Fourth and fifth grade students were interviewed about their use of mass media for science learning. The students actively chose media like TV, the internet, magazines, and newspapers to fulfill cognitive needs for information, affective needs for enjoyment, and personal and social needs. Key factors influencing their media choices were accessibility, interesting content presented creatively. The study provided insight into how media can support science learning outside the classroom.
Impact of Social Media among Students’ Behaviors in Tertiary Institution of A...IJSRP Journal
The impact of social media among students behavior in tertiary institution has become worrisome. Social media is a means of connections among people in which they create, share, and exchange information and ideas in virtual communities and network. This craze for social media has led to a host of question regarding its impact among students behavior particularly in tertiary institution. This paper is set to study the impact of social media among students in tertiary institution in Adamawa State, Nigeria. A 5 likert scale questionnaire comprises of 19 questions was used as an instrument for data collection. 300 respondents sampled from 6 selected tertiary institutions in Adamawa State formed the population of the study. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the data. The study revealed that social media has positive impact as well as negative impact on students behavior. The study further recommended that students need to be trained on better usage of social media so as to minimize its misused, School management should train and encourage students on how to use skype and other video conferencing tools to have discussion with lecturers and group members academically.
Impact of Social Media among Students’ Behaviors in Tertiary Institution of A...IJSRP Journal
The impact of social media among students behavior in tertiary institution has become worrisome. Social media is a means of connections among people in which they create, share, and exchange information and ideas in virtual communities and network. This craze for social media has led to a host of question regarding its impact among students behavior particularly in tertiary institution. This paper is set to study the impact of social media among students in tertiary institution in Adamawa State, Nigeria. A 5 likert scale questionnaire comprises of 19 questions was used as an instrument for data collection. 300 respondents sampled from 6 selected tertiary institutions in Adamawa State formed the population of the study. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the data. The study revealed that social media has positive impact as well as negative impact on students behavior. The study further recommended that students need to be trained on better usage of social media so as to minimize its misused, School management should train and encourage students on how to use skype and other video conferencing tools to have discussion with lecturers and group members academically.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
A study of sixth graders’ critical evaluation of Internet sourcesaj6785
This study was a descriptive, task-based analysis to determine how sixth-grade students approach the cognitive task of critically evaluating Internet sources. Pairs of sixth grade students in an Information Literacy course evaluated four preselected Internet sites to determine their credibility and appropriateness for two specific research scenarios. Data for analysis included written responses, screencasts, and video of students while completing the task. Results suggest that these students tended toward simplistic modes of evaluation in the face of increased cognitive load, though some moved toward a more critical stance and many applied basic metacognitive strategies. The study points to the importance of instructional approaches that teach students to flexibly apply evaluation criteria in ill-structured environments, that teach advanced metacognitive strategies, and that instill habits of mind for critical inquiry. Instruction that empowers students to practice healthy skepticism even in the face of authority is also essential.
Media exposure and education of first to six grade children from slovenia p...Lazar Stosic
The family environment plays an important role in influencing the way that children use the media and the degree of their exposure to media, however the mediating role of parents in this process is not sufficiently understood. The present paper presents the results of a 2016 Slovenian national survey in which opinions of 2,825 parents concerning their children’s exposure to media were collected and analysed using the SPSS PSAW Statistic 18 software package. Our results show that exposure to media by children from the first to the sixth grade increases with age, that children of parents who are themselves heavy media users are more likely to be heavy users and that children who are heavy media users also receive lower test scores.
This study investigates the prevalence and determinants of sexting behaviour among undergraduates in Kwara State. The population for this study comprised all undergraduates in Kwara State while the target population was undergraduates of three universities in the Kwara States. A stratified sampling the technique was used to categorise universities based on ownership (Federal, State and Private) as well as gender. A random sampling technique was used to select 100 undergraduates from each university, totaling 300 respondents. A researcher-designed questionnaire titled Prevalence and Determinants of Sexting Behaviour Questionnaire (PASODOEBEQ) was used to elicit information from sampled respondents. The instrument was validated by experts in Sociology of Education and Educational Psychology. Test re-test method of reliability was applied to test the reliability of the instrument, using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistics. The coefficient value of 0.86r was derived. The data collected were analyzed using percentage, mean, standard deviation and Multiple Regression Statistical Tool. The result of the findings revealed that sexting behaviour is prevalent among undergraduates and low self-esteem and peer association are significant determinants. The study recommended among others that schools authorities as a matter of fact should organize a sensitization workshop or seminar for undergraduates on the meaning, ripple effects and the punishment associated with sexting behaviour for necessary social adjustment.
Extent of social media usage by students for improved learning in Tertiary In...iosrjce
This study was carried out to ascertain the perception of students on the use of social media for
educational purposes. It was conducted in three tertiary institutions in Rivers State. The sample comprised 200
respondents randomly selected from three tertiary institutions in Rivers State. Five research objectives and four
null hypotheses were used for the study. Mean scores, ANOVA, multiple comparison test using schaffer model,
and Correlational Analysis were the statistical tools used in the study. The study found that social media is used
in the study. The study found that social is used for educational purposes in terms of communication, sharing
and exchanging ideas with improved engagement with technology. The study also revealed that social media is
frequently used for interactions with friends for classroom assignment, communication in and outside
classroom, promoting interactions during lectures, promoting informal learning, enhance course grades,
facilitating language exchange, video conferencing, creating room for educational and video sharing. In terms
of attitude of students, respondents generally have favourable attitude towards use of social media. The study
revealed significant differences exist in social media usage across the three universities involved in the study
and significant differences exist in usage of social media between male and female respondents; and in attitude
of students towards social media. Based on these findings, the study recommend that the use of social media
should be incorporated into the curriculum for enhanced universities education.
scientific communication has become crucial to make you a successful in scientific community. Become aware of various modes available to communicate the scientific knowledge and add this skill to your career, see the change!!!
Promoting Female Students Interests in Studying with Educational TechnologyIJITE
Numerous studies have discussed gender differences in technology education, and have demonstrated that male students have more confidence in using technology than do female students. Female students’ lack of interest is due to the pedagogical approaches favoring male values. By contrast, no previous research on the integration of technology in English as a foreign language has investigated gender differences and the level of confidence of students in using technology in the classroom. This study aims to investigate the perceptions of students’ use of technology in the field of English applied foreign languages and check their perceptions about the use of computer technology. For this purpose, students enrolled in a conventional class of second year license degree in Applied Foreign Languages were interviewed and answered a questionnaire. The results of this study show that female students are highly likely to gain more confidence when given activities that match their learning interests.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
A study of sixth graders’ critical evaluation of Internet sourcesaj6785
This study was a descriptive, task-based analysis to determine how sixth-grade students approach the cognitive task of critically evaluating Internet sources. Pairs of sixth grade students in an Information Literacy course evaluated four preselected Internet sites to determine their credibility and appropriateness for two specific research scenarios. Data for analysis included written responses, screencasts, and video of students while completing the task. Results suggest that these students tended toward simplistic modes of evaluation in the face of increased cognitive load, though some moved toward a more critical stance and many applied basic metacognitive strategies. The study points to the importance of instructional approaches that teach students to flexibly apply evaluation criteria in ill-structured environments, that teach advanced metacognitive strategies, and that instill habits of mind for critical inquiry. Instruction that empowers students to practice healthy skepticism even in the face of authority is also essential.
Media exposure and education of first to six grade children from slovenia p...Lazar Stosic
The family environment plays an important role in influencing the way that children use the media and the degree of their exposure to media, however the mediating role of parents in this process is not sufficiently understood. The present paper presents the results of a 2016 Slovenian national survey in which opinions of 2,825 parents concerning their children’s exposure to media were collected and analysed using the SPSS PSAW Statistic 18 software package. Our results show that exposure to media by children from the first to the sixth grade increases with age, that children of parents who are themselves heavy media users are more likely to be heavy users and that children who are heavy media users also receive lower test scores.
This study investigates the prevalence and determinants of sexting behaviour among undergraduates in Kwara State. The population for this study comprised all undergraduates in Kwara State while the target population was undergraduates of three universities in the Kwara States. A stratified sampling the technique was used to categorise universities based on ownership (Federal, State and Private) as well as gender. A random sampling technique was used to select 100 undergraduates from each university, totaling 300 respondents. A researcher-designed questionnaire titled Prevalence and Determinants of Sexting Behaviour Questionnaire (PASODOEBEQ) was used to elicit information from sampled respondents. The instrument was validated by experts in Sociology of Education and Educational Psychology. Test re-test method of reliability was applied to test the reliability of the instrument, using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistics. The coefficient value of 0.86r was derived. The data collected were analyzed using percentage, mean, standard deviation and Multiple Regression Statistical Tool. The result of the findings revealed that sexting behaviour is prevalent among undergraduates and low self-esteem and peer association are significant determinants. The study recommended among others that schools authorities as a matter of fact should organize a sensitization workshop or seminar for undergraduates on the meaning, ripple effects and the punishment associated with sexting behaviour for necessary social adjustment.
Extent of social media usage by students for improved learning in Tertiary In...iosrjce
This study was carried out to ascertain the perception of students on the use of social media for
educational purposes. It was conducted in three tertiary institutions in Rivers State. The sample comprised 200
respondents randomly selected from three tertiary institutions in Rivers State. Five research objectives and four
null hypotheses were used for the study. Mean scores, ANOVA, multiple comparison test using schaffer model,
and Correlational Analysis were the statistical tools used in the study. The study found that social media is used
in the study. The study found that social is used for educational purposes in terms of communication, sharing
and exchanging ideas with improved engagement with technology. The study also revealed that social media is
frequently used for interactions with friends for classroom assignment, communication in and outside
classroom, promoting interactions during lectures, promoting informal learning, enhance course grades,
facilitating language exchange, video conferencing, creating room for educational and video sharing. In terms
of attitude of students, respondents generally have favourable attitude towards use of social media. The study
revealed significant differences exist in social media usage across the three universities involved in the study
and significant differences exist in usage of social media between male and female respondents; and in attitude
of students towards social media. Based on these findings, the study recommend that the use of social media
should be incorporated into the curriculum for enhanced universities education.
scientific communication has become crucial to make you a successful in scientific community. Become aware of various modes available to communicate the scientific knowledge and add this skill to your career, see the change!!!
Promoting Female Students Interests in Studying with Educational TechnologyIJITE
Numerous studies have discussed gender differences in technology education, and have demonstrated that male students have more confidence in using technology than do female students. Female students’ lack of interest is due to the pedagogical approaches favoring male values. By contrast, no previous research on the integration of technology in English as a foreign language has investigated gender differences and the level of confidence of students in using technology in the classroom. This study aims to investigate the perceptions of students’ use of technology in the field of English applied foreign languages and check their perceptions about the use of computer technology. For this purpose, students enrolled in a conventional class of second year license degree in Applied Foreign Languages were interviewed and answered a questionnaire. The results of this study show that female students are highly likely to gain more confidence when given activities that match their learning interests.
An overview of the future of web app development from 3 angles: IDE in the cloud, Challenge of collaboration and Innovating the browser platform, related to the stuff we do at ajax.org
Beholding the giant pyramid of application development; why Ajax applications...Javeline B.V.
Building large and complex web applications using the open browser stack without any plugins is taking off (google wave), and with the support of rapidly innovating browsers like Firefox and Chrome it looks like it is bypassing proprietary platforms. This talk illustrates why the web browser and HTML5 are positioned to become the global platform for applications and how Ajax technologies like our ajax.org are optimizing application development.
Server-Side Javascript (SSJS) has been creating a lot of buzz lately, and it's not hard to see why. We have just begun to discover the possibilities opened up by running Javascript on the server, and it's something we're very excited about. That is why during this presentation we will introduce Ajax.org O3. O3 is a set of C++ components, which are exposed through a Javascript API, and can be used anywhere, be it in a browser or on a server... on all major operating systems. What's more, O3 also provides a set of libraries which allows you to write your own C++ components, and expose them through a Javascript API as well. Eddy and Mike of Ajax.org will show you how to use O3 within a simple collaborative application.
Demographics, Psychographics and the Uses and Gratifications Theory, Understa...ijtsrd
The issues of how the media affect people and what people do with the media have presented perennial and perplexing questions for communication scholars. Some of the research results in these areas are more controversial than useful. Uses and gratification studies straddle the two domains of media effects and people’s employment of the media. The field of gratification research holds great promise in the continual search for comprehensive knowledge on how and why we use the media. Drawing from a wide range of local and international literature, this paper presents a clear and concise review of the ontological, epistemological and axiological assumptions of the uses and gratifications theory. Paleowei, Zikena Cletus "Demographics, Psychographics and the Uses and Gratifications Theory, Understanding Text and Preferences" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-7 | Issue-3 , June 2023, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com.com/papers/ijtsrd56314.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/56314/demographics-psychographics-and-the-uses-and-gratifications-theory-understanding-text-and-preferences/paleowei-zikena-cletus
Science Communication: A Panacea for Addressing Gender-Gap in Nigeria’s STEM ...ijejournal
There is a major concern about the prevalence of the gender gap in Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) education in some developing countries. Thus, this study examined the existing communication interventions for disseminating information about STEM to women and girls in two universities in Nigeria. It leveraged Roger’s 1962 diffusion of innovations theory. The qualitative method was used, where fifty-six respondents from departments of computer science, engineering and mathematics, were examined to determine their extent of exposure to STEM-related information and their communication preferences for STEM-related messages. Results suggest that the majority of the respondents receive stem information through the mass media of which newspapers and magazinesranked highest. Accordingly, the majority of them would prefer personalized face-to-face communication and social media. The study recommended that change agents should be involved in the door–to–door campaign on STEM education.
SCIENCE COMMUNICATION: A PANACEA FOR ADDRESSING GENDER-GAP IN NIGERIA’S STEM ...ijejournal
There is a major concern about the prevalence of the gender gap in Science, Technology, Engineering and
Math (STEM) education in some developing countries. Thus, this study examined the existing
communication interventions for disseminating information about STEM to women and girls in two
universities in Nigeria. It leveraged Roger’s 1962 diffusion of innovations theory. The qualitative method
was used, where fifty-six respondents from departments of computer science, engineering and mathematics,
were examined to determine their extent of exposure to STEM-related information and their
communication preferences for STEM-related messages. Results suggest that the majority of the
respondents receive stem information through the mass media of which newspapers and magazinesranked
highest. Accordingly, the majority of them would prefer personalized face-to-face communication and
social media. The study recommended that change agents should be involved in the door–to–door
campaign on STEM education.
Sociological Research Methods – Group Research ProjectThe Ev.docxjensgosney
Sociological Research Methods – Group Research Project
The Evolution in Technology and Humans
Professor: Tracy Andrew Supruniuk
Course Code: AS/SOCI 2030M
Student Names: Dominic Fung
Student Numbers: and 212907663
Date: May 5th, 2015
Literature Review
Since the introduction of electronic devices, the world has shifted into a new technological era with great assistance from the development of the internet. The technology then became more portable and commercial, which made the mechanisms more accessible, affordable and evidently more desirable. The popularity of these internet associated devices rose quickly and still continue to rise, as it becomes the norm for individuals to own at least one electronic device. The purpose of these devices it to assist with an individual’s daily task along with many more possibilities, and because of its influential power, questions like how it affected with the development of humans in the modern era begin to surface.
The purpose of this study is to discover how the interactions and communications between humans have evolved since the involvement of internet and electronic technology. This topic has peaked interest of many researchers, and popular themes concerning the topic includes relationships and intimacy between individuals via the internet from computers and phones. Some previous research that has been chosen to be used as references all follow along a similar pattern, regarding the sample size and diversity, methodology, and theoretical influences.
One method that is popular to the researchers in the field of sociology is known as Ethnography, which is “the systematic description of human behaviour and organizational culture based on first-hand observation” (Howard, 2002, p.553). But because of the new technological advancement, using such a traditional procedure may be unable to fully analyze the subject. One research decided to adapt to the technologic subject and develop a different form of Ethnography to accommodate any flaws the tradition method had; the new methodology is called Network Ethnography.
Network ethnography involves with passive or active observation, extended immersion, and in-depth interviews, following the processes of ethnographical research methods. The contribution Network ethnography provides is that it does not limit the researcher into choosing territorial field sites, but also has the opportunity to select multiple social networks as field sites.
Another reason why they believe Network Ethnography is a valid method of examining social behaviour and different technological mediums is that a researcher can manage sample bias whether it be extreme, snowball or any other sampling method. The reason being is that “snowball sampling for example, does not allow the researcher to control the direction of sample growth, but social network analysis will identify some of the most significant informants in the network (Howard, 2002 pg 562).” Researchers can use the in.
TAKING SIDES: ISSUE 17
ARE AMERICA’S SCHOOLS RESEGREGATING?
1. What is the summary of Issue 17? (pp 306-309). Was segregation the official policy of the US government?
2. Explain, with detail, the section labeled “Unmaking Brown” (pp 310-312) up to “Hidden History of Choice” on page 312. Explain the legislation in this section. What does the author mean by unmaking Brown?
3. Explain, with detail, the sections from “Hidden History of Choice” (pp 312-314) including “A Paradigm Shift” on page 314. For example, what policies/practices have and haven’t worked?
4. What are the facts and contradictions that Ellen presents on pages 315-316? Up to the section called: why are some mixed neighborhoods stable.
5. Why are some mixed neighborhoods stable? (pp 316-317). Explain this in detail. What is the ‘racial neighborhood stereotyping’ hypothesis? Explain all three parts.
6. What are the policies that Ellen presents on page 317; how is that measured in “Testing the Theory”? What is the data? What does the author mean by “neighborhoods sheltered from black growth are more stable?” (p 318). Cover all up to “Policy Implications, Big and Small”.
7. Explain the section from “Policy Implications, Big and Small” through page 320. What is the good news that Ellen presents on pages 318-320? Answer questions 5-7 on page 321 from Critical Thinking and Reflection.
8. Answer questions 1-4 from page 321 Critical Thinking and Reflection. Summarize the “Is There Common Ground” on that same page.
Running head: STUDENTS AND TECHNOLOGY 1
STUDENTS AND TECHNOLOGY 2
The Harmful Effect of Personal Technology to Students
American Intercontinental University
November 27, 2016
Abstract
This paper discusses the subject matter that students are being harmed by their overdependence on personal digital technology. It highlights four main points to support this argument and offers one counter argument. It concludes by stating that in as much as technology does harm students, it has contributed to the quality of education.
Overdependence of personal digital technology by students should be monitored and regulated as they are adversely affected.
First, statistics report that three in four teens (74%) aged 12-17 own cell phones, tablets and other devices (Pew Research Centre, 2013). This is alarming as one wonders what time do they get to their studies and even socializing. Students’ overdependence on technology adversely affects their social skills which enhance interaction and communication with others.
The second argument is that students visit social media sites multiple times in a day and this means that they do not get to their school assignments and if they do, it is not ...
Computers in Human Behavior 45 (2015) 151–157Contents lists .docxdonnajames55
Computers in Human Behavior 45 (2015) 151–157
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Computers in Human Behavior
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / c o m p h u m b e h
#Gettinghealthy: The perceived influence of social media on young
adult health behaviors
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.12.013
0747-5632/� 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 (406) 994 3229.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J.M. Vaterlaus), [email protected]
ksu.edu (E.V. Patten), [email protected] (C. Roche), [email protected]
(J.A. Young).
1 Tel.: +1 (208) 861 0727.
2 Tel.: +1 (308) 865 8477.
J. Mitchell Vaterlaus a,⇑, Emily V. Patten b,1, Cesia Roche c, Jimmy A. Young d,2
a College of Education, Health and Human Development, Department of Health and Human Development, Montana State University, P.O. Box 173540, Bozeman, MT
59717-3540, United States
b College of Human Ecology, Department of Hospitality Management and Dietetics, Kansas State University, 110 Justin Hall, Manhattan, KS 66506-1404, United States
c College of Business and Technology, Department of Family Studies and Interior Design, University of Nebraska Kearney, Otto Olsen 205E, Kearney, NE 68849, United States
d College of Natural and Social Sciences, Department of Social Work, University of Nebraska Kearney, 2022 Founders Hall, Kearney, NE 68849, United States
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Available online 23 December 2014
Keywords:
Social media
Young adulthood
Diet
Exercise
Health
Social ecological theory
a b s t r a c t
Young adults (18–25 years old) spend a majority of their waking hours with technology and young adult-
hood is an important developmental time period for establishing lasting health behaviors. Considering
the relevance of technology and health during young adulthood the current study explored young adults
(N = 34) perceptions of social media’s (e.g., social networking) influence on their health behaviors (i.e.,
diet and exercise) using a social ecological framework. Data was collected through eight focus groups
and four individual interviews. Three themes were identified through phenomenological qualitative
analysis. Young adults perceived that technology could be both a barrier and a motivator for exercise.
Social media was also credited with expanding food choices through creating access to a variety of
recipes, providing a venue for showcasing the food young adults eat or prepare, and distracting young
adults from making positive food choices. Participants also reported that it is common to post statuses
or pictures relating to exercise practices on social media during young adulthood. Young adults indicated
that these posts could be inspirational or misused, depending on the context. Results are discussed in
terms of theory and preliminary implications.
� 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Young adults (18–25 years old) spend more time with media
and techn.
Citation: O Riordan, N. 2013. An initial exploration of Citizen Science. NUIG Whitaker Institute Working Paper Series.
A working paper summarising the latest research on citizen science and its relationship with open innovation and the wisdom of crowds. Considers well known cases of citizen science including Galaxy Zoo. Identifies key research questions for future study.
BARRIERS FOR FEMALES TO PURSUE STEM CAREERS AND STUDIES AT HIGHER EDUCATION I...IJCSES Journal
Background and context: Even when the modern world is transitioning quickly into the digital age, the
gender gap continues to be more acute. Social scientists note the low number of women in Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Maths (STEM) as a scientific, creative, economic, and innovative potential
loss. The importance of women’s participation in technical sciences and technical production is also
recognized as a factor for stable social development. Objective and method: A scoping review has been
conducted to study females’ reasonings and society-based explanations for females to choose STEM
studies at the Higher Education Institutions (HEI) level. The goal is to understand the reasons for the low
number of females in STEM careers related to education in STEM and to reveal the underlying
phenomenon. Results: The gender attitudes and stereotypes inherent in boy and girl children’s spare time
and school life narrow the children's possibilities from what specific education and career direction they
can choose. But only a few genetics and physical differences could postulate and explain this status quo.
Humans have formed a particular social framework; in the process, we have socialized childhood and
education. When choosing a future specialization, the society in which the child grew up, the family that
brought him up, and what traditions they invested in are much more important than his gender.
Implications: Based on our results, we summarise the scattered knowledge base and utilize the analyzed
summary for recommendations to further the development of HEI programs to make them more fitting for
both genders and help reduce the gender gap. The universities should cover the achievements of females,
more often in their media channels, related to the previously mentioned interest in STEM, based on the
presence of a role model. When choosing a university, girls can see a real example and be inspired to study
STEM majors
Barriers for Females to Pursue Stem Careers and Studies at Higher Education I...IJCSES Journal
Background and context: Even when the modern world is transitioning quickly into the digital age, the gender gap continues to be more acute. Social scientists note the low number of women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Maths (STEM) as a scientific, creative, economic, and innovative potential loss. The importance of women’s participation in technical sciences and technical production is also recognized as a factor for stable social development. Objective and method: A scoping review has been conducted to study females’ reasonings and society-based explanations for females to choose STEM studies at the Higher Education Institutions (HEI) level. The goal is to understand the reasons for the low number of females in STEM careers related to education in STEM and to reveal the underlying phenomenon. Results: The gender attitudes and stereotypes inherent in boy and girl children’s spare time and school life narrow the children's possibilities from what specific education and career direction they can choose. But only a few genetics and physical differences could postulate and explain this status quo. Humans have formed a particular social framework; in the process, we have socialized childhood and education. When choosing a future specialization, the society in which the child grew up, the family that brought him up, and what traditions they invested in are much more important than his gender. Implications: Based on our results, we summarise the scattered knowledge base and utilize the analyzed summary for recommendations to further the development of HEI programs to make them more fitting for both genders and help reduce the gender gap. The universities should cover the achievements of females, more often in their media channels, related to the previously mentioned interest in STEM, based on the presence of a role model. When choosing a university, girls can see a real example and be inspired to study STEM majors.
However important improved public understanding of science might be, it is only part of the picture of how society reacts to new developments in science and technology, especially when controversy breaks out. Extensive research supports strong roles for values, beliefs and trust, arguably stronger factors in many cases than the role of science literacy by itself.
International Forum of Educational Technology & SocietyMid.docxLaticiaGrissomzz
International Forum of Educational Technology & Society
Middle School Students’ Social Media Use
Author(s): Florence Martin, Chuang Wang, Teresa Petty, Weichao Wang and Patti Wilkins
Source: Journal of Educational Technology & Society , Vol. 21, No. 1 (January 2018), pp.
213-224
Published by: International Forum of Educational Technology & Society
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26273881
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Martin, F., Wang, C., Petty, T., Wang, W., & Wilkins, P. (2018). Middle School Students’ Social Media Use. Educational
Technology & Society, 21 (1), 213–224.
213
ISSN 1436-4522 (online) and 1176-3647 (print). This article of the Journal of Educational Technology & Society is available under Creative Commons CC-BY-ND-NC
3.0 license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/). For further queries, please contact Journal Editors at [email protected]
Middle School Students’ Social Media Use
Florence Martin*, Chuang Wang, Teresa Petty, Weichao Wang and Patti Wilkins
University of North Carolina Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA // [email protected] //
[email protected] // [email protected] // [email protected] // [email protected]
*Corresponding author
ABSTRACT
Cyber bullying, digital identity, impact of digital footprints, and use of inappropriate social media are topics
that are gaining attention in K-12 schools. As more schools and school districts are implementing 1-1 and
“bring your own technology” initiatives, attention to these topics is becoming increasingly important. A
total of 593 middle school students were surveyed about digital footprints and concerns about social media.
The results show that 17% started using social media at age nine or yo.
Similar to Science communication 2014-gelmez burakgazi-168-93-2 (20)
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A presentation about the usage and availability of Varnish on Kubernetes. This talk explores the capabilities of Varnish caching and shows how to use the Varnish Helm chart to deploy it to Kubernetes.
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Science communication 2014-gelmez burakgazi-168-93-2
1. http://scx.sagepub.com/
Science Communication
http://scx.sagepub.com/content/36/2/168
The online version of this article can be found at:
DOI: 10.1177/1075547013505847
2013
2014 36: 168 originally published online 24 OctoberScience Communication
Sevinc Gelmez Burakgazi and Ali Yildirim
Fourth and Fifth Graders for Science Learning
Accessing Science Through Media: Uses and Gratifications Among
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What is This?
- Oct 24, 2013OnlineFirst Version of Record
- Mar 27, 2014Version of Record>>
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3. Gelmez Burakgazi and Yildirim 169
Introduction
Science information is disseminated through a wide range of channels. From
childhood to adult life, we learn science both in school and beyond. A huge
amount of science-related knowledge is acquired outside of traditional learn-
ing environments (Falk & Dierking, 2010). The mass media are the most
readily available and sometimes the only source of information in this case
(Nelkin, 1995). Sources that are mainly used in informal learning environ-
ments such as newspapers, TV, magazines, Internet, and science centers are
no replacement for a formal science education, but this does not mean they do
not have any value (Bell, Lewenstein, Shouse, & Feder, 2009; Friedman &
Mappen, 2011). In fact, as Gilbert (2007) notes, education systems are slow
to keep up with progress in the field of science. Apropos of this, Gordon,
Brigdlall, and Meroe (2004) claim that schools cannot manage the task of
disseminating science learning alone and accordingly might benefit from col-
laboration with other institutions.
The media, as a well-known science information resource, have an impor-
tant influence on attitudes toward science (Lee & Scheufele, 2006). Its role in
science education is threefold: First, the media make science more accessible
to students (Osborne & Collins, 2000). Second, outside the school, the media
are the most readily available and sometimes the only source of information
on scientific issues (Nelkin, 1995). Third, people already pick up most of
their science knowledge through the media (Detjen, 1995). The media’s role
in science education has gradually been increasing (Dierking, 2005; Fenichel
& Schweingruber, 2010).
For Weitkamp (2010), science-related information may be disseminated
through both fiction (novels, films, etc.) and nonfiction (newspapers, maga-
zines, etc.) media. The media may also be categorized as traditional (TV,
radio, newspaper, magazines) and new/alternative (Internet) media (Gross,
2003). Changes in science and technology news coverage bring about changes
in how these resources are used. One reason for students’ increased interest
in extracurricular sources of science information could be that science infor-
mation presented on TV, in magazines, and in newspapers is more entertain-
ing now than it had been in the past. Turkey is a country where youngsters
spend a considerable amount of time on TV and home Internet use. Radio,
newspaper, and magazine consumption lags behind TV and Internet usage.
For this reason, Turkey is an especially interesting place to study young peo-
ple’s science learning from media. This transition in media coverage is also
changing audiences’ preferences. Science and Engineering Indicators (http://
www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind12/), for example, reported shifts among adults
and young people alike in the United States. According to the report, younger
audiences mainly use Internet for news and information, including science
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4. 170 Science Communication 36(2)
and technology information, and their Internet usage increases with educa-
tion level and income. The Internet has also become a dominant source of
current news, science and technology information, and other specialized
information.
Notable among decades of studies examining the dissemination of science-
related knowledge through media is Hook and Brake’s (2010) reference to
direct and indirect learning, as discussed through obvious and incidental
learning from television. In a related study, Brossard and Shanahan (2006)
identified and tested the 31 terms most often used in the U.S. media. They
were not able to find statistical evidence to conclude that either newspaper
consumption or television exposure affected scientific literacy. They did,
however, find a positive relationship between media and scientific literacy
when controlling for age, gender, and science education. This study impli-
cates that the media coverage is linked to scientific literacy for certain indi-
viduals, if not for all.
According to Hook and Brake (2010), the Internet, as a new medium,
sometimes provides unintentional information via popular sites such as
Facebook, Twitter, MySpace, and YouTube. However, they maintained that
science learning through the Internet is still significant because those who
belong to a group or have any other interest in, connection to, or knowledge
of science may reach each other easily. Trench’s (2008) research deals with
the trend toward the Internet as a primary element in science communication,
arguing that Internet communication is thoroughly integrated into scientific
practice. In the United States, the Internet was determined to be a much more
helpful tool for accessing science information than any other medium
(National Science Board, 2004).
Uses and gratifications theory (UGT) suggests that media users play an
active role in choosing and using the media that best fulfills their needs.
According to O’Donohoe (1993), “The mass media constitute a resource on
which audiences draw to satisfy various needs. In its conception of an active,
goal-directed audience, it is consistent with emerging views of the advertis-
ing consumer” (p. 52).
This theory puts forward that people actively select and use media for
purposes of gratification. Katz, Gurevitch, and Haas (1973) list 35 basic
human needs based on an extensive analysis of the literature and organize
them into five categories:
1. Cognitive needs: Strengthening information, knowledge, and
understanding
2. Affective needs: Strengthening aesthetic, pleasurable, and emotional
experiences
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5. Gelmez Burakgazi and Yildirim 171
3. Personal integrative needs: Strengthening credibility, confidence, sta-
bility, and status
4. Social integrative needs: Strengthening contact with family, friends,
and the world
5. Tension release needs: Escaping and diversion
As with adults, young children as consumers of media are not passive recipients
of science information. Previous research in this area has paid little attention to
the role of mass media on young students’ science learning and the media’s
characteristics as science information sources, which is the focus of this research
(Gelmez-Burakgazi, 2012). However, current studies underline the effect of
positive childhood science experiences on adult interest in science (Elsley &
McMellon, 2010; Osborne, Collins, & Simon, 2003; Oskala, Keaney, Chan, &
Bunting, 2009). On the other hand, it is remarkable that there exist many studies
relating a decline in attitudes toward science from the age of 11 years onward
(Breakwell & Beardsell, 1992), from Grade 5 through Grade 11 (Baykul, 1990),
from elementary to high school level (Piburn & Baker, 1993); in interest toward
science among school-age students (Gilbert, 2008); and in enthusiasm toward
science even through the ages of 5 to 11 years (Pell & Jarvis, 2001), from Grade
4 to Grade 8 (Bulus-Kirikkaya, 2011). Therefore, this study aims to investigate
students’ perceptions and experiences of using science information sources at
this critical age level (10-12) to enlarge and enrich their learning of science. The
specific research questions included the following:
Research Question 1: How do fourth- and fifth-grade students use mass
media in science learning?
Research Question 2: What characteristics make mass media effective
for fourth- and fifth-grade students in science learning?
Method
Utilizing a qualitative phenomenological approach, this study aims to explore
the meaning of experiences, conceptions, and emotions (Creswell, 2007;
Moustakas, 1994; Yildirim & Simsek, 2008) of students in science learning
through sources not directly related to the academic curricula.
The data were gathered through focus groups with purposefully selected
students in four elementary schools (two public schools, two private schools)
in Ankara, Turkey, in 2011. Patton (2002) states, “The logic and the power of
purposeful sampling lies in selecting information-rich cases indepth” (p. 230).
Besides its strengths like enhancing the credibility of the study “because sub-
jects can reliably inform the research question” (Houser, 2011, p. 424), ease of
access to the targeted population, and being less time-consuming, purposeful
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6. 172 Science Communication 36(2)
sampling had also pitfalls as explained by Koerber and McMichael (2008):
difficulty in generalizing to other subjects and selection bias. In order to mini-
mize the first weakness, the researchers have avoided broader generalizations
of the findings. The second weakness, selection bias, “is not a concern if clear
criteria are used and researcher is aware of his or her biases” (Houser, 2011, p.
424). The criterion used in this study was “having an interest in science,”
because the students with an interest in learning science would have richer
experiences of learning from a variety of information sources and would pro-
vide more detailed and in-depth perspectives into the research questions.
Based on this criterion, researchers collaborated with teachers and school
administrations in selecting information-rich students. Through this process,
the researchers intentionally reached a sample of students that were different
from the larger body of students who may not be as interested in science. This
intentional selection was necessary based on the purpose of the study since the
relationship between media and science literacy may not be observed in all
students (Brossard & Shanahan, 2006), but at the same time, this selection
leads to a serious limitation in generalization of the results to all students.
Twenty-three students from fifth-grade classes (14 girls, 9 boys) and 24
students from the fourth-grade classes (12 girls, 12 boys) were selected for
the focus groups, based on their experience with the phenomenon at hand.
Students’ ages ranged from 10 to 12 as the literature indicated declines in
attitudes and interests toward science at this critical age level (Baykul, 1990;
Breakwell & Beardsell, 1992; Bulus-Kirikkaya, 2011; Gilbert, 2008; Pell &
Jarvis, 2001; Piburn & Baker, 1993).
At the beginning of the focus groups, participants were asked some demo-
graphic information questions (age, science grade at past term, parents’ education
level, age, job; and their TV, Internet, magazine, and newspaper access in home
contexts). All of the participants’ science scores for the past term were 5 on a
scale of 5. Therefore, the participants were high-achieving students. Public
schools represented low- and medium-socioeconomic families, whereas families
inprivateschoolswerefrommedium-andhigh-socioeconomicfamilies.Participants
mainly came from highly educated families. Most of the parents had college (N =
67) and graduate degrees (master’s/PhD; N = 21). Some of the parents had high
school degree (N = 6). All the participants had TV and Internet access at home.
In the semistructured interview format, open-ended questions were
employed to examine students’ use of media in learning science. The interview
schedule was validated by expert review in terms of depth, scope, appropriate-
ness to the participants, and compatibility with the research questions. The inter-
view questions were checked by three individuals: a professor in the area of
curriculum and instruction who is also a well-known researcher using qualita-
tive inquiry, a person with a PhD in science education, and a PhD candidate who
is studying elementary school students. Following the revisions within the
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7. Gelmez Burakgazi and Yildirim 173
context of expert review, the schedule was piloted with one fourth- and one
fifth-grade student. Eight focus groups were run with six students participating
in each, except for the fifth-grade focus group in Private School A conducted
with five students. Focus groups were organized separately for fourth and fifth
graders. Each focus group lasted approximately 130 minutes, with a break
dividing the session into two parts. The interaction in focus groups was recorded
to prevent the potential threat of data loss due to only taking notes.
Multiple data sources (four schools, two grade levels) and investigators
(two researchers) were employed to triangulate the outcomes, as suggested
by Patton (1990). The use of multiple data sources has led the researchers to
gather data from a variety of students, thereby to see a broader picture of the
science learning phenomenon. In addition to this, involvement of two
researchers enhanced the validity of the research (Denzin, 2009) as they con-
trolled and cross-checked data collection and analysis phases together.
For qualitative data analysis, significant statements were selected for a
more thorough explanation, key themes were identified, and an exhaus-
tive description of the phenomenon was presented (Creswell, 1998;
Moustakas, 1994). Accordingly, the analysis process pursued the follow-
ing steps: (a) close reading, (b) coding, (c) thematizing, (d) exploring
patterns, and (e) description and interpretation. Table 1 presents an exam-
ple of coding system.
Table 1. An Example of Index of Coding Systems for Content.
Needs Uses
Features of mass media
sources
Cognitive needs Doing homework/project
requirements
Accessibility
Content quality
Affective needs In science classes Providing Interesting
Information
Credible
Personal integrative
needs
Conducting individual science
related research
Addressing to the level
Providing permanent
knowledge
Social integrative needs Updated
Relevance to life
Content presentation
Comprehensible
Fun/enjoyable
Brief
Audio/visual support
Awakening curiosity
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8. 174 Science Communication 36(2)
Always
Often
Sometimes
Never
Watching science
programs on TV
Reading science topics
on newspaper
Reading science
magazines
Numberofresponses(n=47)
0
10
20
30
Doing science related
activities on internet
Figure 1. Students’ use of media sources for science-related purposes.
In presentation of the findings, thick descriptions were used to enable the
readers to draw their own conclusions (Geertz, 1973; Lincoln Guba, 1985).
Detailed explanations of the participants, procedures, and results were pro-
vided to enrich the transferability and replicability of the study.
Results
The results indicated that students chiefly used Internet, science magazines,
and TV (see Figure 1) as science information sources in doing homework,
conducting individual and group research for science assignments, and in
science classes. Most of the students (N = 27) reported that accessibility was
the most important aspect of their choice of media. In addition to content
quality, the presentation of interesting topics, real-life relevance, age-
appropriateness, the frequency with which it was updated, and the cultivation
of reputations for trustworthiness were other key factors in students’ use of
media sources. In the following section, results are presented under the head-
ings of TV, science magazines, newspapers, and the Internet.
TV
Analysis of the interviews conducted with students revealed that television
content was perceived as effective in the sense of presenting authentic,
updated, and interesting information that was repeatable, as programs could
be recorded and watched again. Myth Busters and Ultimate Survival were the
TV programs mentioned in the context of science-focused programs they
watched.
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9. Gelmez Burakgazi and Yildirim 175
TV was among the sources perceived as accessible. Students saw TV as a
source of authentic news that was relevant to their daily lives. By way of
illustration, S38 (fifth grader, Private School A) commented as follows:
It [science on TV] is permanent because real things happen there [on TV]. To me,
it is interesting and sometimes fun.
Learning science from television was enjoyable for students as content
was disseminated both audibly and visually. Students claimed that when they
watched something on TV they felt like they were within the scene they were
watching. As S21 (fourth grader, Private School B) explained,
For example a lunar eclipse, solar eclipse . . . We already know them but . . . I’ve
never seen a solar eclipse in my life. I watched one in a documentary and I felt like
I’ve seen it. How does that happen? These kinds of programs do really help [to
learn science].
Similarly, comparing TV with her textbook, S15 (fourth grader, Private
School A) commented,
In the textbook there are not many realistic-looking pictures of fossils but long
texts. That’s why textbooks capture my interest less. But the TV is both audio and
visual, and at the same time they [programs] are animated, which is really
interesting.
As summarized in Figure 2, students stated that science on TV was inter-
esting, easy to understand, and fun. What is more, they explained that they
learned different things from science programs than what was being taught in
school, and this supplemental education further piqued their curiosity and
motivated them to dig deeper. Moreover, some students explained that if they
desired to learn more about something they came across on TV, they used the
Internet or science books or asked questions of their teachers and families.
Students described TV is effective as a science learning tool because of its
visuals and its potential to pique curiosity, especially when quality programs
are selected, though students did report difficulty understanding some pro-
grams. Other reported drawbacks of TV as a learning tool included the broad-
casting of programs that distracted the students, of programs too similar in
theme to one another, and of children’s educational programs during the
school day, as well as the complaint that the information was presented too
quickly. One of the fourth-grade students commented that she had difficulty
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10. 176 Science Communication 36(2)
in retaining the information she learned from TV, which could have to do
with the impediments reported above.
The analysis further revealed, however, that 13 students in four focus
groups disapproved of TV as it did not address them at their levels. Some
students did not find it helpful to use the TV for learning science, explaining
that it was uncommon to see scientists on TV and that little science-related
information could be found on TV that students in this research had access to.
Some representative quotes are provided below:
I don’t use TV much for science learning purposes. On TV, in general, I hardly see
scientists but mostly some people speaking. (S5, fourth grader, Public School A)
It is hard for me to find science-related programs on TV. That’s why I don’t use
the TV [to learn science]. (S19, fourth-grader, Private School B)
Figure 2. Effective and ineffective features of TV as a science information source.
Note. “+” symbolizes effective features; “−” symbolizes ineffective features of the mass media
sources. Features on the both sides were placed alphabetically.
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11. Gelmez Burakgazi and Yildirim 177
TV, as a mass media resource, targets people of all ages. Because of this,
students also criticized TV for lacking programs directed at their specific age
and education levels. However, at the same time, TV was praised as an up-to-
date resource with interesting and relevant science-related content.
Science Magazines
Students reported learning about many interesting topics in science maga-
zines and pointed out that these topics were sometimes complementary to
what they were learning in school. As different from the public schools in the
study, magazines emerged to be one of the main science information sources
in private schools. Furthermore, the results revealed that science magazines
contained quality and trustworthy knowledge presented in an age-appropriate
style and that it was easy to retain what was learned. Most of the students
explained that they found the topics covered in science magazines interesting
and that they enjoyed reading them while also learning something new. Two
students articulated the relationship between this feeling and retention of
information:
They [science magazines] are fun and you learn various things. They talk to you at
your level and you can understand better. So this makes the information permanent
in your mind. (S5, fourth grader, Public School A)
I think they [science magazines] are really fun because they are for us. They
address us, as S42 said. Like the name: “Science and Child” . . . They’re
understandable; we’re having fun, and so it becomes permanent in our minds. It
also makes us more curious about science, and there are many experiments I’d like
to try too. (S45, fifth grader, Private School B)
Unlike with TV, there were not many drawbacks identified regarding the
content of science magazines. As an outlier comment, one of the fourth-grade
students from Private School B complained that science magazines focused
more on animals than on humans in their coverage.
In relation to the presentation of content in science magazines, students
claimed that learning science from magazines provoked their curiosity. They
appreciated colorful pictures, compelling visuals printed in high quality, and
brief explanatory text in science magazines, as demonstrated in Figure 3.
The analysis of the data also revealed that students followed up on the
things they found interesting in science magazines with further research. Five
students said they searched through archived magazines with their supple-
ments, and some of them cut out pictures and hung them up in their rooms or
glued them to their personal notebooks. They also shared the information
they found interesting with their classmates and teachers.
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12. 178 Science Communication 36(2)
The analysis further indicated that some science magazines were more
useful to students than others. The magazine Science and Child created a
lively experience for students, with many colorful visuals, games, and comics
in it. Moreover, the material published was in line with school curricula but
Figure 3. Effective and ineffective features of science magazines as science
information source.
Note. “+” symbolizes effective features; “−” symbolizes ineffective features of the mass media
sources. Features on the both sides were placed alphabetically.
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13. Gelmez Burakgazi and Yildirim 179
offered different perspectives to students. Integrating what her friends said
about science magazines, S35 (fifth grader, Public School B) concluded,
I think the best example of all these features in it is Science and Child. Because
with this magazine, we do fun things, learn different things and wonder about
them. We feel like we want to buy it again and learn about science more and more.
According to the interviewees, the effective content presentation features
(e.g., comprehensibility, fun/enjoyment, succinctness, visual support, thought
provocation) are not accompanied by many drawbacks. However, three fifth
graders from Private School B notably criticized National Geographic Kids
for its small typeface, which made it difficult for them to read and understand
the contents.
Newspapers
Content was cited by students as a reason for using newspapers as a resource
for science-related information. They agreed that science information in
newspapers was up-to-date, trustworthy, and interesting. They added that
what they learned in newspapers was different from what they were learning
through school science curriculum. Information in newspapers was actually
considered more trustworthy and frequently updated than information from
some other sources by the students. By way of illustration, S45 (fifth grader,
Private School B) noted the following:
The newspaper updates itself every day. I learn recent science-related news from
the newspapers. It’s also more reliable than the Internet. That’s why I like
newspapers better.
Between science magazines and newspapers, the students preferred sci-
ence magazines since they were directed at their age-group. Analysis of the
data revealed that students had not yet developed newspaper reading habits.
However, students confirmed that some parents shared interesting informa-
tion they came across in the newspapers with them.
Students claimed that since newspapers targeted a broad readership, it was
sometimes difficult for them to understand the science content in them. Apart
from not addressing the level of the students, newspapers were also reported
not to include sufficient science coverage, focusing instead on “adult” issues.
As the following student put it,
There isn’t much science-related news in the newspaper anymore. Instead of
science issues, the news is about murder, voting, and detectives, so I don’t read it.
(S23, fourth grader, Private School B)
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14. 180 Science Communication 36(2)
S16 (fourth grader, Private School A) made the interesting comment that
topics covered in newspapers were also available on TV, and accordingly,
she preferred watching TV. Furthermore, some of the students described
newspapers as old-fashioned, one step behind the Internet and TV, which
might even update their information continuously.
Overall, as also exemplified in Figure 4, both fourth- and fifth-grade stu-
dents complained about problematic content presentation in newspapers. The
biggest criticism was of a lack of visual support. This was combined with the
observation that the information in newspapers was not directed at their age-
group and thus not readily comprehensible for the students. For reasons along
these lines, students explained that they did not prefer to read newspapers in
order to learn science.
Internet
In comparison to other media sources examined, the majority of the students
in this study stated that they were more likely to use the Internet. Students in
Figure 4. Effective and ineffective features of newspapers as science information
source.
Note. “+” symbolizes effective features; “−” symbolizes ineffective features of the mass media
sources. Features on the both sides were placed alphabetically.
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15. Gelmez Burakgazi and Yildirim 181
this study explained that they mainly used Internet sites like Google and
Wikipedia for science-related research purposes. In one of the public schools,
students stated that they used a Facebook group that their class teacher had
opened for sharing science-related information. However, in public schools,
the Internet was chiefly in use for presentation purposes, for example, access-
ing sites of My Slide Place (slaytyerim.com) and Watch Slides (slaytizle
.com) with reference to science courses. Pupils in private schools in particu-
lar reported using the Internet as a primary source in school contexts. Students
used the Internet to access science information as it generally provided
detailed and interesting science information. As observed by two students,
The Internet has the most detailed information. It’s the only way for me to access
the information I need. (S25, fifth grader, Public School A)
I think science information on the Internet is understandable because we can
access every single detail, and I find it very meaningful to learn something from
different angles. (S4, fourth grader, Public School A)
Comparing the Internet with TV, S43 further explained that she preferred
to use the Internet rather than TV because she found it easier to retain infor-
mation she learned:
I prefer using the Internet [for science-related research] to TV. Because TV speaks
directly but you search [for information] on the Internet and I think this [type of
learning] is more long-lasting.
Furthermore, science-related information on the Internet aroused students’
curiosity about science and directed them to pursue more information inde-
pendently, as articulated by one student:
It [the Internet] grabs my interest and raises my curiosity. When I learn something,
I want to know more and so I surf the Internet [for more information] and read
more. (S17, fourth grader, Private School A)
Along with its effective features, Internet content was also criticized over
its credibility and for the level of science-related information it presents. To
begin with, students who participated in this study mentioned that they did
not trust all the information on the Internet and that they often needed to
double check its content. Alternatively, in coping with problems such as
validity and authenticity, S21 (fourth grader, Private School B) explained
that he stuck with the websites suggested to him by his family, teachers, and
friends. Students also explained that they had difficulty deciding which
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16. 182 Science Communication 36(2)
information they should use, which caused them to sometimes feel the
Internet was a waste of time. The comments by several students are as
follows:
I usually don’t believe what I find. For example, I remember one text that seemed
pointless to me. I checked it on other sites as well, and when I compared them they
handled the subject in the same way. If things are similar on various sites, then I
think it’s true and I use it in my homework. (S24, fourth grader, Private School B)
It sometimes takes too much time to find reliable information that speaks to our
age-group. So, I think researching from the Internet is just a waste of Time. (S46,
fifth grader, Private School B)
Despite its advantages, the Internet was often criticized for its occasional
poor quality, for being unnecessarily long, and for its overly advanced infor-
mation about science. Students mainly complained that the content of web-
sites was sometimes complex, with vague wording, in addition to being
difficult to judge its credibility. The public school students also noted that the
dominance of English sometimes made it difficult to comprehend the details
of the information presented:
Some of the information I have accessed through the Internet is in English and
difficult to understand with the unfamiliar words. . . . It’s not fun anymore. Reading
is fine but when I can’t read and understand these words, it [accessing science
information on the Internet] starts to get boring. (S25, fifth grader, Public School A)
The information on the Internet is hard to understand because it’s for such a wide
variety of people [making it difficult to locate age-appropriate material]. (S32,
fifth grader, Public School B)
According to the students, their access to Internet content was also limited
by its presentation in small fonts, as articulated by S26 (fifth grader, Public
School A):
When you Google something, there is lots of tiny information that I can’t read. I
think this is wrong. OK, it provides a huge amount of information, but who reads
all these long texts? Maybe some people do it, but I do not.
Likewise, S14 (fourth grader, Private School A) concurred: “Who wants
to read thousands of lines without pictures?”
Briefly, as summarized in Figure 5, content presentation on the Internet is
considered enjoyable, which awakens students’ curiosity. However, the pre-
sentation style was often an obstacle, with its inclusion of long texts with
complex words and foreign terms.
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Discussion
Students access science information by multiple means. The details of their
motivations and methods require in-depth analysis. This analysis involves
detailing effective or ineffective features of mass media sources based on
student reporting and describing how these features are utilized for science
learning. Students in this study draw on mass media resources both within
and outside the school setting for various science learning purposes. In this
study, students’ use of TV, Internet, newspapers, and science magazines has
been examined. The results indicate that the Internet was at the forefront of
the media resources examined, which was consistent with the findings of
Butt, Clery, Abeywardana, and Phillips (2010) and Bubela et al. (2009).
First of all, students’ media use differed according to school type, that is,
public and private school student habits differed within the classroom.
Internet and science magazines were the primary science learning resources
in private school classrooms. Next, in contexts outside of school, the Internet
Figure 5. Effective and ineffective features of the Internet as a science information
source.
Note. “+” symbolizes effective features; “−” symbolizes ineffective features of the mass media
sources. Features on the both sides were placed alphabetically.
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18. 184 Science Communication 36(2)
was a commonly used mass media resource by the fourth and fifth graders.
Private school students added that they also used TV and science magazines
for science learning outside the school. One possible explanation for such a
difference could be socioeconomic levels of students who attend private
school (Wimer, 2007). This could be as simple as a correlation between fami-
lies that can afford to enroll their children in private schools and those who
can afford to subscribe to premium television channels and magazines where
engaging and age-appropriate science content can be found. In the United
Kingdom, the Royal Society (2008) report also makes reference to the issue:
“There is strong evidence of a link between SES and attainment in science
among 5–11 year olds” (p. 4).
According to UGT, people use media to satisfy their specific needs (Katz
et al., 1973). One of the foundations of UGT is the active audience (Blumler
Katz, 1974). Accordingly, audience needs dictate their consumption deci-
sions. The students in this study also actively engaged with various media
resources in order to meet their social and psychological needs. Of the five
UGT categories cited by Katz et al. (1973), the results of this study demon-
strated that the students used mass media for cognitive, affective, personal
integrative, and social integrative needs.
To begin with, students employed the Internet and sometimes science
magazines to meet homework and project requirements. In addition to this
use, students draw on the Internet during the science classes. Uses of these
forms of media may have stemmed from the students’ cognitive needs, which
are explained by Katz et al. (1973) as “needs related to strengthening infor-
mation, knowledge, and understanding” (p. 166).
The use of mass media also related to students’ pursuit of science-related
knowledge on their own. Here, it is important to note that students did not
conduct individual science-related research unless required by their teachers
to do so. Nevertheless, they explained that within the context of school-
related homework and projects, they sometimes went further doing additional
research and reading. When they did this they mostly preferred the Internet
and science magazines, as these were both accessible and rich with informa-
tion. They also shared science information they found interesting in these
sources in class. This mode of media use thus incorporates aspects of their
cognitive, personal, and social integrative needs, as also explained by Katz
et al. (1973). That is, by conducting individual research, students not only
acquired information, knowledge, and understanding (cognitive needs) but
also boosted their emotional experience (affective needs) and made contact
with their friends and teachers (social integrative needs) in the process of
sharing.
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TV, Internet, newspapers, and magazines were the media resources stu-
dents liked to use and share with their teachers and classmates. These
resources were selected primarily for their accessibility, which corroborates
the contention of Senemoglu (2001), who suggested that educational material
should be both accessible and usable. The finding of students’ desire to share
what they learned with others and “the need to participate in discussions with
friends” might be further explained by students’ personal (gaining prestige
and high standing) and social (contact with people) integrative needs, as sug-
gested by Katz et al. (1973, p. 172).
Apart from this, the results also revealed that key motivation for students’
use of mass media revolved around accessibility, content, and presentation.
Accordingly, resources that combined accessibility (TV, Internet) with
appeal (TV, Internet, science magazines), credibility (newspapers), content
appropriateness (science magazines), and frequency of update (TV, Internet,
newspapers) were preferable. Resources that presented their content in mem-
orable (TV, science magazines) and permanent (science magazines) ways
were also considered to be effective.
With regard to content presentation, comprehensibility (science maga-
zines), enjoyment (science magazines, Internet), clarity (TV, science maga-
zines), inclusion of visual aids (TV, science magazines), and ability to arouse
curiosity (TV, Internet, science magazines) were important factors that influ-
enced students’ selection of mass media resources.
Media sources were by and large regarded as current and directed at “a
wide array of people” by the students. Among them, the Internet was the most
highly regarded resource among others because of its convenience and acces-
sibility. This result corroborated the findings of a great deal of previous work
in this field (Butler, 1995; Clark, 2000; Falk Dierking, 2010; Horrigan,
2006; National Foundation for Educational Research, 2011). Clark (2000)
further emphasized the influence of the Internet as a science information
source: “This new resource provides rich opportunities to support the devel-
opment of scientific argumentation skills, going well beyond those available
in typical instruction” (p. 859). Students explained that they mainly used
Google, Wikipedia, and Facebook. However, in public schools, the Internet
was chiefly in use for presentation purposes, for example, accessing sites like
slaytyerim.com (My Slide Place) and slaytizle.com (Watch Slides) with ref-
erence to science courses. This finding is consistent with Hakverdi-Can and
Dana’s (2012) study that found teachers unaware that the Internet was being
used as a tool by which users could take virtual trips to museums, zoos, and
science centers; access online databases; or participate in Internet-oriented
workshops, as opposed to using it merely for the purpose of preparing
presentations.
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20. 186 Science Communication 36(2)
The credibility of the Internet as a resource was an important issue high-
lighted by the students. This result confirms the findings of Metzger (2007),
who emphasized that accessing accurate information matters for users.
Among the media resources analyzed here, the credibility of the Internet for
providing accurate science-related information was most questioned by the
students. Newspapers, in contrast, were thought to provide the most credible
information among the students. However, the results indicated that newspa-
pers were at the background of the media sources examined. Although stu-
dents chiefly complained about newspapers’ voice mostly addressing adults,
they also highlighted that providing limited science news and few visuals and
inclusion of long texts were other weaknesses as science information sources.
One possible explanation for this could be limited reading habit among
school-age children, which was in agreement with the findings of the
EARGED (Department of Research and Development of Education) Report
(2007).
Hass (1981, as cited in Clark, 2000) stated, “Source credibility is associ-
ated with high levels of education, intelligence, professional attainment, and
familiarity with the issue” (p. 860). In contrast to Horrigan’s (2006) study, in
which the participants considered the Internet a credible source for checking
science information, participants from this study criticized the Internet on the
basis of reliability and authenticity over any other factor, in comparison with
the other media resources in question. In order to cope with this issue, stu-
dents tried to check the accuracy of their online findings with additional web-
sites or other sources of information, like their families, teachers, and science
books. This result was in agreement with Horrigan’s (2006) study, which
indicated that “80% of those who have gotten science news and information
online have engaged in at least one of these ‘fast-checking’ activities” (p. 2).
The visuals in media were also influential on students’ perceptions of
these sources as effective or ineffective. According to Birkok (2008), the
decreasing reading comprehension among students makes visual representa-
tion more important. This is one of the reasons why TV was attractive to the
students as an information source. This result confirms the idea of “television
is easy, print is tough” (Salomon, 1984); therefore, TV was perceived as a
memorable science information source by some students. This was in con-
trast to the study by Gregory and Miller (2000), who discussed the difficulty
in retaining TV-based science information. Students in this study reported
that they had the sense of “being there” while they were watching TV. This
kind of involvement, engagement, or learning (Brown Cairns, 2004; Dede,
2005; Falconer, 2013; Hummel, Freeland, Craft, McKellips, 2011) might
be explained by the assumptions of the immersion theory. As engagement
and involvement are obviously important in education (Bransford, Brown,
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21. Gelmez Burakgazi and Yildirim 187
Cocking, 1999), TV emerges to be a valuable medium in students’ science
learning.
The fun and enjoyment the content caused made the media more valuable
for the students. TV, Internet, and science magazines were the resources most
closely associated with entertainment value. This aspect becomes important
since “the general public is uninterested in science and technology as not
being fun” (Gilbert, 2007, p. 123). As Alexander (2000) emphasizes, “learn-
ing lies between play and academics” (p. 1), underscoring the relevance of
fun in the learning and teaching of science by young people. This is also
consistent with findings reported by National Foundation for Educational
Research (2011):
Promoting science as interesting and fun by capitalising on, and demonstrating,
the potential for science to be interesting, fun and engaging so as to avoid potential
negative perceptions of it as boring or difficult. (p. 8)
One of the interesting results of this study was the degree of sophistication
the students at the age of 10 or 11 displayed in their comments on the various
science information sources. They were well aware of the potential as well as
their advantages and disadvantages as science information sources. Of
course, this result could partially be due to the purposeful selection of the
students who were interested in science. However, even for “the interested
students,” this level of awareness of the quality of sources and critical assess-
ment of their various characteristics was admirable. As Jerome Bruner (1991)
said, children are little scientists, and when they are in the right environment
they can learn and discover the external world themselves. So the students
who participated in this study could be examples of these explorers of sources
to learn science.
Implications for Practice
In this qualitative study, the researchers’ aim was not to generalize to the
results to all fourth and fifth graders. The sampling was purposeful, targeting
volunteer students who were interested in science. However, by selecting dif-
ferent types of schools for the study, we hoped to increase the variety of
perspectives from different school contexts.
Within this context, the findings indicated that the students in our sample
had the impression that TV programs in Turkey mostly addressed adults and
that science programs for children were broadcast at times that conflicted
with students’ school schedules. Thus, students could not effectively use TV
to access science information, which in turn decreased its effectiveness as a
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22. 188 Science Communication 36(2)
resource for learning. In addition, commercials and advertisements were
found to be distracting elements. At this point, suggestions might be in order
for TV producers, teachers, and parents. If it is possible, TV producers could
broadcast children’s science programs in the evenings and at the weekends,
and with limited commercial interruption or other distracting elements. In
addition, what is suggested for teachers is to encourage students to conduct
science research by watching science programs on TV and to inform students
about which channels and programs to watch in advance. In parallel with this,
parents should monitor their children’s TV-watching habits closely and guide
their TV choices.
Next, newspapers were criticized by participants in the study for address-
ing adults, for containing insufficient science content, and for presenting
information in the form of long texts with limited visuals. Furthermore,
newspapers were not considered an accessible resource. This resulted in low
motivation among students to use newspapers as a resource for science-
related information. These findings suggest that newspapers in Turkey should
communicate science to children through various channels like including a
“science page,” publishing a visual or colorful “children’s science page” in
addition to their usual content, or publishing a “children’s newspaper” sup-
plement once a week or more. Here, the idea of including stories of pages
dedicated to science stories in a newspaper does not necessitate a change in
reader expectations to the conventional “politics in the front, sports in the
back” composition, as discussed by Gregory and Miller (2000). One way or
another, though, it would be meaningful to make use of the medium in a way
that would improve its standing as a resource for science information.
Another approach might be for newspapers to be distributed daily to public
school libraries in order to give students from lower socioeconomic back-
grounds to more of an opportunity to access science-related information
through newspapers. At this point, teachers and parents should encourage
students to recognize newspapers as a science learning resource and to help
them develop habits to access information through this medium.
The results also indicated that science magazines were effective in students’
science learning in many ways: by being comprehensible, fun/enjoyable, and
brief; by providing visual support; by awakening curiosity; by instilling perma-
nent science information; and by increasing curiosity and science love.
However, science magazines were not accessible to each and every student.
The data suggest that it would be helpful to students if science magazines are
ordered to school libraries periodically so as to enhance the accessibility.
Again, here, teachers and parents should support students to take science maga-
zines as a science information source and to use it in accessing science
information.
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23. Gelmez Burakgazi and Yildirim 189
Last but not least, students in this study expressed a preference for using
the Internet for purposes like homework and projects and for individual
science-related research, as discussed in the Results section. However,
Internet content is also being criticized for problems of credibility, as well as
for distracting and inappropriate elements associated with it. These findings
suggest that teachers and families should carefully monitor and guide stu-
dents’ Internet usage, especially regarding which sites to visit, what informa-
tion to trust, and how much information to pursue.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publi-
cation of this article.
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Author Biographies
Sevinc Gelmez Burakgazi completed her PhD as a research assistant at the
Department of Educational Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Ankara,
Turkey, in the name of Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey. Her current research
focuses on science education, science communication, qualitative studies, and cur-
riculum development and evaluation.
Ali Yildirim is currently a professor at the Department of Educational Sciences,
Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey. His research interests include
teaching and learning processes, teacher education, curriculum development and
evaluation, thinking skills, social studies, and human resources education.
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