This study investigated how 4th and 5th grade students use mass media for science learning. Through focus groups with 47 students, the researchers found that students actively choose media like the internet, science magazines, and TV to meet their cognitive, affective, personal, and social needs related to science. Key factors influencing students' choice of media were accessibility, content quality, presentation of interesting topics, and credibility of the source.
This poster provides an overview of my DPhil thesis.
Francis, R.J. (2007) The Predicament of the Learner in the New Media Age: an investigation into the implications of media change for learning. Available online from Oxford Research Archive (June 2008) <http: />
This poster provides an overview of my DPhil thesis.
Francis, R.J. (2007) The Predicament of the Learner in the New Media Age: an investigation into the implications of media change for learning. Available online from Oxford Research Archive (June 2008) <http: />
Media exposure and education of first to six grade children from slovenia p...Lazar Stosic
The family environment plays an important role in influencing the way that children use the media and the degree of their exposure to media, however the mediating role of parents in this process is not sufficiently understood. The present paper presents the results of a 2016 Slovenian national survey in which opinions of 2,825 parents concerning their children’s exposure to media were collected and analysed using the SPSS PSAW Statistic 18 software package. Our results show that exposure to media by children from the first to the sixth grade increases with age, that children of parents who are themselves heavy media users are more likely to be heavy users and that children who are heavy media users also receive lower test scores.
Culture, Gender and Technology Enhanced Learning (Richter & Zelenkauskaite, I...Richter Thomas
PrePrint of: Richter, T. & Zelenkauskaite, A. (2014). Culture, Gender and Technology Enhanced Learning: Female and Male Students' Perceptions across three Countries. In: Nunes, M.B. & McPherson, M. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th IADIS International Conference e-Learning 2014, part of the Multiconference on Computer Science and Information Systems (MCCIS), IADIS Press, Lisbon, Portugal, pp. 3-12.
Students’ attitudes towards science have long occupied the interest of the scientific community. The confirmed decline of students’ interest in pursuing the study of science, alongside the increasing recognition of scientific knowledge’s importance and economic utility, makes the issue even more imperative for any society attempting to raise its standards of scientific literacy. Attitudes towards science have been found to depend on variables like instructional teaching and curriculum. The latest research indicates that childhood experiences serve as a major influence on academic interest. The broad recommendation is to concentrate on improving 10 to 14-year-olds’ experience of science. Despite the recent flurry of media interest and the latest research in the scientific community, the school curriculum in most countries is still teaching obsolete science with scarce reference to current, cutting-edge scientific research. There is an urgent need to introduce the concepts of 20th-century Physics within the curriculum and exciting science programs that will enhance the interactive learning experience among students, as is shown by evaluating reports of OECD and PISA results. While this has led to several changes in the curriculum of secondary schooling in some countries, it is still an imperative case for others and definitely for Greece. There are some individual or institutional projects around the globe that introduce modern science and technology to upper primary students, yet of no nationwide effect. This paper aims to review the latest research on students’ attitudes towards science and to present the possible next research steps in amplifying students’ interest and engagement in science.
Science Communication: A Panacea for Addressing Gender-Gap in Nigeria’s STEM ...ijejournal
There is a major concern about the prevalence of the gender gap in Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) education in some developing countries. Thus, this study examined the existing communication interventions for disseminating information about STEM to women and girls in two universities in Nigeria. It leveraged Roger’s 1962 diffusion of innovations theory. The qualitative method was used, where fifty-six respondents from departments of computer science, engineering and mathematics, were examined to determine their extent of exposure to STEM-related information and their communication preferences for STEM-related messages. Results suggest that the majority of the respondents receive stem information through the mass media of which newspapers and magazinesranked highest. Accordingly, the majority of them would prefer personalized face-to-face communication and social media. The study recommended that change agents should be involved in the door–to–door campaign on STEM education.
SCIENCE COMMUNICATION: A PANACEA FOR ADDRESSING GENDER-GAP IN NIGERIA’S STEM ...ijejournal
There is a major concern about the prevalence of the gender gap in Science, Technology, Engineering and
Math (STEM) education in some developing countries. Thus, this study examined the existing
communication interventions for disseminating information about STEM to women and girls in two
universities in Nigeria. It leveraged Roger’s 1962 diffusion of innovations theory. The qualitative method
was used, where fifty-six respondents from departments of computer science, engineering and mathematics,
were examined to determine their extent of exposure to STEM-related information and their
communication preferences for STEM-related messages. Results suggest that the majority of the
respondents receive stem information through the mass media of which newspapers and magazinesranked
highest. Accordingly, the majority of them would prefer personalized face-to-face communication and
social media. The study recommended that change agents should be involved in the door–to–door
campaign on STEM education.
Media user types among young children and social displacementPetter Bae Brandtzæg
Reference: Endestad, T., Heim, J. Kaare, B., Torgersen, L., & Brandtzæg, P.B. (2011). Media user types among young children and social displacement. Nordicom Review, 32,(1), 17-30
What is mass media research? Describe the development of mass media research....Md. Sajjat Hossain
Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. The main purpose of research is to inform action, to prove a theory, and contribute to developing knowledge in a field or study according to the scientific method. Research can be about anything but the important thing for all researchers to understand is the correct methods to follow and to ensure the best results. ( ★★For making this content author used various online resources, it is share here only for those who want to know something about it. This content is not the author's primary/ own creating property. )
Student Engagement: A Comparative Analysis Of Traditional And Nontradional St...inventionjournals
This study purpose was to offer a perspective on Student Engagement: A Comparative Analysis of Nontraditional and Traditional Students Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities. This study was designed utilizing secondary data from the National Survey of Student Engagement for the 2014 academic year. In comparing traditional and non-traditional undergraduate students, both descriptive and t-test analyses were utilized to explain the differences between nontraditional and traditional students’ levels of engagement while attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities
Computers in Human Behavior 45 (2015) 151–157Contents lists .docxdonnajames55
Computers in Human Behavior 45 (2015) 151–157
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Computers in Human Behavior
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / c o m p h u m b e h
#Gettinghealthy: The perceived influence of social media on young
adult health behaviors
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.12.013
0747-5632/� 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 (406) 994 3229.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J.M. Vaterlaus), [email protected]
ksu.edu (E.V. Patten), [email protected] (C. Roche), [email protected]
(J.A. Young).
1 Tel.: +1 (208) 861 0727.
2 Tel.: +1 (308) 865 8477.
J. Mitchell Vaterlaus a,⇑, Emily V. Patten b,1, Cesia Roche c, Jimmy A. Young d,2
a College of Education, Health and Human Development, Department of Health and Human Development, Montana State University, P.O. Box 173540, Bozeman, MT
59717-3540, United States
b College of Human Ecology, Department of Hospitality Management and Dietetics, Kansas State University, 110 Justin Hall, Manhattan, KS 66506-1404, United States
c College of Business and Technology, Department of Family Studies and Interior Design, University of Nebraska Kearney, Otto Olsen 205E, Kearney, NE 68849, United States
d College of Natural and Social Sciences, Department of Social Work, University of Nebraska Kearney, 2022 Founders Hall, Kearney, NE 68849, United States
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Available online 23 December 2014
Keywords:
Social media
Young adulthood
Diet
Exercise
Health
Social ecological theory
a b s t r a c t
Young adults (18–25 years old) spend a majority of their waking hours with technology and young adult-
hood is an important developmental time period for establishing lasting health behaviors. Considering
the relevance of technology and health during young adulthood the current study explored young adults
(N = 34) perceptions of social media’s (e.g., social networking) influence on their health behaviors (i.e.,
diet and exercise) using a social ecological framework. Data was collected through eight focus groups
and four individual interviews. Three themes were identified through phenomenological qualitative
analysis. Young adults perceived that technology could be both a barrier and a motivator for exercise.
Social media was also credited with expanding food choices through creating access to a variety of
recipes, providing a venue for showcasing the food young adults eat or prepare, and distracting young
adults from making positive food choices. Participants also reported that it is common to post statuses
or pictures relating to exercise practices on social media during young adulthood. Young adults indicated
that these posts could be inspirational or misused, depending on the context. Results are discussed in
terms of theory and preliminary implications.
� 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Young adults (18–25 years old) spend more time with media
and techn.
Media exposure and education of first to six grade children from slovenia p...Lazar Stosic
The family environment plays an important role in influencing the way that children use the media and the degree of their exposure to media, however the mediating role of parents in this process is not sufficiently understood. The present paper presents the results of a 2016 Slovenian national survey in which opinions of 2,825 parents concerning their children’s exposure to media were collected and analysed using the SPSS PSAW Statistic 18 software package. Our results show that exposure to media by children from the first to the sixth grade increases with age, that children of parents who are themselves heavy media users are more likely to be heavy users and that children who are heavy media users also receive lower test scores.
Culture, Gender and Technology Enhanced Learning (Richter & Zelenkauskaite, I...Richter Thomas
PrePrint of: Richter, T. & Zelenkauskaite, A. (2014). Culture, Gender and Technology Enhanced Learning: Female and Male Students' Perceptions across three Countries. In: Nunes, M.B. & McPherson, M. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th IADIS International Conference e-Learning 2014, part of the Multiconference on Computer Science and Information Systems (MCCIS), IADIS Press, Lisbon, Portugal, pp. 3-12.
Students’ attitudes towards science have long occupied the interest of the scientific community. The confirmed decline of students’ interest in pursuing the study of science, alongside the increasing recognition of scientific knowledge’s importance and economic utility, makes the issue even more imperative for any society attempting to raise its standards of scientific literacy. Attitudes towards science have been found to depend on variables like instructional teaching and curriculum. The latest research indicates that childhood experiences serve as a major influence on academic interest. The broad recommendation is to concentrate on improving 10 to 14-year-olds’ experience of science. Despite the recent flurry of media interest and the latest research in the scientific community, the school curriculum in most countries is still teaching obsolete science with scarce reference to current, cutting-edge scientific research. There is an urgent need to introduce the concepts of 20th-century Physics within the curriculum and exciting science programs that will enhance the interactive learning experience among students, as is shown by evaluating reports of OECD and PISA results. While this has led to several changes in the curriculum of secondary schooling in some countries, it is still an imperative case for others and definitely for Greece. There are some individual or institutional projects around the globe that introduce modern science and technology to upper primary students, yet of no nationwide effect. This paper aims to review the latest research on students’ attitudes towards science and to present the possible next research steps in amplifying students’ interest and engagement in science.
Science Communication: A Panacea for Addressing Gender-Gap in Nigeria’s STEM ...ijejournal
There is a major concern about the prevalence of the gender gap in Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) education in some developing countries. Thus, this study examined the existing communication interventions for disseminating information about STEM to women and girls in two universities in Nigeria. It leveraged Roger’s 1962 diffusion of innovations theory. The qualitative method was used, where fifty-six respondents from departments of computer science, engineering and mathematics, were examined to determine their extent of exposure to STEM-related information and their communication preferences for STEM-related messages. Results suggest that the majority of the respondents receive stem information through the mass media of which newspapers and magazinesranked highest. Accordingly, the majority of them would prefer personalized face-to-face communication and social media. The study recommended that change agents should be involved in the door–to–door campaign on STEM education.
SCIENCE COMMUNICATION: A PANACEA FOR ADDRESSING GENDER-GAP IN NIGERIA’S STEM ...ijejournal
There is a major concern about the prevalence of the gender gap in Science, Technology, Engineering and
Math (STEM) education in some developing countries. Thus, this study examined the existing
communication interventions for disseminating information about STEM to women and girls in two
universities in Nigeria. It leveraged Roger’s 1962 diffusion of innovations theory. The qualitative method
was used, where fifty-six respondents from departments of computer science, engineering and mathematics,
were examined to determine their extent of exposure to STEM-related information and their
communication preferences for STEM-related messages. Results suggest that the majority of the
respondents receive stem information through the mass media of which newspapers and magazinesranked
highest. Accordingly, the majority of them would prefer personalized face-to-face communication and
social media. The study recommended that change agents should be involved in the door–to–door
campaign on STEM education.
Media user types among young children and social displacementPetter Bae Brandtzæg
Reference: Endestad, T., Heim, J. Kaare, B., Torgersen, L., & Brandtzæg, P.B. (2011). Media user types among young children and social displacement. Nordicom Review, 32,(1), 17-30
What is mass media research? Describe the development of mass media research....Md. Sajjat Hossain
Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. The main purpose of research is to inform action, to prove a theory, and contribute to developing knowledge in a field or study according to the scientific method. Research can be about anything but the important thing for all researchers to understand is the correct methods to follow and to ensure the best results. ( ★★For making this content author used various online resources, it is share here only for those who want to know something about it. This content is not the author's primary/ own creating property. )
Student Engagement: A Comparative Analysis Of Traditional And Nontradional St...inventionjournals
This study purpose was to offer a perspective on Student Engagement: A Comparative Analysis of Nontraditional and Traditional Students Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities. This study was designed utilizing secondary data from the National Survey of Student Engagement for the 2014 academic year. In comparing traditional and non-traditional undergraduate students, both descriptive and t-test analyses were utilized to explain the differences between nontraditional and traditional students’ levels of engagement while attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities
Computers in Human Behavior 45 (2015) 151–157Contents lists .docxdonnajames55
Computers in Human Behavior 45 (2015) 151–157
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Computers in Human Behavior
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / c o m p h u m b e h
#Gettinghealthy: The perceived influence of social media on young
adult health behaviors
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.12.013
0747-5632/� 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 (406) 994 3229.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J.M. Vaterlaus), [email protected]
ksu.edu (E.V. Patten), [email protected] (C. Roche), [email protected]
(J.A. Young).
1 Tel.: +1 (208) 861 0727.
2 Tel.: +1 (308) 865 8477.
J. Mitchell Vaterlaus a,⇑, Emily V. Patten b,1, Cesia Roche c, Jimmy A. Young d,2
a College of Education, Health and Human Development, Department of Health and Human Development, Montana State University, P.O. Box 173540, Bozeman, MT
59717-3540, United States
b College of Human Ecology, Department of Hospitality Management and Dietetics, Kansas State University, 110 Justin Hall, Manhattan, KS 66506-1404, United States
c College of Business and Technology, Department of Family Studies and Interior Design, University of Nebraska Kearney, Otto Olsen 205E, Kearney, NE 68849, United States
d College of Natural and Social Sciences, Department of Social Work, University of Nebraska Kearney, 2022 Founders Hall, Kearney, NE 68849, United States
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Available online 23 December 2014
Keywords:
Social media
Young adulthood
Diet
Exercise
Health
Social ecological theory
a b s t r a c t
Young adults (18–25 years old) spend a majority of their waking hours with technology and young adult-
hood is an important developmental time period for establishing lasting health behaviors. Considering
the relevance of technology and health during young adulthood the current study explored young adults
(N = 34) perceptions of social media’s (e.g., social networking) influence on their health behaviors (i.e.,
diet and exercise) using a social ecological framework. Data was collected through eight focus groups
and four individual interviews. Three themes were identified through phenomenological qualitative
analysis. Young adults perceived that technology could be both a barrier and a motivator for exercise.
Social media was also credited with expanding food choices through creating access to a variety of
recipes, providing a venue for showcasing the food young adults eat or prepare, and distracting young
adults from making positive food choices. Participants also reported that it is common to post statuses
or pictures relating to exercise practices on social media during young adulthood. Young adults indicated
that these posts could be inspirational or misused, depending on the context. Results are discussed in
terms of theory and preliminary implications.
� 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Young adults (18–25 years old) spend more time with media
and techn.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Delivering Micro-Credentials in Technical and Vocational Education and TrainingAG2 Design
Explore how micro-credentials are transforming Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) with this comprehensive slide deck. Discover what micro-credentials are, their importance in TVET, the advantages they offer, and the insights from industry experts. Additionally, learn about the top software applications available for creating and managing micro-credentials. This presentation also includes valuable resources and a discussion on the future of these specialised certifications.
For more detailed information on delivering micro-credentials in TVET, visit this https://tvettrainer.com/delivering-micro-credentials-in-tvet/
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
MATATAG CURRICULUM: ASSESSING THE READINESS OF ELEM. PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS I...NelTorrente
In this research, it concludes that while the readiness of teachers in Caloocan City to implement the MATATAG Curriculum is generally positive, targeted efforts in professional development, resource distribution, support networks, and comprehensive preparation can address the existing gaps and ensure successful curriculum implementation.
2. 2 Science Communication XX(X)
Introduction
Science information is disseminated through a wide range of channels. From
childhood to adult life, we learn science both in school and beyond. A huge
amount of science-related knowledge is acquired outside of traditional learn-
ing environments (Falk & Dierking, 2010). The mass media are the most
readily available and sometimes the only source of information in this case
(Nelkin, 1995). Sources that are mainly used in informal learning environ-
ments such as newspapers, TV, magazines, Internet, and science centers are
no replacement for a formal science education, but this does not mean they do
not have any value (Bell, Lewenstein, Shouse, & Feder, 2009; Friedman &
Mappen, 2011). In fact, as Gilbert (2007) notes, education systems are slow
to keep up with progress in the field of science. Apropos of this, Gordon,
Brigdlall, and Meroe (2004) claim that schools cannot manage the task of
disseminating science learning alone and accordingly might benefit from col-
laboration with other institutions.
The media, as a well-known science information resource, have an impor-
tant influence on attitudes toward science (Lee & Scheufele, 2006). Its role in
science education is threefold: First, the media make science more accessible
to students (Osborne & Collins, 2000). Second, outside the school, the media
are the most readily available and sometimes the only source of information
on scientific issues (Nelkin, 1995). Third, people already pick up most of
their science knowledge through the media (Detjen, 1995). The media’s role
in science education has gradually been increasing (Dierking, 2005; Fenichel
& Schweingruber, 2010).
For Weitkamp (2010), science-related information may be disseminated
through both fiction (novels, films, etc.) and nonfiction (newspapers, maga-
zines, etc.) media. The media may also be categorized as traditional (TV,
radio, newspaper, magazines) and new/alternative (Internet) media (Gross,
2003). Changes in science and technology news coverage bring about changes
in how these resources are used. One reason for students’ increased interest
in extracurricular sources of science information could be that science infor-
mation presented on TV, in magazines, and in newspapers is more entertain-
ing now than it had been in the past. Turkey is a country where youngsters
spend a considerable amount of time on TV and home Internet use. Radio,
newspaper, and magazine consumption lags behind TV and Internet usage.
For this reason, Turkey is an especially interesting place to study young peo-
ple’s science learning from media. This transition in media coverage is also
changing audiences’ preferences. Science and Engineering Indicators (http://
www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind12/), for example, reported shifts among adults
and young people alike in the United States. According to the report, younger
audiences mainly use Internet for news and information, including science
at Hacettepe Univeristy on October 12, 2015
scx.sagepub.com
Downloaded from
3. Gelmez Burakgazi and Yildirim 3
and technology information, and their Internet usage increases with educa-
tion level and income. The Internet has also become a dominant source of
current news, science and technology information, and other specialized
information.
Notable among decades of studies examining the dissemination of science-
related knowledge through media is Hook and Brake’s (2010) reference to
direct and indirect learning, as discussed through obvious and incidental
learning from television. In a related study, Brossard and Shanahan (2006)
identified and tested the 31 terms most often used in the U.S. media. They
were not able to find statistical evidence to conclude that either newspaper
consumption or television exposure affected scientific literacy. They did,
however, find a positive relationship between media and scientific literacy
when controlling for age, gender, and science education. This study impli-
cates that the media coverage is linked to scientific literacy for certain indi-
viduals, if not for all.
According to Hook and Brake (2010), the Internet, as a new medium,
sometimes provides unintentional information via popular sites such as
Facebook, Twitter, MySpace, and YouTube. However, they maintained that
science learning through the Internet is still significant because those who
belong to a group or have any other interest in, connection to, or knowledge
of science may reach each other easily. Trench’s (2008) research deals with
the trend toward the Internet as a primary element in science communication,
arguing that Internet communication is thoroughly integrated into scientific
practice. In the United States, the Internet was determined to be a much more
helpful tool for accessing science information than any other medium
(National Science Board, 2004).
Uses and gratifications theory (UGT) suggests that media users play an
active role in choosing and using the media that best fulfills their needs.
According to O’Donohoe (1993), “The mass media constitute a resource on
which audiences draw to satisfy various needs. In its conception of an active,
goal-directed audience, it is consistent with emerging views of the advertis-
ing consumer” (p. 52).
This theory puts forward that people actively select and use media for
purposes of gratification. Katz, Gurevitch, and Haas (1973) list 35 basic
human needs based on an extensive analysis of the literature and organize
them into five categories:
1. Cognitive needs: Strengthening information, knowledge, and
understanding
2. Affective needs: Strengthening aesthetic, pleasurable, and emotional
experiences
at Hacettepe Univeristy on October 12, 2015
scx.sagepub.com
Downloaded from
4. 4 Science Communication XX(X)
3. Personal integrative needs: Strengthening credibility, confidence, sta-
bility, and status
4. Social integrative needs: Strengthening contact with family, friends,
and the world
5. Tension release needs: Escaping and diversion
As with adults, young children as consumers of media are not passive recipients
of science information. Previous research in this area has paid little attention to
the role of mass media on young students’ science learning and the media’s
characteristics as science information sources, which is the focus of this research
(Gelmez-Burakgazi, 2012). However, current studies underline the effect of
positive childhood science experiences on adult interest in science (Elsley &
McMellon, 2010; Osborne, Collins, & Simon, 2003; Oskala, Keaney, Chan, &
Bunting, 2009). On the other hand, it is remarkable that there exist many studies
relating a decline in attitudes toward science from the age of 11 years onward
(Breakwell & Beardsell, 1992), from Grade 5 through Grade 11 (Baykul, 1990),
from elementary to high school level (Piburn & Baker, 1993); in interest toward
science among school-age students (Gilbert, 2008); and in enthusiasm toward
science even through the ages of 5 to 11 years (Pell & Jarvis, 2001), from Grade
4 to Grade 8 (Bulus-Kirikkaya, 2011). Therefore, this study aims to investigate
students’ perceptions and experiences of using science information sources at
this critical age level (10-12) to enlarge and enrich their learning of science. The
specific research questions included the following:
Research Question 1: How do fourth- and fifth-grade students use mass
media in science learning?
Research Question 2: What characteristics make mass media effective
for fourth- and fifth-grade students in science learning?
Method
Utilizing a qualitative phenomenological approach, this study aims to explore
the meaning of experiences, conceptions, and emotions (Creswell, 2007;
Moustakas, 1994; Yildirim & Simsek, 2008) of students in science learning
through sources not directly related to the academic curricula.
The data were gathered through focus groups with purposefully selected
students in four elementary schools (two public schools, two private schools)
in Ankara, Turkey, in 2011. Patton (2002) states, “The logic and the power of
purposeful sampling lies in selecting information-rich cases indepth” (p. 230).
Besides its strengths like enhancing the credibility of the study “because sub-
jects can reliably inform the research question” (Houser, 2011, p. 424), ease of
access to the targeted population, and being less time-consuming, purposeful
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5. Gelmez Burakgazi and Yildirim 5
sampling had also pitfalls as explained by Koerber and McMichael (2008):
difficulty in generalizing to other subjects and selection bias. In order to mini-
mize the first weakness, the researchers have avoided broader generalizations
of the findings. The second weakness, selection bias, “is not a concern if clear
criteria are used and researcher is aware of his or her biases” (Houser, 2011, p.
424). The criterion used in this study was “having an interest in science,”
because the students with an interest in learning science would have richer
experiences of learning from a variety of information sources and would pro-
vide more detailed and in-depth perspectives into the research questions.
Based on this criterion, researchers collaborated with teachers and school
administrations in selecting information-rich students. Through this process,
the researchers intentionally reached a sample of students that were different
from the larger body of students who may not be as interested in science. This
intentional selection was necessary based on the purpose of the study since the
relationship between media and science literacy may not be observed in all
students (Brossard & Shanahan, 2006), but at the same time, this selection
leads to a serious limitation in generalization of the results to all students.
Twenty-three students from fifth-grade classes (14 girls, 9 boys) and 24
students from the fourth-grade classes (12 girls, 12 boys) were selected for
the focus groups, based on their experience with the phenomenon at hand.
Students’ ages ranged from 10 to 12 as the literature indicated declines in
attitudes and interests toward science at this critical age level (Baykul, 1990;
Breakwell & Beardsell, 1992; Bulus-Kirikkaya, 2011; Gilbert, 2008; Pell &
Jarvis, 2001; Piburn & Baker, 1993).
At the beginning of the focus groups, participants were asked some demo-
graphic information questions (age, science grade at past term, parents’ education
level, age, job; and their TV, Internet, magazine, and newspaper access in home
contexts). All of the participants’ science scores for the past term were 5 on a
scale of 5. Therefore, the participants were high-achieving students. Public
schools represented low- and medium-socioeconomic families, whereas families
inprivateschoolswerefrommedium-andhigh-socioeconomicfamilies.Participants
mainly came from highly educated families. Most of the parents had college (N =
67) and graduate degrees (master’s/PhD; N = 21). Some of the parents had high
school degree (N = 6). All the participants had TV and Internet access at home.
In the semistructured interview format, open-ended questions were
employed to examine students’ use of media in learning science. The interview
schedule was validated by expert review in terms of depth, scope, appropriate-
ness to the participants, and compatibility with the research questions. The inter-
view questions were checked by three individuals: a professor in the area of
curriculum and instruction who is also a well-known researcher using qualita-
tive inquiry, a person with a PhD in science education, and a PhD candidate who
is studying elementary school students. Following the revisions within the
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6. 6 Science Communication XX(X)
context of expert review, the schedule was piloted with one fourth- and one
fifth-grade student. Eight focus groups were run with six students participating
in each, except for the fifth-grade focus group in Private School A conducted
with five students. Focus groups were organized separately for fourth and fifth
graders. Each focus group lasted approximately 130 minutes, with a break
dividing the session into two parts. The interaction in focus groups was recorded
to prevent the potential threat of data loss due to only taking notes.
Multiple data sources (four schools, two grade levels) and investigators
(two researchers) were employed to triangulate the outcomes, as suggested
by Patton (1990). The use of multiple data sources has led the researchers to
gather data from a variety of students, thereby to see a broader picture of the
science learning phenomenon. In addition to this, involvement of two
researchers enhanced the validity of the research (Denzin, 2009) as they con-
trolled and cross-checked data collection and analysis phases together.
For qualitative data analysis, significant statements were selected for a
more thorough explanation, key themes were identified, and an exhaus-
tive description of the phenomenon was presented (Creswell, 1998;
Moustakas, 1994). Accordingly, the analysis process pursued the follow-
ing steps: (a) close reading, (b) coding, (c) thematizing, (d) exploring
patterns, and (e) description and interpretation. Table 1 presents an exam-
ple of coding system.
Table 1. An Example of Index of Coding Systems for Content.
Needs Uses
Features of mass media
sources
Cognitive needs Doing homework/project
requirements
Accessibility
Content quality
Affective needs In science classes Providing Interesting
Information
Credible
Personal integrative
needs
Conducting individual science
related research
Addressing to the level
Providing permanent
knowledge
Social integrative needs Updated
Relevance to life
Content presentation
Comprehensible
Fun/enjoyable
Brief
Audio/visual support
Awakening curiosity
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7. Gelmez Burakgazi and Yildirim 7
Always
Often
Sometimes
Never
Watching science
programs on TV
Reading science topics
on newspaper
Reading science
magazines
Number
of
responses
(n
=
47)
0
10
20
30
Doing science related
activities on internet
Figure 1. Students’ use of media sources for science-related purposes.
In presentation of the findings, thick descriptions were used to enable the
readers to draw their own conclusions (Geertz, 1973; Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Detailed explanations of the participants, procedures, and results were pro-
vided to enrich the transferability and replicability of the study.
Results
The results indicated that students chiefly used Internet, science magazines,
and TV (see Figure 1) as science information sources in doing homework,
conducting individual and group research for science assignments, and in
science classes. Most of the students (N = 27) reported that accessibility was
the most important aspect of their choice of media. In addition to content
quality, the presentation of interesting topics, real-life relevance, age-
appropriateness, the frequency with which it was updated, and the cultivation
of reputations for trustworthiness were other key factors in students’ use of
media sources. In the following section, results are presented under the head-
ings of TV, science magazines, newspapers, and the Internet.
TV
Analysis of the interviews conducted with students revealed that television
content was perceived as effective in the sense of presenting authentic,
updated, and interesting information that was repeatable, as programs could
be recorded and watched again. Myth Busters and Ultimate Survival were the
TV programs mentioned in the context of science-focused programs they
watched.
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8. 8 Science Communication XX(X)
TV was among the sources perceived as accessible. Students saw TV as a
source of authentic news that was relevant to their daily lives. By way of
illustration, S38 (fifth grader, Private School A) commented as follows:
It [science on TV] is permanent because real things happen there [on TV]. To me,
it is interesting and sometimes fun.
Learning science from television was enjoyable for students as content
was disseminated both audibly and visually. Students claimed that when they
watched something on TV they felt like they were within the scene they were
watching. As S21 (fourth grader, Private School B) explained,
For example a lunar eclipse, solar eclipse . . . We already know them but . . . I’ve
never seen a solar eclipse in my life. I watched one in a documentary and I felt like
I’ve seen it. How does that happen? These kinds of programs do really help [to
learn science].
Similarly, comparing TV with her textbook, S15 (fourth grader, Private
School A) commented,
In the textbook there are not many realistic-looking pictures of fossils but long
texts. That’s why textbooks capture my interest less. But the TV is both audio and
visual, and at the same time they [programs] are animated, which is really
interesting.
As summarized in Figure 2, students stated that science on TV was inter-
esting, easy to understand, and fun. What is more, they explained that they
learned different things from science programs than what was being taught in
school, and this supplemental education further piqued their curiosity and
motivated them to dig deeper. Moreover, some students explained that if they
desired to learn more about something they came across on TV, they used the
Internet or science books or asked questions of their teachers and families.
Students described TV is effective as a science learning tool because of its
visuals and its potential to pique curiosity, especially when quality programs
are selected, though students did report difficulty understanding some pro-
grams. Other reported drawbacks of TV as a learning tool included the broad-
casting of programs that distracted the students, of programs too similar in
theme to one another, and of children’s educational programs during the
school day, as well as the complaint that the information was presented too
quickly. One of the fourth-grade students commented that she had difficulty
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9. Gelmez Burakgazi and Yildirim 9
in retaining the information she learned from TV, which could have to do
with the impediments reported above.
The analysis further revealed, however, that 13 students in four focus
groups disapproved of TV as it did not address them at their levels. Some
students did not find it helpful to use the TV for learning science, explaining
that it was uncommon to see scientists on TV and that little science-related
information could be found on TV that students in this research had access to.
Some representative quotes are provided below:
I don’t use TV much for science learning purposes. On TV, in general, I hardly see
scientists but mostly some people speaking. (S5, fourth grader, Public School A)
It is hard for me to find science-related programs on TV. That’s why I don’t use
the TV [to learn science]. (S19, fourth-grader, Private School B)
Figure 2. Effective and ineffective features of TV as a science information source.
Note: “+” symbolizes effective features; “−” symbolizes ineffective features of the mass media
sources. Features on the both sides were placed alphabetically.
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10. 10 Science Communication XX(X)
TV, as a mass media resource, targets people of all ages. Because of this,
students also criticized TV for lacking programs directed at their specific age
and education levels. However, at the same time, TV was praised as an up-to-
date resource with interesting and relevant science-related content.
Science Magazines
Students reported learning about many interesting topics in science maga-
zines and pointed out that these topics were sometimes complementary to
what they were learning in school. As different from the public schools in the
study, magazines emerged to be one of the main science information sources
in private schools. Furthermore, the results revealed that science magazines
contained quality and trustworthy knowledge presented in an age-appropriate
style and that it was easy to retain what was learned. Most of the students
explained that they found the topics covered in science magazines interesting
and that they enjoyed reading them while also learning something new. Two
students articulated the relationship between this feeling and retention of
information:
They [science magazines] are fun and you learn various things. They talk to you at
your level and you can understand better. So this makes the information permanent
in your mind. (S5, fourth grader, Public School A)
I think they [science magazines] are really fun because they are for us. They
address us, as S42 said. Like the name: “Science and Child” . . . They’re
understandable; we’re having fun, and so it becomes permanent in our minds. It
also makes us more curious about science, and there are many experiments I’d like
to try too. (S45, fifth grader, Private School B)
Unlike with TV, there were not many drawbacks identified regarding the
content of science magazines. As an outlier comment, one of the fourth-grade
students from Private School B complained that science magazines focused
more on animals than on humans in their coverage.
In relation to the presentation of content in science magazines, students
claimed that learning science from magazines provoked their curiosity. They
appreciated colorful pictures, compelling visuals printed in high quality, and
brief explanatory text in science magazines, as demonstrated in Figure 3.
The analysis of the data also revealed that students followed up on the
things they found interesting in science magazines with further research. Five
students said they searched through archived magazines with their supple-
ments, and some of them cut out pictures and hung them up in their rooms or
glued them to their personal notebooks. They also shared the information
they found interesting with their classmates and teachers.
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11. Gelmez Burakgazi and Yildirim 11
The analysis further indicated that some science magazines were more
useful to students than others. The magazine Science and Child created a
lively experience for students, with many colorful visuals, games, and comics
in it. Moreover, the material published was in line with school curricula but
Figure 3. Effective and ineffective features of science magazines as science
information source.
Note: “+” symbolizes effective features; “−” symbolizes ineffective features of the mass media
sources. Features on the both sides were placed alphabetically.
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12. 12 Science Communication XX(X)
offered different perspectives to students. Integrating what her friends said
about science magazines, S35 (fifth grader, Public School B) concluded,
I think the best example of all these features in it is Science and Child. Because
with this magazine, we do fun things, learn different things and wonder about
them. We feel like we want to buy it again and learn about science more and more.
According to the interviewees, the effective content presentation features
(e.g., comprehensibility, fun/enjoyment, succinctness, visual support, thought
provocation) are not accompanied by many drawbacks. However, three fifth
graders from Private School B notably criticized National Geographic Kids
for its small typeface, which made it difficult for them to read and understand
the contents.
Newspapers
Content was cited by students as a reason for using newspapers as a resource
for science-related information. They agreed that science information in
newspapers was up-to-date, trustworthy, and interesting. They added that
what they learned in newspapers was different from what they were learning
through school science curriculum. Information in newspapers was actually
considered more trustworthy and frequently updated than information from
some other sources by the students. By way of illustration, S45 (fifth grader,
Private School B) noted the following:
The newspaper updates itself every day. I learn recent science-related news from
the newspapers. It’s also more reliable than the Internet. That’s why I like
newspapers better.
Between science magazines and newspapers, the students preferred sci-
ence magazines since they were directed at their age-group. Analysis of the
data revealed that students had not yet developed newspaper reading habits.
However, students confirmed that some parents shared interesting informa-
tion they came across in the newspapers with them.
Students claimed that since newspapers targeted a broad readership, it was
sometimes difficult for them to understand the science content in them. Apart
from not addressing the level of the students, newspapers were also reported
not to include sufficient science coverage, focusing instead on “adult” issues.
As the following student put it,
There isn’t much science-related news in the newspaper anymore. Instead of
science issues, the news is about murder, voting, and detectives, so I don’t read it.
(S23, fourth grader, Private School B)
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13. Gelmez Burakgazi and Yildirim 13
S16 (fourth grader, Private School A) made the interesting comment that
topics covered in newspapers were also available on TV, and accordingly,
she preferred watching TV. Furthermore, some of the students described
newspapers as old-fashioned, one step behind the Internet and TV, which
might even update their information continuously.
Overall, as also exemplified in Figure 4, both fourth- and fifth-grade stu-
dents complained about problematic content presentation in newspapers. The
biggest criticism was of a lack of visual support. This was combined with the
observation that the information in newspapers was not directed at their age-
group and thus not readily comprehensible for the students. For reasons along
these lines, students explained that they did not prefer to read newspapers in
order to learn science.
Internet
In comparison to other media sources examined, the majority of the students
in this study stated that they were more likely to use the Internet. Students in
Figure 4. Effective and ineffective features of newspapers as science information
source.
Note: “+” symbolizes effective features; “−” symbolizes ineffective features of the mass media
sources. Features on the both sides were placed alphabetically.
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14. 14 Science Communication XX(X)
this study explained that they mainly used Internet sites like Google and
Wikipedia for science-related research purposes. In one of the public schools,
students stated that they used a Facebook group that their class teacher had
opened for sharing science-related information. However, in public schools,
the Internet was chiefly in use for presentation purposes, for example, access-
ing sites of My Slide Place (slaytyerim.com) and Watch Slides (slaytizle
.com) with reference to science courses. Pupils in private schools in particu-
lar reported using the Internet as a primary source in school contexts. Students
used the Internet to access science information as it generally provided
detailed and interesting science information. As observed by two students,
The Internet has the most detailed information. It’s the only way for me to access
the information I need. (S25, fifth grader, Public School A)
I think science information on the Internet is understandable because we can
access every single detail, and I find it very meaningful to learn something from
different angles. (S4, fourth grader, Public School A)
Comparing the Internet with TV, S43 further explained that she preferred
to use the Internet rather than TV because she found it easier to retain infor-
mation she learned:
I prefer using the Internet [for science-related research] to TV. Because TV speaks
directly but you search [for information] on the Internet and I think this [type of
learning] is more long-lasting.
Furthermore, science-related information on the Internet aroused students’
curiosity about science and directed them to pursue more information inde-
pendently, as articulated by one student:
It [the Internet] grabs my interest and raises my curiosity. When I learn something,
I want to know more and so I surf the Internet [for more information] and read
more. (S17, fourth grader, Private School A)
Along with its effective features, Internet content was also criticized over
its credibility and for the level of science-related information it presents. To
begin with, students who participated in this study mentioned that they did
not trust all the information on the Internet and that they often needed to
double check its content. Alternatively, in coping with problems such as
validity and authenticity, S21 (fourth grader, Private School B) explained
that he stuck with the websites suggested to him by his family, teachers, and
friends. Students also explained that they had difficulty deciding which
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15. Gelmez Burakgazi and Yildirim 15
information they should use, which caused them to sometimes feel the
Internet was a waste of time. The comments by several students are as
follows:
I usually don’t believe what I find. For example, I remember one text that seemed
pointless to me. I checked it on other sites as well, and when I compared them they
handled the subject in the same way. If things are similar on various sites, then I
think it’s true and I use it in my homework. (S24, fourth grader, Private School B)
It sometimes takes too much time to find reliable information that speaks to our
age-group. So, I think researching from the Internet is just a waste of Time. (S46,
fifth grader, Private School B)
Despite its advantages, the Internet was often criticized for its occasional
poor quality, for being unnecessarily long, and for its overly advanced infor-
mation about science. Students mainly complained that the content of web-
sites was sometimes complex, with vague wording, in addition to being
difficult to judge its credibility. The public school students also noted that the
dominance of English sometimes made it difficult to comprehend the details
of the information presented:
Some of the information I have accessed through the Internet is in English and
difficult to understand with the unfamiliar words. . . . It’s not fun anymore. Reading
is fine but when I can’t read and understand these words, it [accessing science
information on the Internet] starts to get boring. (S25, fifth grader, Public School A)
The information on the Internet is hard to understand because it’s for such a wide
variety of people [making it difficult to locate age-appropriate material]. (S32,
fifth grader, Public School B)
According to the students, their access to Internet content was also limited
by its presentation in small fonts, as articulated by S26 (fifth grader, Public
School A):
When you Google something, there is lots of tiny information that I can’t read. I
think this is wrong. OK, it provides a huge amount of information, but who reads
all these long texts? Maybe some people do it, but I do not.
Likewise, S14 (fourth grader, Private School A) concurred: “Who wants
to read thousands of lines without pictures?”
Briefly, as summarized in Figure 5, content presentation on the Internet is
considered enjoyable, which awakens students’ curiosity. However, the pre-
sentation style was often an obstacle, with its inclusion of long texts with
complex words and foreign terms.
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16. 16 Science Communication XX(X)
Discussion
Students access science information by multiple means. The details of their
motivations and methods require in-depth analysis. This analysis involves
detailing effective or ineffective features of mass media sources based on
student reporting and describing how these features are utilized for science
learning. Students in this study draw on mass media resources both within
and outside the school setting for various science learning purposes. In this
study, students’ use of TV, Internet, newspapers, and science magazines has
been examined. The results indicate that the Internet was at the forefront of
the media resources examined, which was consistent with the findings of
Butt, Clery, Abeywardana, and Phillips (2010) and Bubela et al. (2009).
First of all, students’ media use differed according to school type, that is,
public and private school student habits differed within the classroom.
Internet and science magazines were the primary science learning resources
in private school classrooms. Next, in contexts outside of school, the Internet
Figure 5. Effective and ineffective features of the Internet as a science information
source.
Note: “+” symbolizes effective features; “−” symbolizes ineffective features of the mass media
sources. Features on the both sides were placed alphabetically.
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17. Gelmez Burakgazi and Yildirim 17
was a commonly used mass media resource by the fourth and fifth graders.
Private school students added that they also used TV and science magazines
for science learning outside the school. One possible explanation for such a
difference could be socioeconomic levels of students who attend private
school (Wimer, 2007). This could be as simple as a correlation between fami-
lies that can afford to enroll their children in private schools and those who
can afford to subscribe to premium television channels and magazines where
engaging and age-appropriate science content can be found. In the United
Kingdom, the Royal Society (2008) report also makes reference to the issue:
“There is strong evidence of a link between SES and attainment in science
among 5–11 year olds” (p. 4).
According to UGT, people use media to satisfy their specific needs (Katz
et al., 1973). One of the foundations of UGT is the active audience (Blumler
& Katz, 1974). Accordingly, audience needs dictate their consumption deci-
sions. The students in this study also actively engaged with various media
resources in order to meet their social and psychological needs. Of the five
UGT categories cited by Katz et al. (1973), the results of this study demon-
strated that the students used mass media for cognitive, affective, personal
integrative, and social integrative needs.
To begin with, students employed the Internet and sometimes science
magazines to meet homework and project requirements. In addition to this
use, students draw on the Internet during the science classes. Uses of these
forms of media may have stemmed from the students’ cognitive needs, which
are explained by Katz et al. (1973) as “needs related to strengthening infor-
mation, knowledge, and understanding” (p. 166).
The use of mass media also related to students’ pursuit of science-related
knowledge on their own. Here, it is important to note that students did not
conduct individual science-related research unless required by their teachers
to do so. Nevertheless, they explained that within the context of school-
related homework and projects, they sometimes went further doing additional
research and reading. When they did this they mostly preferred the Internet
and science magazines, as these were both accessible and rich with informa-
tion. They also shared science information they found interesting in these
sources in class. This mode of media use thus incorporates aspects of their
cognitive, personal, and social integrative needs, as also explained by Katz
et al. (1973). That is, by conducting individual research, students not only
acquired information, knowledge, and understanding (cognitive needs) but
also boosted their emotional experience (affective needs) and made contact
with their friends and teachers (social integrative needs) in the process of
sharing.
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18. 18 Science Communication XX(X)
TV, Internet, newspapers, and magazines were the media resources stu-
dents liked to use and share with their teachers and classmates. These
resources were selected primarily for their accessibility, which corroborates
the contention of Senemoglu (2001), who suggested that educational material
should be both accessible and usable. The finding of students’ desire to share
what they learned with others and “the need to participate in discussions with
friends” might be further explained by students’ personal (gaining prestige
and high standing) and social (contact with people) integrative needs, as sug-
gested by Katz et al. (1973, p. 172).
Apart from this, the results also revealed that key motivation for students’
use of mass media revolved around accessibility, content, and presentation.
Accordingly, resources that combined accessibility (TV, Internet) with
appeal (TV, Internet, science magazines), credibility (newspapers), content
appropriateness (science magazines), and frequency of update (TV, Internet,
newspapers) were preferable. Resources that presented their content in mem-
orable (TV, science magazines) and permanent (science magazines) ways
were also considered to be effective.
With regard to content presentation, comprehensibility (science maga-
zines), enjoyment (science magazines, Internet), clarity (TV, science maga-
zines), inclusion of visual aids (TV, science magazines), and ability to arouse
curiosity (TV, Internet, science magazines) were important factors that influ-
enced students’ selection of mass media resources.
Media sources were by and large regarded as current and directed at “a
wide array of people” by the students. Among them, the Internet was the most
highly regarded resource among others because of its convenience and acces-
sibility. This result corroborated the findings of a great deal of previous work
in this field (Butler, 1995; Clark, 2000; Falk & Dierking, 2010; Horrigan,
2006; National Foundation for Educational Research, 2011). Clark (2000)
further emphasized the influence of the Internet as a science information
source: “This new resource provides rich opportunities to support the devel-
opment of scientific argumentation skills, going well beyond those available
in typical instruction” (p. 859). Students explained that they mainly used
Google, Wikipedia, and Facebook. However, in public schools, the Internet
was chiefly in use for presentation purposes, for example, accessing sites like
slaytyerim.com (My Slide Place) and slaytizle.com (Watch Slides) with ref-
erence to science courses. This finding is consistent with Hakverdi-Can and
Dana’s (2012) study that found teachers unaware that the Internet was being
used as a tool by which users could take virtual trips to museums, zoos, and
science centers; access online databases; or participate in Internet-oriented
workshops, as opposed to using it merely for the purpose of preparing
presentations.
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19. Gelmez Burakgazi and Yildirim 19
The credibility of the Internet as a resource was an important issue high-
lighted by the students. This result confirms the findings of Metzger (2007),
who emphasized that accessing accurate information matters for users.
Among the media resources analyzed here, the credibility of the Internet for
providing accurate science-related information was most questioned by the
students. Newspapers, in contrast, were thought to provide the most credible
information among the students. However, the results indicated that newspa-
pers were at the background of the media sources examined. Although stu-
dents chiefly complained about newspapers’ voice mostly addressing adults,
they also highlighted that providing limited science news and few visuals and
inclusion of long texts were other weaknesses as science information sources.
One possible explanation for this could be limited reading habit among
school-age children, which was in agreement with the findings of the
EARGED (Department of Research and Development of Education) Report
(2007).
Hass (1981, as cited in Clark, 2000) stated, “Source credibility is associ-
ated with high levels of education, intelligence, professional attainment, and
familiarity with the issue” (p. 860). In contrast to Horrigan’s (2006) study, in
which the participants considered the Internet a credible source for checking
science information, participants from this study criticized the Internet on the
basis of reliability and authenticity over any other factor, in comparison with
the other media resources in question. In order to cope with this issue, stu-
dents tried to check the accuracy of their online findings with additional web-
sites or other sources of information, like their families, teachers, and science
books. This result was in agreement with Horrigan’s (2006) study, which
indicated that “80% of those who have gotten science news and information
online have engaged in at least one of these ‘fast-checking’ activities” (p. 2).
The visuals in media were also influential on students’ perceptions of
these sources as effective or ineffective. According to Birkok (2008), the
decreasing reading comprehension among students makes visual representa-
tion more important. This is one of the reasons why TV was attractive to the
students as an information source. This result confirms the idea of “television
is easy, print is tough” (Salomon, 1984); therefore, TV was perceived as a
memorable science information source by some students. This was in con-
trast to the study by Gregory and Miller (2000), who discussed the difficulty
in retaining TV-based science information. Students in this study reported
that they had the sense of “being there” while they were watching TV. This
kind of involvement, engagement, or learning (Brown & Cairns, 2004; Dede,
2005; Falconer, 2013; Hummel, Freeland, Craft, & McKellips, 2011) might
be explained by the assumptions of the immersion theory. As engagement
and involvement are obviously important in education (Bransford, Brown, &
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20. 20 Science Communication XX(X)
Cocking, 1999), TV emerges to be a valuable medium in students’ science
learning.
The fun and enjoyment the content caused made the media more valuable
for the students. TV, Internet, and science magazines were the resources most
closely associated with entertainment value. This aspect becomes important
since “the general public is uninterested in science and technology as not
being fun” (Gilbert, 2007, p. 123). As Alexander (2000) emphasizes, “learn-
ing lies between play and academics” (p. 1), underscoring the relevance of
fun in the learning and teaching of science by young people. This is also
consistent with findings reported by National Foundation for Educational
Research (2011):
Promoting science as interesting and fun by capitalising on, and demonstrating,
the potential for science to be interesting, fun and engaging so as to avoid potential
negative perceptions of it as boring or difficult. (p. 8)
One of the interesting results of this study was the degree of sophistication
the students at the age of 10 or 11 displayed in their comments on the various
science information sources. They were well aware of the potential as well as
their advantages and disadvantages as science information sources. Of
course, this result could partially be due to the purposeful selection of the
students who were interested in science. However, even for “the interested
students,” this level of awareness of the quality of sources and critical assess-
ment of their various characteristics was admirable. As Jerome Bruner (1991)
said, children are little scientists, and when they are in the right environment
they can learn and discover the external world themselves. So the students
who participated in this study could be examples of these explorers of sources
to learn science.
Implications for Practice
In this qualitative study, the researchers’ aim was not to generalize to the
results to all fourth and fifth graders. The sampling was purposeful, targeting
volunteer students who were interested in science. However, by selecting dif-
ferent types of schools for the study, we hoped to increase the variety of
perspectives from different school contexts.
Within this context, the findings indicated that the students in our sample
had the impression that TV programs in Turkey mostly addressed adults and
that science programs for children were broadcast at times that conflicted
with students’ school schedules. Thus, students could not effectively use TV
to access science information, which in turn decreased its effectiveness as a
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21. Gelmez Burakgazi and Yildirim 21
resource for learning. In addition, commercials and advertisements were
found to be distracting elements. At this point, suggestions might be in order
for TV producers, teachers, and parents. If it is possible, TV producers could
broadcast children’s science programs in the evenings and at the weekends,
and with limited commercial interruption or other distracting elements. In
addition, what is suggested for teachers is to encourage students to conduct
science research by watching science programs on TV and to inform students
about which channels and programs to watch in advance. In parallel with this,
parents should monitor their children’s TV-watching habits closely and guide
their TV choices.
Next, newspapers were criticized by participants in the study for address-
ing adults, for containing insufficient science content, and for presenting
information in the form of long texts with limited visuals. Furthermore,
newspapers were not considered an accessible resource. This resulted in low
motivation among students to use newspapers as a resource for science-
related information. These findings suggest that newspapers in Turkey should
communicate science to children through various channels like including a
“science page,” publishing a visual or colorful “children’s science page” in
addition to their usual content, or publishing a “children’s newspaper” sup-
plement once a week or more. Here, the idea of including stories of pages
dedicated to science stories in a newspaper does not necessitate a change in
reader expectations to the conventional “politics in the front, sports in the
back” composition, as discussed by Gregory and Miller (2000). One way or
another, though, it would be meaningful to make use of the medium in a way
that would improve its standing as a resource for science information.
Another approach might be for newspapers to be distributed daily to public
school libraries in order to give students from lower socioeconomic back-
grounds to more of an opportunity to access science-related information
through newspapers. At this point, teachers and parents should encourage
students to recognize newspapers as a science learning resource and to help
them develop habits to access information through this medium.
The results also indicated that science magazines were effective in students’
science learning in many ways: by being comprehensible, fun/enjoyable, and
brief; by providing visual support; by awakening curiosity; by instilling perma-
nent science information; and by increasing curiosity and science love.
However, science magazines were not accessible to each and every student.
The data suggest that it would be helpful to students if science magazines are
ordered to school libraries periodically so as to enhance the accessibility.
Again, here, teachers and parents should support students to take science maga-
zines as a science information source and to use it in accessing science
information.
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22. 22 Science Communication XX(X)
Last but not least, students in this study expressed a preference for using
the Internet for purposes like homework and projects and for individual
science-related research, as discussed in the Results section. However,
Internet content is also being criticized for problems of credibility, as well as
for distracting and inappropriate elements associated with it. These findings
suggest that teachers and families should carefully monitor and guide stu-
dents’ Internet usage, especially regarding which sites to visit, what informa-
tion to trust, and how much information to pursue.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publi-
cation of this article.
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Author Biographies
Sevinc Gelmez Burakgazi completed her PhD as a research assistant at the
Department of Educational Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Ankara,
Turkey, in the name of Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey. Her current research
focuses on science education, science communication, qualitative studies, and cur-
riculum development and evaluation.
Ali Yildirim is currently a professor at the Department of Educational Sciences,
Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey. His research interests include
teaching and learning processes, teacher education, curriculum development and
evaluation, thinking skills, social studies, and human resources education.
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