late 19th century. It grew out of Darwin's theory of evolution and focused on how the mind helps humans adapt and function in their environment. Functionalists studied mental processes and consciousness with the goal of understanding their practical utility, rejecting the idea of breaking down consciousness into elements as structuralists did. They wanted psychology to have diverse methods and real-world applications rather than being a narrow, formal science.
Understanding your somatotype, or body type, can provide insight into your ideal fitness and nutrition approach. There are three main somatotypes - ectomorph, mesomorph, and endomorph - characterized by different body compositions and traits. Ectomorphs are typically tall and lean with difficulty gaining weight, mesomorphs are naturally muscular and strong with an easy time losing or gaining weight, and endomorphs more easily put on weight and find it harder to lose. While somatotypes may provide some clues to personality tendencies, nurture plays an equally important role, and one's somatotype alone does not determine behavior or potential.
This document discusses motion perception and time perception. It describes that motion perception involves integrating retinal cell responses over time to detect movement. There are two types of movement: real movement when an object's position changes, and apparent movement which is due to higher-level brain processes, like the phi phenomenon. Time perception is measured by an individual's sense of duration and is affected by mental and physical state as well as environmental cues. Form perception is organized according to Gestalt principles like continuity, closure, similarity and proximity.
Sensory memory briefly records visual and auditory information for up to a few seconds. It has two forms: iconic memory holds visual stimuli like a snapshot for up to half a second, while echoic memory holds sound for one to two seconds, as demonstrated by someone asking "what did you say?" after a question. Sensory memory prevents being overwhelmed by stimuli and gives time to decide if information is important to transfer to short-term memory.
experimental psychology history, experimental psychology lecture, beginning of experimental psychology, experimental method in psychology in English, experimental psychology introduction, a level psychology experimental method, nature of experimental psychology, experimental psychology overview
For More Relevant Presentation Visit my Website:
http://jobsforworld.blogspot.com/2015/12/presentation-of-education.html
This document defines consciousness and describes its various types and levels. It discusses consciousness as sensory awareness, inner awareness, and sense of self. It also outlines Sigmund Freud's three levels of consciousness - the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. Additionally, it examines how stages of consciousness are impacted by circadian rhythms and explores the relationships between consciousness, sleep, dreams, hypnosis, and psychoactive drugs.
Raymond Cattell and John Horn proposed the theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence in the 1960s. They argued that intelligence consists of two types: fluid intelligence (gf), which is innate problem-solving ability independent of knowledge, and crystallized intelligence (gc), which comes from experience and learning. Fluid intelligence involves abstract reasoning and declines with age, while crystallized intelligence involves acquired knowledge and can increase indefinitely through learning.
Psycho-dynamic Approaches to PersonalityKing Abidi
1) Psychodynamic approaches view personality as being motivated by unconscious inner forces and conflicts that people are unaware of. Freud's psychoanalytic theory proposed that unconscious drives influence personality.
2) Freud described the mind as having three levels: the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. He proposed the id, ego, and superego as structures that develop personality.
3) Neo-Freudians like Jung and Horney built on Freud's work by challenging some of his ideas and proposing concepts like the collective unconscious and archetypes.
This document provides an introduction to the course "Introduction to Psychology". It discusses the objectives of understanding how psychology has developed as a social science. It defines psychology as the study of the mind and behavior. The subject matter of psychology is described as affecting behavior and cognition. The document then discusses how an understanding of psychology can help students in business and economics fields. Finally, it provides a detailed overview of the historical background of psychology, from ancient Greek and Islamic philosophers to the modern scientific period.
Alfred Adler Individual Psychology
Key Concepts of Individual Psychology
Adlerian counselling
Striving for Superiority (The Striving for Perfection, Striving for Self-Enhancement, Inferiority Feeling, Drive Satisfaction)
Styles of Life
Fictional Finalism
This document provides an introduction to psychology, covering its definition, historical background, and key figures. It defines psychology as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. The historical background is divided into the pre-scientific period, including early Greek, Middle Ages, and Islamic philosophers who studied the mind and soul, and the scientific period starting in the Renaissance. Key figures mentioned who advanced the scientific study of psychology include Francis Bacon, Rene Descartes, Charles Darwin, Paul Broca, and Weber.
This document provides an introduction to an introductory psychology course. It outlines the course objectives which are to provide basic knowledge of psychology concepts and ensure students understand psychology as a scientific approach. It also discusses why psychology is studied, defining key terms, and providing an overview of the subject matter and historical background of psychology. The historical background section summarizes some of the early contributors to the field from the Greek, Islamic, and scientific periods. It also outlines some of the major schools of thought in psychology including structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, and others.
The document discusses different aspects of attention. It defines attention as concentrating the mind on one task and withdrawing from others. There are two types of attention discussed - selective attention which involves focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others, and divided attention which involves sharing cognitive resources between two or more stimuli. Studies on selective and divided attention show that simultaneous performance across tasks is poor but improves with practice. Sustained attention refers to attending to stimuli over prolonged periods and can deteriorate due to fatigue. Automaticity develops from repetition and frees up cognitive resources.
Perception: The process by which sensory information is actively organized and interpreted by the brain.
Factors of Perception.
Kinds of Perception
Laws of Perceptual Organisation
Types of Perceptual Constancy
Illusion:Something that looks or seems different from what it is something that is false or not real but that seems to be true or real.
All above information is included in presentation/
Good Luck
Sensation is the detection of sensory stimuli by the senses, while perception is the interpretation of sensory information. The eyes, ears, skin, nose, and tongue contain receptor cells that receive stimuli and transmit it as neural impulses to the brain. Perceptual processes like selection, organization, and interpretation occur in the brain. Both objective factors like intensity, size, and movement and subjective factors like motives, experiences, and culture influence our perceptions.
Neuropsychology is the study of relationships between brain function and behavior. It has developed over hundreds of years from early Greek philosophers linking the brain to behaviors. Key figures like Franz Gall theorized personality was related to brain features. Neurons are the basic structural and functional units of the nervous system, consisting of a cell body, dendrites, axon, and synapses. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit signals across synapses, like acetylcholine, dopamine, glutamate, and serotonin. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord. The brain is divided into the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The limbic system regulates emotion. Neurotransmitters transmit signals between neurons.
THE PRESENTATION INCLUDES :
INTRODUCTION
STRUCTURE OF THE PSYCHE OR MIND:
CONCEPT OF CONSCIOUS, SUBCONSCIOUS, AND
UNCONSCIOUS MIND
CONCEPT OF ID, EGO, AND SUPEREGO:
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF FREUD’S THEORY
CONCLUSION
THIS PRESENTATION IS FOR YOUR REFERENCE. HOPE IT HELPED YOU :)
This document summarizes several major schools of thought in psychology:
Structuralism aimed to analyze the structure of the mind through introspection. Functionalism shifted focus to how the mind functions to help organisms adapt. Psychoanalysis proposed unconscious drives influence behavior and proposed methods like dream analysis and free association. Behaviorism studied only observable behavior and pioneered classical and operant conditioning principles through stimuli, responses, and consequences.
This document discusses different states of consciousness including levels of consciousness like the conscious, nonconscious, preconscious, subconscious, and unconscious levels. It also discusses sleep cycles and stages from light sleep to deep sleep to REM sleep. Several sleep disorders are outlined like insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, night terrors, and sleepwalking. Dreams and theories about dreams are explained. Hypnosis and theories of hypnosis are covered. Finally, the document categorizes different types of drugs and their effects, including stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, and opiates.
Functionalism was the first school of thought in American psychology, founded by William James in the late 19th century. It grew out of Darwin's theory of evolution and focused on how the mind helps humans adapt and function in their environment. Functionalists studied mental processes and consciousness with the goal of understanding their practical utility, rejecting the idea of breaking down consciousness into elements as structuralists did. They wanted psychology to have diverse methods and real-world applications rather than being a narrow, formal science.
Understanding your somatotype, or body type, can provide insight into your ideal fitness and nutrition approach. There are three main somatotypes - ectomorph, mesomorph, and endomorph - characterized by different body compositions and traits. Ectomorphs are typically tall and lean with difficulty gaining weight, mesomorphs are naturally muscular and strong with an easy time losing or gaining weight, and endomorphs more easily put on weight and find it harder to lose. While somatotypes may provide some clues to personality tendencies, nurture plays an equally important role, and one's somatotype alone does not determine behavior or potential.
This document discusses motion perception and time perception. It describes that motion perception involves integrating retinal cell responses over time to detect movement. There are two types of movement: real movement when an object's position changes, and apparent movement which is due to higher-level brain processes, like the phi phenomenon. Time perception is measured by an individual's sense of duration and is affected by mental and physical state as well as environmental cues. Form perception is organized according to Gestalt principles like continuity, closure, similarity and proximity.
Sensory memory briefly records visual and auditory information for up to a few seconds. It has two forms: iconic memory holds visual stimuli like a snapshot for up to half a second, while echoic memory holds sound for one to two seconds, as demonstrated by someone asking "what did you say?" after a question. Sensory memory prevents being overwhelmed by stimuli and gives time to decide if information is important to transfer to short-term memory.
experimental psychology history, experimental psychology lecture, beginning of experimental psychology, experimental method in psychology in English, experimental psychology introduction, a level psychology experimental method, nature of experimental psychology, experimental psychology overview
For More Relevant Presentation Visit my Website:
http://jobsforworld.blogspot.com/2015/12/presentation-of-education.html
This document defines consciousness and describes its various types and levels. It discusses consciousness as sensory awareness, inner awareness, and sense of self. It also outlines Sigmund Freud's three levels of consciousness - the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. Additionally, it examines how stages of consciousness are impacted by circadian rhythms and explores the relationships between consciousness, sleep, dreams, hypnosis, and psychoactive drugs.
Raymond Cattell and John Horn proposed the theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence in the 1960s. They argued that intelligence consists of two types: fluid intelligence (gf), which is innate problem-solving ability independent of knowledge, and crystallized intelligence (gc), which comes from experience and learning. Fluid intelligence involves abstract reasoning and declines with age, while crystallized intelligence involves acquired knowledge and can increase indefinitely through learning.
Psycho-dynamic Approaches to PersonalityKing Abidi
1) Psychodynamic approaches view personality as being motivated by unconscious inner forces and conflicts that people are unaware of. Freud's psychoanalytic theory proposed that unconscious drives influence personality.
2) Freud described the mind as having three levels: the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. He proposed the id, ego, and superego as structures that develop personality.
3) Neo-Freudians like Jung and Horney built on Freud's work by challenging some of his ideas and proposing concepts like the collective unconscious and archetypes.
This document provides an introduction to the course "Introduction to Psychology". It discusses the objectives of understanding how psychology has developed as a social science. It defines psychology as the study of the mind and behavior. The subject matter of psychology is described as affecting behavior and cognition. The document then discusses how an understanding of psychology can help students in business and economics fields. Finally, it provides a detailed overview of the historical background of psychology, from ancient Greek and Islamic philosophers to the modern scientific period.
Alfred Adler Individual Psychology
Key Concepts of Individual Psychology
Adlerian counselling
Striving for Superiority (The Striving for Perfection, Striving for Self-Enhancement, Inferiority Feeling, Drive Satisfaction)
Styles of Life
Fictional Finalism
This document provides an introduction to psychology, covering its definition, historical background, and key figures. It defines psychology as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. The historical background is divided into the pre-scientific period, including early Greek, Middle Ages, and Islamic philosophers who studied the mind and soul, and the scientific period starting in the Renaissance. Key figures mentioned who advanced the scientific study of psychology include Francis Bacon, Rene Descartes, Charles Darwin, Paul Broca, and Weber.
This document provides an introduction to an introductory psychology course. It outlines the course objectives which are to provide basic knowledge of psychology concepts and ensure students understand psychology as a scientific approach. It also discusses why psychology is studied, defining key terms, and providing an overview of the subject matter and historical background of psychology. The historical background section summarizes some of the early contributors to the field from the Greek, Islamic, and scientific periods. It also outlines some of the major schools of thought in psychology including structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, and others.
This document provides an overview of major psychological theories, including:
1. Structuralism - Focused on analyzing the basic elements of conscious experience through introspection. Pioneered by Wundt and Titchner.
2. Psychoanalysis - Developed by Freud, focuses on discovering unconscious meanings and motivations to change problematic behaviors. Includes concepts like the id, ego, superego, and defense mechanisms.
3. Behaviorism - Known as the learning perspective, believes all behaviors can be explained by stimuli and responses. Includes theories of classical and operant conditioning from Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and others.
4. Gestaltism - Developed in response to structural
This document provides an introduction to the course "Introduction to Psychology". It discusses the definition and subject matter of psychology. It then covers the historical background of psychology in detail, separating it into the pre-scientific period (including Greek, Middle Ages and Islamic periods) and scientific period (including Renaissance and modern periods). Key figures from each period are mentioned along with their important contributions to the early understanding and development of psychology.
The document provides an overview of general psychology, including its historical origins, goals, fields of specialization, and viewpoints. It discusses how psychology evolved from early Greek philosophers exploring the mind and soul. Key figures mentioned include Aristotle, Descartes, Darwin, Freud, and Skinner. Major schools of thought described are structuralism, functionalism, gestalt psychology, behaviorism, and psychoanalysis. The document emphasizes that psychology aims to systematically study human behavior and mental processes through scientific methods.
Psychology is defined as the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. The document discusses several key topics in psychology, including:
- The goals of psychology which are to describe, explain, predict, and change behavior and mental processes.
- The nature vs nurture debate regarding the influences of genes, environment, and choices on human behavior.
- Types of psychology including research which studies theories and experiments, and applied psychology which focuses on applying research findings.
- Influential early thinkers in psychology such as Aristotle, Plato, Galen, and Descartes and their contributions to understanding the mind, behavior, and cognition.
- The establishment of modern scientific psychology with Wilhelm Wundt opening
introduction to psychology and health psychologyBurhan Hadi
Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. The history of psychology began with early philosophers like Plato and Aristotle discussing concepts like the mind-body relationship. Modern psychology emerged in the late 19th century with scientists like Wundt establishing the first psychology laboratory. Key figures like Freud, Skinner, and James contributed influential theories in areas like psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and consciousness. Psychology aims to understand and predict behavior through various perspectives including biological, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, and humanistic approaches. Nursing utilizes psychology through understanding patient behavior, building trust, and treating mental health issues in fields like psychiatry.
This document provides an overview of the philosophical foundations and contributions of philosophy to the field of psychiatry. It discusses several key areas of philosophy including epistemology, logic, metaphysics, ethics, aesthetics, and specialized branches. It explores philosophical movements like phenomenology, existentialism, and their incorporation into psychiatry. Figures like Piaget, Jaspers, Frankl, Laing, and perspectives like the medical model are summarized in relation to their philosophical underpinnings and influence on psychiatry. The document aims to illustrate how philosophy has historically informed and continues to shape the theoretical bases of psychiatry.
The document provides an overview of the field of psychology, including its historical origins dating back to ancient Greek philosophers like Aristotle. It discusses the various schools of thought in psychology such as structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, gestalt psychology, psychoanalysis, and humanistic psychology. The document also outlines the main objectives and fields of specialization within the study of psychology.
1) Socrates viewed the self as consisting of two parts - the physical body and the immortal soul. The soul is the true self that survives death.
2) Plato saw the self as composed of reason, physical appetite, and spirit or passion. It is the role of reason to control and harmonize these parts.
3) Freud proposed the self has both a conscious and unconscious aspect, with the latter governed by pleasure and the former by reality. The mind operates through the id, ego, and superego.
Islam is a universal theme that encompasses political systems and methods of social organization as well as personal worship and consolation.
•It is instituted as a methodology to solve human spiritual, practical, and intellectual problems.
•There was a time when students and scholars of other religious and cultural backgrounds from all over the world would travel to study various subjects from Muslims.
•The period of time between the seventh century and the 15th century was known as the “Golden Age of Islamic Civilization” (Arshad, 2019).
•It was during this time that the Islamic Civilization was the most active civilization in efficiently and methodologically acquiring knowledge in various disciplines.
•They led the world in science for over five centuries, providing Europe with a wealth of knowledge in a variety of disciplines (Arshad, 2019).
This PowerPoint Presentation includes the following:
- The Discipline of Psychology
- The Development of Psychology
- Important Personalities in Psychology
- Fields of Psychology
- Key Concepts in Psychology
- Research Methods in Psychology
- Current Applications of Psychology
This document provides an introduction to the field of psychology. It defines psychology as the study of mental functions and behaviors. It then discusses several topics of focus in psychology like behavior, mental processes, and disorders. It provides brief summaries of the history of psychology, covering figures like Freud, Pavlov, and Piaget. It also summarizes the main perspectives in modern psychology, including neuroscience, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, and humanistic approaches.
Educational Psychology- Brief History, introduction, meaning and concept of ...Dr. Manju N D
Educational psychology is the branch of psychology that applies psychological theories and principles to education. It is concerned with understanding learners and the learning process, with a focus on facilitating teaching and learning experiences. Some key aspects covered are:
- The development of students and their cognitive abilities.
- How students learn and retain information through different processes like perception, motivation, and memory.
- Creating effective learning environments and improving teaching methods based on psychological principles.
- Evaluating learning outcomes and the various factors that influence the learning experience.
Psychology is defined as the scientific study of the human mind and behavior. It includes understanding how humans and animals think, feel, and act. The document outlines the history of psychology from ancient Greek philosophers to modern approaches. It discusses major schools of thought like biological, behavioral, cognitive, and psychoanalytic perspectives. The branches and applications of psychology are also summarized, including areas like clinical, developmental, educational, and industrial psychology. Research focuses on topics like cognitive development, memory, and social/emotional development.
Psychology is defined as the scientific study of the human mind and behavior. It includes understanding how humans and animals think, feel, and behave under different circumstances. Psychology involves exploring concepts such as cognition, emotion, intelligence, personality, behavior, and relationships through both empirical research and clinical practice. The document provides a brief overview of the history of psychology as a field and discusses some of its major approaches, branches, applications and research areas.
The document discusses perspectives on the self from various disciplines including philosophy, sociology, anthropology, and psychology. It begins by providing definitions of perspective and then outlines different philosophical perspectives on the self from classical antiquity to the modern period. These include views of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, Descartes, Locke, Hume, Kant, Freud, Ryle, Churchland, and Merleau-Ponty. The perspectives range from the self being a unified being connected to consciousness to being entirely contained within the physical brain. The document then provides instructions for a module project requiring students to represent their learning on perspectives of self.
This document provides a summary of key topics in general psychology, including:
- The three determinants of human behavior are heredity, environment, and volition.
- The history of psychology dating back to ancient Greece and important figures like Wundt, James, and Galton.
- The development of psychology in the Philippines beginning in the 17th century and important Filipino psychologists.
- Major perspectives in psychology like biological, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, and cultural approaches.
- Key areas of psychology like sensation and perception, consciousness, sleep and dreams, learning and memory, and information processing.
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The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
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Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
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The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
hematic appreciation test is a psychological assessment tool used to measure an individual's appreciation and understanding of specific themes or topics. This test helps to evaluate an individual's ability to connect different ideas and concepts within a given theme, as well as their overall comprehension and interpretation skills. The results of the test can provide valuable insights into an individual's cognitive abilities, creativity, and critical thinking skills
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intellige...University of Maribor
Slides from talk:
Aleš Zamuda: Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intelligent Systems.
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
2. History of Psychology
Man was always curious about:
• human behavior
• nature of consciousness
• origin of “madness”
• emotion
• much more about other people’s nature.
• To Control and desirable modification of behavior
interested man
• to make others do what he wanted them to do.
3. Historical roots of modern psychology
• The new scientific psychology is a fusion of two psychologies, i.e.,
philosopher’s psychology and the sensory psychology of the
physiologists.
• Brain physiology, reflexology, and phenomenology all these sciences
have contributed to the development of psychology.
• So basically:
o Psychology emerged from Philosophy
o Philosophers in the West as well as East were explaining thought
and behavior
o Addition of newer and better methods of investigating these
explanations led to the emergence of psychology
4. Historical roots of modern psychology
Indian Philosphers:
• The ancient Indian Philosophy existed
much earlier than any other formal
explanation.
• The earliest traces are found in the Yogic
philosophy prevailing in 1000 BC.
• According to this philosophy, mind and
body are interlinked and affect each other.
• Physical exercise helps mental
development and vice versa.
• The later philosophies e.g. Vedic,
postulated varied explanations in this
regard.
5. Historical roots of modern psychology
The following facts indicate that man was always interested
in understanding and managing psyche and behavior, and
was capable of controlling and modifying it:
o Domestication of dogs was practiced even 10,000 years
ago.
o Babylonians made speculation about etiology of epilepsy
and tried to cure it accordingly.
o Egyptians performed crude brain surgery thousands of
years ago.
o The basic assumption was that abnormal behavior was
caused by supernatural beings.
o Ancient explanations centered on the supernatural: gods,
evil spirits, demons etc Phases in the History of
Psychology.
ancient human skeleton from Egypt
6. Historical roots of modern psychology
• Greek Philosophers
HIPPOCRATES (460-377 B.C.)
• Hippocrates was a physician, who not only raised
the standard of medical investigation but also
developed the code of ethics for the physicians.
• He, like Alcamaeon, stressed upon the significance
of the brain in psychological processes.
• He approached the problems of medicine
systematically.
• He believed that four temperaments form
personality:
1. Sanguine (Cheerful and Active)
2. Melancholic (Sad)
3. Choleric (Angry and Aggressive)
4. Phlegmatic (Calm and Passive)
7. Historical roots of modern psychology
PLATO (427-347 B.C.)
• He was the first person in history to produce a great all-
embracing system of philosophy. He not only developed the theory
of knowledge, theory of conduct, and a theory of state, but also
the theory of universe.
• According to Plato, the soul has three parts or components,
– reason
– spirit
– Appetite
• an awareness of the goal or a value and this is the act
of reason.
• there is a drive towards action, the spirit, which is
neutral at first but responds to the direction of reason.
• there is the desire for the things of the body, the
appetites.
• Plato believed that thinking gives us knowledge of truth. Plato and Aristotle
8. Historical roots of modern psychology
ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)
• he was a man of universal learning. There was no branch of knowledge,
which did not receive his attention except, mathematics.
• It is to him that we owe the first systematic treatment of psychology. His
method was two- fold, both inductive and deductive.
• He was an acute observer, and his psychological treatises are
overwhelmed by his observations, many of which have stood the test of
time
• e.g. he introduced:
– The first theory of learning
– Succession of ideas
– The theory that ideas are generated in consciousness based on four
principles:
• Contiguity
• Similarity
• Contrast
• Succession
9. Historical roots of modern psychology
SOCRATES (469- 399) BC
• He believed in the care of the soul to be man’s most
important task.
• For him, soul was the essential man.
• For him, soul was not any faculty, nor was it any special
kind of substance, but rather the capacity for intelligence
and character.
– It was man’s conscious personality.
– The activity of soul is to know and to direct a person’s
daily conduct.
– The man’s greatest concern should be the proper care
of his soul so as to make the soul as good as possible.
10. Historical roots of modern psychology
ALCAMEON (500 BC)
• A physician, who performed the first dissection.
• He was interested in philosophy and directed his
attention to understanding perception.
• Origin of Physiological Psychology:
• He believed that sensations and thoughts occur in the
brain.
• He was known as “father of Greek medicine”.
• Brain is the seat of all human intellectual faculties.
• He recognized the importance of brain and clearly
distinguished between sensory perceiving and
thinking.
• He was the first to take anatomical dissection for
research purposes and also the first vivisectionist.
Vivisection:
The practice of performing
operations on live animals for the
purpose of experimentation or
scientific research
11. Historical roots of modern psychology
Muslim Influence:
• The contributions of the Muslim scientists in the field of
physiological treatment are very significant besides their
contribution to “psychotherapy.”
• The period which was called Europe’s Dark Age was the period
when Muslim philosophy, science, and knowledge flourished.
• Initially mental disorders were taken to be caused by super-
natural phenomena and therefore the cure was done through
witchcraft and magic .
• On the contrary, Muslims presented the “humane concept” of
mental treatment.
• They gave new ideas and concepts about mental health,
personality and rehabilitation of the mentally ill.
• Muslim thinkers and philosophers established the first mental
hospital in Spain
12.
13. Historical roots of modern psychology
Muslim Philosophy:
– Types of Soul
• Man is a compound of body and soul.
• Soul is of two types:
1. ROOH-E-RABBANI
2. ROOH-E- HAEWANI
14. Historical roots of modern psychology
Muslim Philosophy:
1. Rooh-e –Rabbani:
– The part of the soul that makes it possible for man to make a
connection with God.
– At the same time bodily needs should also be not denied satisfaction.
– If there is a balance between body and soul, then the individual is
normal.
2. Rooh-e-Haewani:
– Man possesses ‘Nafs’ or the soul.
– It is the force with the help of which man fulfills all his desires.
15. Historical roots of modern psychology
Muslim Philosophy
Levels of ‘Nafs’ : Nafs is divided into three levels:
1. Nafs-e- Mutmaina:
– At this stage, the body and soul are in complete harmony.
– There is no conflict between good and bad and man is satisfied
physically, mentally and spiritually.
2. Nafs-e- Liwama/Nafs-e-Natiqua
– At this stage, the conflict between good and bad starts, both positive
and negative forces clash with each other.
– Man is in a state of “do” and “don’t”.
3. Nafs-e- Ammaraa
– At this stage, negative forces have a complete control over the
individual.
– It is the animal tendency of man, the baser self.
– All bad habits and wrong doings are due to this Nafs e.g. greed,
pride, anger, lust, hatred etc
– philosophers emphasized the control of this Nafs. The outlet of these
negative forces is essential; otherwise man becomes mentally ill, and
enemy of himself.
16. Historical roots of modern psychology
Muslim Philosophers and Mental
Health
1. Muslim Philosophers presented
concise and clear ideas about the
types, actions and functions of
human nature.
2. A child is born pure. He has both the
positive and negative forces, but they
are not at conflict at that time and
are in complete harmony. Man has
been given the ability to differentiate
between good and bad
17. Historical roots of modern psychology
Imam Jafar Sadiq (702-765)
• Shia Muslim scholar, jurist, and theologian.
• Al-Sadiq holds a special prominence among Sufi orders
• a number of early Sufi figures are associated with al-Sadiq
• he is praised in the Sufi literature for his knowledge of ṭariqat (lit. 'path'), and numerous sayings
and writings about spiritual progress are ascribed to him in Sufi circles.
• In philosophy he gave the idea of intellect.
1. Intellect is that with which people worship the Most Gracious (Allah) and with which
they obtain gardens.
2. The most perfect of men in intellect is the best of them in ethics.
3. The perfection of intellect is in three (things): humbleness for Allah, good certainty, and
silence except for good.
18. Historical roots of modern psychology
Muhammad Zakriya Razi (850-925 AD)
1. A person maintains sentimental
attachment with the
physical/material object and when he
has to part away from the object he
becomes frustrated and a mental
patient due to the sentimental
attachment with the mortal things
2. He keeps on increasing his
attachment with these things until it
become more important than
“necessary” Believed that person
should love others through God.
These physical things are granted by
God and He takes them back
whenever He wants
19. Historical roots of modern psychology
AL-FARABI (870-950 AD)
• Philosopher and poet
• According to him,
– Man is composed of two elements;
body and soul
– Believed in dualistic nature of Man
• He was of the view that there exists no
relationship between body and soul
20. Historical roots of modern psychology
Ibn-e- Muskavia (930-1030 Ad)
– Man is a compound of body and soul
– ‘Rooh’ is the main factor that controls
our actions and maintain them
– If ‘soul’ rules over the body then person
remains mentally healthy but if body
rules over the soul then the person
becomes mentally ill
21. Historical roots of modern psychology
Ibn-E-Sina/Avicenna (980-1037 Ad)
• A physician, scientist and a philosopher
• Considered as the great physicians of ‘Middle Ages’
• Gave importance to the ‘sentiments’ of the
individual
• He said,”
• When man is away from God’s love, he is also away
from man’s love”
• Gave the systematic account of kinds of mind and its
faculties According to him, there are three kinds of
mind:
1. Vegetable Mind
2. Animal Mind
3. Human Mind
22. Historical roots of modern psychology
Imam-Ghazali (1058-1111 Ad)
• Believed that ‘self’ which is called ‘Qalb’ is the essence of Man.
• It is the spiritual entity residing in the human body which controls the organic and physical
functions of an individual
• ‘Self’ is the center of personality from which all the psychological phenomena originate
• According to him there are SIX powers of “Self”:
1. Anger
2. Impulse
3. Apprehension
4. Intellect
5. Appetite
6. Will
• Anger is the ‘beastly power’ and ‘intellect’ is the 'Devine power’.
• His method of treatment is called “contradictory treatment”
• i.e., illiteracy is treated with literacy.
• The therapist was named ’Sheikh’ and patient called ‘Mureed’.
• His book alchemy of happiness discuss self.
ALLAMA IQBAL
23. Historical roots of modern psychology
• Ibn e Arabi (1165-1240 Ad)
• •Believed in the idea of “WAHDAT-
UL WAJOOD” which means that
Man is the part of God himself.
• •Because Man is created by God, so
for mental health, it is essential that
he should perish himself in the
“ZAAT” of God.
24. Historical roots of modern psychology
Mujadad Alfsani (1564-1625 Ad)
• Supported the idea of “WAHADT -UL-SHAHOOD”
means “REFLECTION OF GOD” which means that the
God’s reflection can be seen in the things, which have
been created by God.
• A person who is complete in his self and a follower of
Shariat and Tareequat is mentally healthy.
• Believed that God does not finish the individuality of
human beings and it is not necessary that man
should finish his self and amalgamate into the zaat of
God.
25. Historical roots of modern psychology
Shah Wali Ullah (1703-1762 AD)
• Mentioned about two forces:
1. Beastly Force or Baheemi
2. Ar-Rabbani or Devine.
• Both are contradictory forces and are always
struggling. This struggle is called “TAJAZUB”.
o When there is no struggle between these
forces, then the individual’s condition is
called “ISTALLAH”(mentally healthy and well
balanced).
o But when they are struggling and have
conflict, then it is called “ALLAHIE TAJAZUB
(tendency towards mental illness).
26. Historical roots of modern psychology
Developments since 17th Century A.D.
• Rapid developments: The 17th century was a century in
which modern concepts and development were
taking place in many fields like Physiology, Astronomy,
Physics etc, and displaced the old concepts of
Aristotle, Plato etc. These developments brought
about changes in the philosophical approach towards
the understanding of human nature as well.
27. Historical roots of modern psychology
Rene Descartes (1596-1650 Ad)
• His most important work was his attempt to resolve the mind- body
problem.
• He saw human body as a piece of machinery; intricate and complicated.
He believed that body is a machine whose operation can be adequately
explained by the mechanical laws of the movement of objects in space.
He recognized no difference between the hydraulically operated figures
and the body.
• He explained every aspect of physical functioning (digestion, circulation,
sensation, motion and so on) in mechanical terms
• Mind-Body “Interactive Dualism”: mind and body are separate entities
influencing each other. However, he argued that the mind can exert a
greater influence on body than was previously thought.
• Nerves are hollow tubes through which “Animal Spirits” conduct
“Impulses”___ he claimed that the heart was filled with a kind of innate
heat.
28. Historical roots of modern psychology
Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828 Ad)
• Known for his work on phrenology (the study of
the conformation of the skull as indicative of
mental faculties and traits of character)
• He postulated the idea that particular psychic
functions are represented by particular areas of
the brain.
• Intelligence, moral character and other
personality characteristics can be discerned by
the shape of and the Number of bumps on, a
person’s skull.
29. Historical roots of modern psychology
John Locke (1632-1704 Ad)
• His major contribution to psychology was an essay
concerning human understanding, which appeared in 1690
and was the culmination of some 20 years of study and
thought;
• Locke, first denied the existence of innate ideas, arguing that
humans are not equipped at birth with any knowledge .He
admitted that certain ideas may seem to adults to be innate
(such as the idea of God) because adults have been
constantly taught the ideas since childhood.
• He explained the innate ideas in terms of habit and learning.
• He gave the concept of “Tabula Rasa”; People are born in this
world with empty minds i.e.”Tabula Rasa” or a blank slate.
• The ideas and memories are imprinted on our minds as a
result of experience.
30. History of Psychology
• “Psychology has a long past, but
only a short history.”(Hermann
Ebbinghaus, 1908)
• Wilhelm Wundt set the
foundations of modern psychology
in 1879, by establishing the first
psychology laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany.
31. Emergence of School of thought
• Wilhelm Wundt in Germany established the foundations of psychology
by founding the first psychological laboratory in Germany in 1879.
• By that time psychologists were working in different nations, on
different lines. Many of them were trained at Wundt’s laboratory.
• Later on, psychologists began to be associated with different
approaches for understanding and explaining human thought and
behavior. The following early approaches or conceptual models guided
the work of psychologists:
1. Structuralism
2. Functionalism
3. Gestalt psychology
32. Emergence of School of thought
Structuralism
• It focused on the fundamental elements that form
the foundations of thinking, consciousness,
emotions and other kinds of mental states and
activities.
• Structuralism entailed early concepts of psychology
and primarily used the procedure called
introspection (in which the subjects were asked to
describe in detail what they were experiencing
when they were exposed to a stimulus) in order to
study the mind.
33. Emergence of School of thought
Functionalism
• It is an approach that concentrated on
what the mind does; the functions of
mental activity, and the role of
behavior in allowing people to adapt
to their environments.
• This school founded by the American
psychologist William James, became
prominent in the1900s.
34. Emergence of School of thought
Gestalt Psychology
• An approach that focuses on the organization
of perception and thinking in a ‘‘whole” sense
rather than on the individual elements of
perception.
• Instead of considering the individual parts
that make up thinking, gestalt psychologists
took the opposite track.
• They concentrated on how people consider
individual elements as units or wholes not in
parts.