Secondary Agriculture

1. BIRSA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
Protected Cultivation and Secondary
Agriculture
LECTURE 3: Secondary Agriculture
BY
DR. PRAMOD RAI
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING

2. Secondary Agriculture
Value addition to primary agriculture production
systems
Input centric: Nursery for horticultural crops,
Vermicompost, Bio-fertilisers production, Bio-
pesticides etc.
Harvest/Post harvest centric:
Fresh Produce management
Process Food management
Alternative enterprises: Mushroom Production, Bee
keeping, lac cultivation etc.
Enterprises that use crop residues and wastes of
primary agriculture: Banana fibre extraction &
products, Fibre Boards, urea enriched fodder block etc.,
from rice straw.

3. S.N. Contents (Secondary Agriculture)
1. Important Engineering properties such as physical,
thermal of cereals, pulses and oilseed, Aero &
hydrodynamic properties of cereals, pulses and
oilseed, Their application in PHT equipment design
and operation.
2. Drying and dehydration; moisture measurement,
EMC, Drying theory, various drying method,
commercial grain dryer (deep bed dryer), Flat bed
dryer, tray dryer, fluidized bed dryer, recirculatory
dryer and solar dryer
3. Material handling equipment; conveyer and
elevators, their principle, working and selection.
Protected Cultivation and Secondary Agriculture (Theory classes)

4. Post-harvest Management and Value Addition of Fruits and
Vegetables [B.Sc. (Hons) Agriculture, VI semester, regular:1+1]
Importance of post-harvest processing of fruits and vegetables, extent
and possible causes of post harvest losses: Introduction
Pre-harvest factors affecting postharvest quality, maturity, ripening
and changes occurring during ripening; Respiration and factors
affecting respiration rate;Harvesting and field handling; Storage
(ZECC, cold storage, CA, MA, and hypobaric): Fresh produce
supply chain management
Value addition concept, Principles and methods of preservation;
Intermediate moisture food- Jam, jelly, marmalade, preserve, candy –
Concepts and Standards; Fermented and non-fermented beverages,
Tomato products- Concepts and Standards; Drying/ Dehydration of
fruits and vegetables – Concept and methods, osmotic drying.
Canning -– Concepts and Standards: Principles of value
addition/preservation/food processing technologies and processed
food development
Packaging of products: Packaging of processed food product

5. Principles of Food Science and Nutrition
[B.Sc. (Hons) Agriculture, VI semester, regular:2+0]
Concepts of Food Science (definitions, measurements, density,
phase change, pH, osmosis, surface tension, colloidal systems
etc.): Food Science
Food composition and chemistry (water, carbohydrates, proteins,
fats, vitamins, minerals, flavours, colours, miscellaneous
bioactives, important reactions): Food chemistry
Food microbiology (bacteria, yeast, moulds, spoilage of fresh &
processed foods), Production of fermented foods: Food
microbiology
Principles and methods of food processing and preservation (use
of heat, low temperature, chemicals, radiation, drying etc.):
Principles of value addition/preservation/food processing
technologies
Food and nutrition, Malnutrition (over and under nutrition),
nutritional disorders; Energy metabolism (carbohydrate, fat,
proteins),Balanced/modified diets, Menu planning: Food
nutrition
New trends in food science and nutrition: Emerging trends

6. Degree programme in
Value addition/preservation/food
processing technologies
UG Programme (Three years/four years): Food
science, food technology, food engineering, food
packaging, dairy engineering & technology etc.
PG programme (Two years):Post harvest
management, food science, food technology, food
engineering, food packaging, dairy engineering &
technology etc.
Ph. D. Programme: Course work and research in
above areas

7. Value addition/preservation/food
processing technologies
Fresh & Cut Produce supply chain management
Processed Food management

8. Specialization required
Science & technology background (Food chemistry
& microbiology, food technologies, nutrition,
agriculture etc.): Selection of raw materials,
fresh/cut produce management, product
development technologies, packaging, food safety &
product stability
Engineering background (Agricultural engineering,
dairy engineering, mechanical engineering, chemical
engineering Electrical & electronics Engineering
etc.): Design of equipment & machinery for
fresh/cut and processed food

9. Food Deterioration
Foods undergo deterioration of varying degrees in terms of their
sensory characteristics, nutritional value, safety, and aesthetic
appeal. Most foods, from the time they are harvested, slaughtered, or
manufactured, undergo progressive deterioration, depending upon
the food.
Deterioration: A series of continuous degradative changes
occurring in a food item which may affect the product's
wholesomeness (it is a term that refers to freedom from pathogenic
or otherwise harmful microorganisms), result in a reduction of its
quality (it is a term that refers to the degree of excellence or grade of
a Product), and/or alter its serviceability (it is a term that refers to the
usefulness of a food item).
Spoilage: It is often used as a synonym for deterioration. However,
it needs to make distinction between these two terms. It is arbitrary
end point of the deterioration process which denotes that a food item
is unwholesome and, therefore, is no longer suitable for human
consumption.

11. Value addition/preservation/food processing
Is needed to
Ensure safety (kill & control microorganisms)
Increase shelf life (destruction of enzymes,
toxins etc.)
Increase digestibility
Add value (texture, flavor, color)
Make new products
Meet the needs of specific section of population
(allergic to food proteins)

12. Consumer Demand
Food quality
Food safety standard
Health benefit
Raw material used (genetic or not)
Environment issues (i.e. packaging material
used, plant discharge etc.)

13. Challenges in food processing
Raw materials (quality, quantity and
consistency)
Technology for food product
Machinery for food product
Food safety issues (local vs export)
Market reach
Branding
Consumer (Rural, urban, international)
Government policy
HRM
Knowledge and innovation

14. Classification of food products
Fresh/cut fruits and vegetables
Liquid product
Dehydrated product
Powder product
Semi-solid
RTE
RTC
Freeze product
Retorted product
Healthy food
Food for particular segments

15. Raw materials for processing
Fruit and vegetables
Cereals, pulses, oilseeds & minor crops
Milk
NTFP
Medicinal and aromatic
Spices and condiments
Poultry, meat, fish etc.
Others

16. Way to secure raw materials
Contract farming
Farmer Producer Organization (FPO)
Developing cluster approach
Co-operative farming
Many more

17. Fundamental issues in securing raw
materials for processing
Genetic materials
Agronomical management
Environment management
What is purpose of raw materials (fresh vs
process)
Local market vs export

18. Successful cluster/company
Pratapgarh, Aonla
Mahabaleshwar, Stawberry
PepsiCo
MacDonald
Global green: Gherkins
ITC: E-choupal
Amul
Many more

19. Common trend in food industry
Contract farming for raw material (to maintain
the raw material quality as per requirement).
Best technology in unit operation
Third party manufacturing (as partner or as
franchisee).
Quality and safety issues are taken care by
main company (i.e. Dabur, pepsico etc.).
Marketing and branding are done by main
company.

20. Development of novel food product for
national and international market
Quality and safety requirement varies with end
consumer (local level, state level, national level
and specific country).
Can not market the same product for each
consumer.
Major challenges are related to food safety
issues.
Consumer demands are different for same
product (for some it is feeding, for some what
are health benefit etc.)

21. Important issues in novel food product
development
Maintaining raw material quality
Non thermal technique for water removal or
sterilization.
Natural additive (e.g. color, preservative etc.).
Food safety issues.
Health benefit.

22. Missing link
Preharvest vs Post Harvest: Farm to fork/farm
to shelf/farm to plate/farm to health
approach is not followed.
Preharvest affects:
Quality & Higher shelf life
Fresh vs processing
Local vs export
Higher phytochemicals
Early/off-season production

23. Fresh & Cut produce management

24. Fresh produce management
Precooling: To remove field heat after harvest
to slow down the rate of deterioration of highly
perishable products.
Sanitization: It is process by which the number
of microorganisms present on the surface is
effectively reduced without affecting produce
quality or safety for the consumer
Grading/sorting/tracibility
Storage/ripening
Transportation
Retail packaging

25. WASHING & DRYING
FARM PRECOOLING
SORTING AND GRADING
PACKING
COLD STORAGE
Pack House With Cold Storage

26. Cold Chain
Farm Pack house
Cold storage
Refrigerated van
Retail outlets

27. Sanitization of produce
The selection of sanitizing agent and optimization
of its application conditions
Commonly used sanitizer are sodium
hypochlorite (but concerns due formation of
carcinogenic chlorinated compounds e.g.
chloramines and trihalomethanes)
Chlorine dioxide, hydrogen peroxide, ozone
(Kenstar), electrolyzed water, natural sanitizing
agent, whey permeates etc.

28. Storage Management
Temperature management (cold storage)
Temperature & RH management (Advanced
cold storage)
Temperature, RH & gas composition
management [Controlled Atmospheric Storage
(CAS)]

29. Ripening
Mango is a climatic fruit often harvested in mature but unripe
condition and subsequently ripened naturally.
Natural ripening is a slow process, leads to uneven ripening,
non uniform color, higher mass loss, desiccation, etc.
Artificial ripening is done to overcome these problems and
achieve faster and uniform ripening characteristics .
The ripening process is artificially accelerated by using
different chemicals such as ethylene gas, ethephon, ethylene
glycol, ethereal and calcium carbide.
The calcium carbide (CaC2) is the most commonly used though
banned under Food Safety and Standards (Prohibition and
Restrictions on Sales) Regulations, 2011.
The calcium carbide contains traces of arsenic and phosphorus
hydride and causes several acute and chronic health effects.

30. Table 1: Ideal condition for ripening of mango
S.N. Operating condition Mango
1. Fruit temperature 20-220C
2. Relative humidity 90-95%
3. Ethylene exposure 100-150 ppm
4. Duration of exposure to
ethylene
12-24 hrs
5. Carbon dioxide Less than 1%

31. Ripening Chamber Ripening solution

32. Fresh Mango Mango after 24 hour treatment in ripening chamber
Mango after 24 hour without treatment in ripening chamber

33. Treated Mango after two days
Without treated Mango after two days

34. Conclusion
A ripening chamber of 120 cm x 80 cm x 90 cm to store eight
plastic crates (size 53 cm x 35.5 cm x 28 cm) with total capacity
of around 160 kg mango was constructed.
The fixed cost of fabricating air tight ripening chamber for
ripening study was Rs. 950.
The ripening mixture used for release of ethylene gas were 1.2
litre water, 2.38 ml KRIPON and 0.5 gm sodium hydroxide &
operating cost of ripening of mango was 1.96 paise/kg.
The technology can be used by farmers and small traders at
farm level.
The developed chamber has potential for ripening of mango,
banana, papaya, etc. at farm level at low operating cost with
consistent quality.
Youtube video: फलों को पकायें सिफ
फ 2 पैिे प्रति ककलो | Low
Cost Ripening Chamber|(https://youtu.be/9cc9vqlk-p0 )

35. Packaging
Individual shrink Packaging (ISP)
Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP): It is
used to extend shelf life of fresh/cut produce.
Gas composition depends on respiratory
characteristics of the produce
Types of MAP: Passive & Active

36. Individual Shrink Packaging (ISP)
It function primarily by maintenance of a
water saturated atmosphere that extends
shelf life by reduction of shrinkage and
weight loss.
The modification of respiratory gases
within ISP produce is generally not
sufficient to cause significant atmosphere
modification.

37. .

38. Advantages
It extends the shelf life by preventing the
moisture loss, maintaining firmness and
reducing respiration.
It prevents secondary infection, which is
important for long term storage.
It can be stored at even at room temperature.
It enhances the effectiveness of fungicide by
slowing down its dissipation rate.
It delays changes related to senescence of
fruit.
The cost of packaging is between Rs. 0.20 to
0.50/ kg depending upon produce.

39. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)
The basic concept is the replacement of the air
surrounding the food in the package with a mixture
of gases different in proportion from that of air.
It can be done by vacuum, gas flushing or controlled
permeability of the pack thus controlling the
biochemical, enzymatic and microbial actions so as
to avoid or decrease the main degradations that
might occur.
It allows the preservation of the fresh state of the
food product without the temperature or chemical
treatments used by competitive preservation
techniques, such as canning, freezing, dehydration
and other processes.

40. Active packaging
It allows packages to interact with food
and the environment and play a
dynamic role in food preservation.
They come in various forms: sachets in
headspace, labels, or direct incorporation
into package material and/or closures.

41. Types of active packaging system
Ethylene absorbers and adsorbers
Moisture control agents
Oxygen scavengers
Carbon dioxide absorbers and emitters
Moisture control agents
Antimicrobials
Temperature control: self-heating and cooling
Many more

42. Ethylene absorbers and adsorbers
Ethylene is a natural plant hormone produced by
ripening produce. It accelerates produce respiration,
resulting in maturity and senescence.
Removing ethylene from a package environment helps
extend the shelf life of fresh produce.
The most common agent of ethylene removal is
potassium permanganate, which oxidizes ethylene to
acetate and ethanol.
Ethylene may also be removed by physical adsorption
on active surfaces such as activated carbon or zeolite.
Potassium permanganate is mostly supplied in sachets
while other adsorbent or absorbent chemicals may be
distributed as sachets or incorporated in the packaging
materials.

43. Cut produce management
Raw material of good quality (correct
cultivar/variety, correct cultivation,
harvesting and storage conditions)
Strict hygiene and good manufacturing
practices, HACCP
Gentle cutting/slicing/shredding
Sanitizing
Anti browning/firming agent
Right packaging

44. Antibrowning and firming treatment
The peeling and or cutting induce undesirable
changes in color and appearance during storage
and marketing of fresh cut produce.
Traditionally, sulphites have been used
(undersible effect, partially restricted by FDA).
Citric acid (CA) combined with ascorbic acid
(AA), alone, or in combination with potassium
sorbate.
In commercial practice, standard cocktails
containing both antimicrobial and browning
agents – known as the dip solution - have been
developed.

45. Processed food
Fruit & vegetable product: 100% juice, juice
based drink, mixed juice & juice concentrate
NTFP

46. Current market and future trend
Juice based product has dominant market
share.
100% juice is growing at CAGR of 25%.
Consumer prefers fresh juice given by
road side vendor.
Mixed juice will grow faster once the
people will know its benefits.

47. Thermal processing fresh juice
Loss of original flavor, taste, appearance, color
Nutritional quality
The technology used are UHT and aseptic
packaging with tetra pack.
Due to above reasons, consumers still prefer
fresh juice served by road side vendor.

48. Non thermal Juice processing
Render foods free of pathogenic &
spoilage organisms
Retain color, flavor
Improve shelf life
Improve texture

49. Non-thermal Processing
Membrane technology
High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP)
Pulsed Electric Field (PEF)
Ultrasound
Pulsed Light (PL)
Irradiation
Electron Beam
Oscillating Magnetic Field (OMF)
Ozone
Gas, plasma

50. Membrane Technology
Juice clarification
Juice concentration

51. Juice Clarification
It can be done using MF and UF technology.
It removes the suspended particles, microbes etc.
It juice without any preservative and heat
treatment.
Juice can be stored at room temperature for six
month if it is packaged using aseptic technology.

52. Juice concentration
It removes the water from juice using non
thermal technology.
It can be concentrated using RO, DO, MD,
OD.
It has all the benefit of non-thermal
technologies.

53. Juice processing using HPP

54. Processing of NTFP
Jackfuit
Tamrind
Mahua

55. Why jackfuit
Because more than 70% of jackfruit in India are
being wasted.
But in Sri Lanka the wastage is only 40%
because they extensively used as a substitute for
vegetables.
Report suggest that more than Rs. 400 crore
worth of jackfruit is wasted every year in
Meghalaya alone.
Kindly visit: www.jackfruit365.com

56. Benefits of the Jackfruit
Ripe fruit can be used in place of apple and the
green fruit in place of potato, eggplant, soya
chunks and the like.
High potassium contents help lower elevated
blood pressure.
Flavonoids protect against cancer.
Anti-oxidants fight various ailments including
anaemia.

57. .

58. Tamarind
It is a tropical tree, native to tropical Africa,
including Sudan and parts of the Madagascar
dry deciduous forests.
It was introduced into India long ago that it
has often been reported as indigenous and it
reached the Persians and the Arabs from
India.

59. Tamrind composition
The constituents of tamarind pulp are sugar
(about 12.5 per cent), tartaric, citric, and malic
acids, and potassium bitartrate, pectin, gum,
etc.
The seeds contained potassium bitartrate (4.66
to 6.01 per cent), tartaric acid (5.29 to 8.68
per cent) and citric acid (0.64 to 3.95 per
cent).

60. Tamrind products
Tamrind juice concentrate (TJC)
Tamrind pulp powder (TPP)
Tamrind kernel powder (TPP)
Tartaric acid
Pectin
Tartrates
Alcohol

61. Pulp preservation
A tamarind dehuller has also been designed and
developed at the PHET (ICAR), UAS,
Bangalore. The machine has a hulling capacity
of 500 kg/h, with hulling efficiency of 80% for
large fruits and 58% for small fruits.
Continuous storage for long periods under poor
conditions (extremes of temperature and
humidity), the color changes from brown or
yellowish brown to black.

62. Steaming the tamarind fruit for 5 minutes,
followed by drying (hot air oven at 800C for two
hours) and storing in plastic bags at room
temperature is a suitable method and it can be
stored for four months without any deterioration
in quality.
Tamarind pulp can be stored for up to 330 days
under refrigeration at 4 ± 20C when vacuum
packed in 800 gauge poly bags without any color
change in the pulp right from the initial stage of
storage.

63. .

64. Mahua
Mahua, Madhuca indica, is an Indian tropical
tree found in the north Indian plains and
forests.
It is found in states of Jharkhand, Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, M.P.
Orissa, Rajasthan, U.P. and West Bengal.

65. S. N. Composition Per cent
1. Moisture 12.50
2. Total sugars 67.50
3. Protein 6.67
4. Fat 0.09
5. Ash 2.60
6. Crude fibers 1.90
7. Calcium 0.14
8. Phosphorus 0.13
9. Ascorbic acid 17mg per100 g
10. Niacin 4.8 mg per100 g
11. Riboflavin 0.87 mg per100 g
12. Thiamine 0.028 mg per100 g
Proximate composition of mahua flower

66. Drying of mahua flowers
Drying of mahua flower is conducted in
open sun, solar and mechanical dryer.
In solar dryer mahua flowers reached to a
safe moisture level in about seven hours of
drying while it took nearly 33 hours (about 5
days) in open sun drying.
Drying of mahua samples takes 6 hours in
mechanical dryer; however, it is more
energy consuming and costly proposition.

67. Product development from fresh Mahua
flowers
Juice can be extracted from the fresh mahua
flowers using different methods.
Extracted juice is clarified and processed to
concentrate. Concentrate can be used as a sugar
substitute, in biscuits, cookies and cakes at
different concentration.
Flowers can be processed to prepare puree/pulp
and stored for further utilization in jam and sauce.

68. Important point regarding mahua
Collection of mahua flower on clean floor,
preferably covered with tarpaulin sheet.
Packaging of dried mahua resins in poly-jute
bags, to prevent moisture migration & insect
attack.
Taking precaution during monsoon to protect the
stored mahua from high humidity and moisture
because this may lead to microbial infection.

69. If you have any question/suggestion
Mail me: pramod_kgp@yahoo.co.uk
Contact me on WhatsApp: 8986644713