This document provides an overview of satellite communications. It discusses how satellites serve as radio relay stations in space to allow point-to-point communication even in remote locations. Some key events in the history of satellite communication are noted, such as the launch of Early Bird in 1965, which was the first commercial satellite. The basic elements of a satellite communication system, including the satellite in space and ground stations, are described. Various uses of satellite communication are then outlined, such as traditional telecommunications, cellular networks, television broadcasting, and applications for maritime, air, and land mobile communication.
This document discusses satellite communications and provides an overview of key concepts:
- Satellite communications systems have two main components - the satellite in orbit which receives and transmits signals, and ground stations that send signals to and receive signals from the satellite.
- Satellites are used for various applications including telecommunications, cellular networks, television broadcasting, maritime communications, land mobile communications, aircraft messaging, and global positioning.
- Technological aspects discussed include error correction techniques like forward-error correction and automatic-repeat-request, hybrid satellite-terrestrial networks, and using protocols like TCP/IP over satellite links.
The document is an assignment on satellite communications for a student named Reymart Olaño. It provides an introduction to satellite telecommunications and discusses the main components of satellite systems, which include the satellite and ground stations. It then describes different utilities of satellite communication such as traditional telecommunications, cellular networks, television signals, marine communications, spaceborne land mobile services, and satellite messaging for commercial jets. The document also discusses satellite systems like INTELSAT, DOMSAT, and SARSAT. It concludes by explaining Kepler's laws of planetary motion and defining terms related to earth-orbiting satellites.
Satellite communication uses satellites as wireless repeaters to provide communication links between geographically remote sites. Satellites are equipped with transponders consisting of a transceiver and antenna tuned to allocated spectrum. Most satellites simply broadcast whatever they receive. Packet data transmission via satellite is increasingly common, with satellites used as backbone links between dispersed LANs and MANs. Modern satellite networks incorporate on-board switching and processing rather than simply acting as "bent pipes."
The document summarizes satellite communications and its components. It discusses how satellites are placed in geosynchronous orbit to appear stationary over a location on Earth. It describes the uplink and downlink systems, and how multiple satellites can provide global coverage through cross-linking. The key components of a satellite are also outlined, including the transponder and antenna system, power package, and control/information and thruster systems. Common uses of satellite communications discussed include traditional telecommunications, cellular networks, and television broadcasting.
This is the slide of Satellite Broadcasting commonly useful for Satellite and Broadcasting describing different orbitals of satellite, frequency allocation, its use for broadcasting, Components of Broadcasting and many more. Feel free to comment but do add source if you are using it as a reference.
This document discusses various topics related to microwave and satellite communication systems including:
1. Microwave systems are classified as long haul or short haul based on the distance served and frequency bands used. Common frequency bands include 2GHz, 4GHz, 6GHz, 7GHz, and 11GHz.
2. Satellites can provide communication services from various orbits including Low Earth Orbit (LEO), Medium Earth Orbit (MEO), and Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO). A transponder on each satellite receives and retransmits signals to allow communication between Earth stations.
3. Factors like orbit altitude, orbital speed, and rotation period distinguish different categories of satellites like LEO, MEO,
This document discusses satellite communications and provides an overview of key concepts:
- Satellite communications systems have two main components - the satellite in orbit which receives and transmits signals, and ground stations that send signals to and receive signals from the satellite.
- Satellites are used for various applications including telecommunications, cellular networks, television broadcasting, maritime communications, land mobile communications, aircraft messaging, and global positioning.
- Technological aspects discussed include error correction techniques like forward-error correction and automatic-repeat-request, hybrid satellite-terrestrial networks, and using protocols like TCP/IP over satellite links.
The document is an assignment on satellite communications for a student named Reymart Olaño. It provides an introduction to satellite telecommunications and discusses the main components of satellite systems, which include the satellite and ground stations. It then describes different utilities of satellite communication such as traditional telecommunications, cellular networks, television signals, marine communications, spaceborne land mobile services, and satellite messaging for commercial jets. The document also discusses satellite systems like INTELSAT, DOMSAT, and SARSAT. It concludes by explaining Kepler's laws of planetary motion and defining terms related to earth-orbiting satellites.
Satellite communication uses satellites as wireless repeaters to provide communication links between geographically remote sites. Satellites are equipped with transponders consisting of a transceiver and antenna tuned to allocated spectrum. Most satellites simply broadcast whatever they receive. Packet data transmission via satellite is increasingly common, with satellites used as backbone links between dispersed LANs and MANs. Modern satellite networks incorporate on-board switching and processing rather than simply acting as "bent pipes."
The document summarizes satellite communications and its components. It discusses how satellites are placed in geosynchronous orbit to appear stationary over a location on Earth. It describes the uplink and downlink systems, and how multiple satellites can provide global coverage through cross-linking. The key components of a satellite are also outlined, including the transponder and antenna system, power package, and control/information and thruster systems. Common uses of satellite communications discussed include traditional telecommunications, cellular networks, and television broadcasting.
This is the slide of Satellite Broadcasting commonly useful for Satellite and Broadcasting describing different orbitals of satellite, frequency allocation, its use for broadcasting, Components of Broadcasting and many more. Feel free to comment but do add source if you are using it as a reference.
This document discusses various topics related to microwave and satellite communication systems including:
1. Microwave systems are classified as long haul or short haul based on the distance served and frequency bands used. Common frequency bands include 2GHz, 4GHz, 6GHz, 7GHz, and 11GHz.
2. Satellites can provide communication services from various orbits including Low Earth Orbit (LEO), Medium Earth Orbit (MEO), and Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO). A transponder on each satellite receives and retransmits signals to allow communication between Earth stations.
3. Factors like orbit altitude, orbital speed, and rotation period distinguish different categories of satellites like LEO, MEO,
This document provides an overview of satellite communications. It discusses the history of satellite communication, the main components which include the satellite and ground stations, and various utilities such as telecommunications, cellular networks, television signals, marine communications, spaceborne land mobile, and global positioning services. It also covers technological perspectives regarding the data characteristics of latency, poor bandwidth, and noise that satellite systems must address. Error correction techniques like forward-error-correction are used to mitigate the effects of noise on satellite links.
The document summarizes three common frequency bands used in satellite communication: C-band, Ku-band, and Ka-band. C-band uses frequencies between 3.7 to 6.425 GHz and is used by many commercial satellites. Ku-band uses frequencies between 11.7 to 14.5 GHz and is primarily used for satellite communications and television broadcasting from remote locations. Ka-band has the highest frequency range of 26.5 to 40 GHz and is used by communications satellites and military targeting radars.
This document provides an overview of satellite communication and satellite systems. It discusses different types of transmission systems including radio, coaxial cable, and optical fiber systems. It describes how radio systems use electromagnetic waves to transmit signals and the portions of the frequency spectrum used. The document outlines the layers of the atmosphere and how the ionosphere and troposphere can propagate radio waves. It also categorizes different types of radio communication including ionosphere communication, line of sight microwave communication, and troposphere scatter communication. The document discusses advantages of satellite communication and components of a satellite communication network including the space and ground segments. It covers topics like satellite orbits, frequency bands used, and multiple access techniques in satellite systems.
The document discusses satellite communication and the key components involved. It covers:
1) The three main segments of a satellite link - the transmitting Earth station, the satellite, and the receiving Earth station.
2) Components of Earth stations including antennas, amplifiers, modulators, and more.
3) Factors that impact satellite transmission such as frequency bands, transmission losses, polarization, and more.
Satellite communications uses satellites as relay stations to transmit signals between Earth stations that are too far for direct transmission. Signals are sent to the satellite (uplink) and retransmitted to another station (downlink). Satellites provide wide coverage and transmission costs are independent of distance. Orbits include GEO, LEO, MEO and HAPs. Capacity is allocated using FDMA or TDMA, dividing available frequencies or time slots between users.
The document describes a satellite communication system using SC-WFMT modulation.
SC-WFMT combines SC-FDMA and wavelet modulation techniques. It offers advantages over traditional QPSK modulation used in satellite communications, including programmable spectrum and compensation for distortions. SC-WFMT provides multipath immunity like OFDM with lower peak-to-average power ratio. It can support mobile satellite communication in urban areas with significant multipath delay spreads. The system uses novel wavelet-based modulation at the transmitter and equalization at the receiver to mitigate distortions from the satellite transponder and multipath propagation.
Mobile satellite communication uses satellites to enable communication between mobile users. There are different types of satellite orbits used - geostationary, medium earth orbit, and low earth orbit. Each orbit has advantages and disadvantages for mobile communication. Mobile satellite services include maritime, land, aeronautical, personal, and broadcast. Signal propagation is impaired by effects like reflection, refraction, shadowing, and different types of noise. Thermal noise places a fundamental limit on communication performance.
This document provides an overview of satellite communication systems. It defines key terms like earth stations, uplinks, downlinks, and transponders. It describes how communications satellites can be categorized based on coverage area, service type, and usage. It also covers satellite orbit types including geostationary, medium earth, and low earth orbits. The document discusses factors that affect satellite link performance and describes frequency division multiple access and time division multiple access techniques.
Cellular networks divide geographic areas into smaller cells to increase capacity and reuse frequencies. Each cell has a base station that transmits and receives from mobile devices within its cell. As mobile devices move between cells during calls, the network performs handovers to transfer the call seamlessly between base stations. Common cellular technologies include GSM, CDMA, and LTE that use techniques like FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA to allow frequency reuse and multiple access across cells.
This document discusses satellite communication systems. It describes the basic elements which include the satellite in orbit and ground stations. Satellites receive and retransmit signals to allow communication between stations. The document outlines different satellite configurations for point-to-point, point-to-multipoint and multipoint-to-point communication. It also describes common satellite orbits including low, medium and geostationary orbits and how they differ in terms of altitude, coverage, and latency. Frequency bands used for uplinks and downlinks are also identified.
Communication satellites orbit Earth and are used to transmit radio, television and other signals. The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched in 1957. There are different types of satellites including active satellites that amplify and retransmit signals, addressing disadvantages of early passive satellites. Geostationary satellites orbit at the same rate as Earth's rotation, allowing ground antennas to remain fixed. Other orbits include medium Earth orbit and low Earth orbit. VSAT systems use small ground terminals to communicate via satellite. GPS uses a constellation of satellites to provide location services worldwide.
This document discusses satellite communications and related concepts. It covers satellite-related terms like earth stations, uplinks, and downlinks. It describes ways to categorize communications satellites based on coverage area, service type, and usage. It also covers satellite orbits, geometry terms, frequency bands used, and factors affecting satellite link performance. Finally, it discusses satellite network configurations and capacity allocation strategies like FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA.
VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) technology allows for wireless communication via satellite using small dish antennas. A VSAT network consists of a central hub with a large antenna that communicates with multiple remote VSAT sites. The hub controls and monitors the network, sending data to the satellite which amplifies and redirects the signals to the VSATs. VSAT offers advantages like flexibility, lower installation costs than terrestrial networks, and ability to access areas without terrestrial infrastructure. Common applications of VSAT include corporate networks, internet access, distance education, and retail/banking networks. VSAT uses multiple access techniques like TDMA to allow efficient sharing of satellite bandwidth among sites.
Satellite communications have revolutionized global connectivity. Modern satellites provide broadband internet, audio/video distribution, navigation services, and support military communications. Satellites transmit signals to and receive signals from earth stations via antennas. Communications satellites in geostationary orbit appear stationary from Earth. They provide widespread coverage for services like satellite television, radio, telephony, and internet access. While satellites enabled global connectivity, challenges include high infrastructure costs and signal delays. Future satellites aim to increase capabilities with more power and bandwidth to support growing data demand.
This document discusses satellite communication and its applications in military. It describes the different types of orbits such as GEO, MEO and LEO and frequency bands used for satellite communication. It explains the wideband gapfiller satellite program and advanced wideband system being developed by the military to meet future communication needs. Protected and narrowband communication systems are also summarized. The document concludes that future satellite communication will evolve along with terrestrial systems and help improve military communication.
The document discusses various terms and concepts related to satellite communications. It describes different types of satellites based on coverage area, service provided, and orbit. It also defines terms like earth stations, uplinks, downlinks, transponders, elevation angles, and coverage angles. Finally, it discusses concepts like frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA), different satellite orbits like GEO, LEO and MEO, and considerations that impact satellite link performance.
Cellular telephony is designed to provide communications between two moving units, called mobile stations (MSs), or between one mobile unit and one stationary unit, often called a land unit.
Broadband Communications and Applications from High Altitude PlatformsIDES Editor
This document provides an overview of using high altitude platforms (HAPs) for wireless telecommunications and broadband services. It discusses three architectures for HAP systems: 1) stand-alone HAP systems for rural areas, 2) integrated HAP-terrestrial systems to provide coverage where deploying terrestrial networks is expensive, and 3) terrestrial-HAP-satellite systems for fault tolerance and high quality of service. The document also evaluates the performance of delivering WiMAX services from HAPs and discusses applications like wireless sensor networks and disaster response.
The document provides an overview of High Altitude Aeronautical Platform Station (HAAPS) technology. It discusses how HAAPS uses airships or aircraft operating between 3-22km in altitude to provide wireless telecommunication services. A HAAPS can cover an area of up to 1000km in diameter. It then describes different platform options being proposed or used, including airships, high altitude long endurance aircraft, and tethered aerostats. The document outlines the system architecture, including the airborne and ground station equipment. It discusses power systems for solar-powered long endurance aircraft and how mission requirements impact aircraft sizing. Finally, it compares the performance and advantages of HAAPS to terrestrial wireless and satellite systems.
HF provides long-range communication capabilities for ship-to-shore and shore-to-ship use as an alternative to satellite communication outside Inmarsat coverage areas. MF frequencies between 2-4 MHz provide medium-range service for distress communication, while VHF uses 156.525 MHz and 156.8 MHz for short-range distress communication.
The document discusses different types of amplitude modulation (AM) including:
1) Double sideband AM which produces a signal with power at the carrier frequency and two adjacent sidebands, each equal in bandwidth to the modulating signal.
2) Single sideband modulation which completely suppresses either the carrier or one sideband, improving bandwidth efficiency at the cost of increased complexity.
3) On-off keying AM which represents binary data as the presence or absence of a carrier wave, commonly used to transmit Morse code.
The modulation index measures the extent of amplitude variation around the unmodulated carrier level, relating the variation in carrier amplitude to avoid distortion.
This document provides an overview of satellite communications. It discusses the history of satellite communication, the main components which include the satellite and ground stations, and various utilities such as telecommunications, cellular networks, television signals, marine communications, spaceborne land mobile, and global positioning services. It also covers technological perspectives regarding the data characteristics of latency, poor bandwidth, and noise that satellite systems must address. Error correction techniques like forward-error-correction are used to mitigate the effects of noise on satellite links.
The document summarizes three common frequency bands used in satellite communication: C-band, Ku-band, and Ka-band. C-band uses frequencies between 3.7 to 6.425 GHz and is used by many commercial satellites. Ku-band uses frequencies between 11.7 to 14.5 GHz and is primarily used for satellite communications and television broadcasting from remote locations. Ka-band has the highest frequency range of 26.5 to 40 GHz and is used by communications satellites and military targeting radars.
This document provides an overview of satellite communication and satellite systems. It discusses different types of transmission systems including radio, coaxial cable, and optical fiber systems. It describes how radio systems use electromagnetic waves to transmit signals and the portions of the frequency spectrum used. The document outlines the layers of the atmosphere and how the ionosphere and troposphere can propagate radio waves. It also categorizes different types of radio communication including ionosphere communication, line of sight microwave communication, and troposphere scatter communication. The document discusses advantages of satellite communication and components of a satellite communication network including the space and ground segments. It covers topics like satellite orbits, frequency bands used, and multiple access techniques in satellite systems.
The document discusses satellite communication and the key components involved. It covers:
1) The three main segments of a satellite link - the transmitting Earth station, the satellite, and the receiving Earth station.
2) Components of Earth stations including antennas, amplifiers, modulators, and more.
3) Factors that impact satellite transmission such as frequency bands, transmission losses, polarization, and more.
Satellite communications uses satellites as relay stations to transmit signals between Earth stations that are too far for direct transmission. Signals are sent to the satellite (uplink) and retransmitted to another station (downlink). Satellites provide wide coverage and transmission costs are independent of distance. Orbits include GEO, LEO, MEO and HAPs. Capacity is allocated using FDMA or TDMA, dividing available frequencies or time slots between users.
The document describes a satellite communication system using SC-WFMT modulation.
SC-WFMT combines SC-FDMA and wavelet modulation techniques. It offers advantages over traditional QPSK modulation used in satellite communications, including programmable spectrum and compensation for distortions. SC-WFMT provides multipath immunity like OFDM with lower peak-to-average power ratio. It can support mobile satellite communication in urban areas with significant multipath delay spreads. The system uses novel wavelet-based modulation at the transmitter and equalization at the receiver to mitigate distortions from the satellite transponder and multipath propagation.
Mobile satellite communication uses satellites to enable communication between mobile users. There are different types of satellite orbits used - geostationary, medium earth orbit, and low earth orbit. Each orbit has advantages and disadvantages for mobile communication. Mobile satellite services include maritime, land, aeronautical, personal, and broadcast. Signal propagation is impaired by effects like reflection, refraction, shadowing, and different types of noise. Thermal noise places a fundamental limit on communication performance.
This document provides an overview of satellite communication systems. It defines key terms like earth stations, uplinks, downlinks, and transponders. It describes how communications satellites can be categorized based on coverage area, service type, and usage. It also covers satellite orbit types including geostationary, medium earth, and low earth orbits. The document discusses factors that affect satellite link performance and describes frequency division multiple access and time division multiple access techniques.
Cellular networks divide geographic areas into smaller cells to increase capacity and reuse frequencies. Each cell has a base station that transmits and receives from mobile devices within its cell. As mobile devices move between cells during calls, the network performs handovers to transfer the call seamlessly between base stations. Common cellular technologies include GSM, CDMA, and LTE that use techniques like FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA to allow frequency reuse and multiple access across cells.
This document discusses satellite communication systems. It describes the basic elements which include the satellite in orbit and ground stations. Satellites receive and retransmit signals to allow communication between stations. The document outlines different satellite configurations for point-to-point, point-to-multipoint and multipoint-to-point communication. It also describes common satellite orbits including low, medium and geostationary orbits and how they differ in terms of altitude, coverage, and latency. Frequency bands used for uplinks and downlinks are also identified.
Communication satellites orbit Earth and are used to transmit radio, television and other signals. The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched in 1957. There are different types of satellites including active satellites that amplify and retransmit signals, addressing disadvantages of early passive satellites. Geostationary satellites orbit at the same rate as Earth's rotation, allowing ground antennas to remain fixed. Other orbits include medium Earth orbit and low Earth orbit. VSAT systems use small ground terminals to communicate via satellite. GPS uses a constellation of satellites to provide location services worldwide.
This document discusses satellite communications and related concepts. It covers satellite-related terms like earth stations, uplinks, and downlinks. It describes ways to categorize communications satellites based on coverage area, service type, and usage. It also covers satellite orbits, geometry terms, frequency bands used, and factors affecting satellite link performance. Finally, it discusses satellite network configurations and capacity allocation strategies like FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA.
VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) technology allows for wireless communication via satellite using small dish antennas. A VSAT network consists of a central hub with a large antenna that communicates with multiple remote VSAT sites. The hub controls and monitors the network, sending data to the satellite which amplifies and redirects the signals to the VSATs. VSAT offers advantages like flexibility, lower installation costs than terrestrial networks, and ability to access areas without terrestrial infrastructure. Common applications of VSAT include corporate networks, internet access, distance education, and retail/banking networks. VSAT uses multiple access techniques like TDMA to allow efficient sharing of satellite bandwidth among sites.
Satellite communications have revolutionized global connectivity. Modern satellites provide broadband internet, audio/video distribution, navigation services, and support military communications. Satellites transmit signals to and receive signals from earth stations via antennas. Communications satellites in geostationary orbit appear stationary from Earth. They provide widespread coverage for services like satellite television, radio, telephony, and internet access. While satellites enabled global connectivity, challenges include high infrastructure costs and signal delays. Future satellites aim to increase capabilities with more power and bandwidth to support growing data demand.
This document discusses satellite communication and its applications in military. It describes the different types of orbits such as GEO, MEO and LEO and frequency bands used for satellite communication. It explains the wideband gapfiller satellite program and advanced wideband system being developed by the military to meet future communication needs. Protected and narrowband communication systems are also summarized. The document concludes that future satellite communication will evolve along with terrestrial systems and help improve military communication.
The document discusses various terms and concepts related to satellite communications. It describes different types of satellites based on coverage area, service provided, and orbit. It also defines terms like earth stations, uplinks, downlinks, transponders, elevation angles, and coverage angles. Finally, it discusses concepts like frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA), different satellite orbits like GEO, LEO and MEO, and considerations that impact satellite link performance.
Cellular telephony is designed to provide communications between two moving units, called mobile stations (MSs), or between one mobile unit and one stationary unit, often called a land unit.
Broadband Communications and Applications from High Altitude PlatformsIDES Editor
This document provides an overview of using high altitude platforms (HAPs) for wireless telecommunications and broadband services. It discusses three architectures for HAP systems: 1) stand-alone HAP systems for rural areas, 2) integrated HAP-terrestrial systems to provide coverage where deploying terrestrial networks is expensive, and 3) terrestrial-HAP-satellite systems for fault tolerance and high quality of service. The document also evaluates the performance of delivering WiMAX services from HAPs and discusses applications like wireless sensor networks and disaster response.
The document provides an overview of High Altitude Aeronautical Platform Station (HAAPS) technology. It discusses how HAAPS uses airships or aircraft operating between 3-22km in altitude to provide wireless telecommunication services. A HAAPS can cover an area of up to 1000km in diameter. It then describes different platform options being proposed or used, including airships, high altitude long endurance aircraft, and tethered aerostats. The document outlines the system architecture, including the airborne and ground station equipment. It discusses power systems for solar-powered long endurance aircraft and how mission requirements impact aircraft sizing. Finally, it compares the performance and advantages of HAAPS to terrestrial wireless and satellite systems.
HF provides long-range communication capabilities for ship-to-shore and shore-to-ship use as an alternative to satellite communication outside Inmarsat coverage areas. MF frequencies between 2-4 MHz provide medium-range service for distress communication, while VHF uses 156.525 MHz and 156.8 MHz for short-range distress communication.
The document discusses different types of amplitude modulation (AM) including:
1) Double sideband AM which produces a signal with power at the carrier frequency and two adjacent sidebands, each equal in bandwidth to the modulating signal.
2) Single sideband modulation which completely suppresses either the carrier or one sideband, improving bandwidth efficiency at the cost of increased complexity.
3) On-off keying AM which represents binary data as the presence or absence of a carrier wave, commonly used to transmit Morse code.
The modulation index measures the extent of amplitude variation around the unmodulated carrier level, relating the variation in carrier amplitude to avoid distortion.
This document outlines an experiment to analyze the gain, phase, and cutoff frequency responses of first-order passive low-pass and high-pass RC filters. The objectives are to plot the gain and phase responses of the filters, determine how the cutoff frequency is affected by the R and C component values, and answer related questions at various steps of the experiment.
The document discusses various types of amplitude modulation including double sideband full carrier (DSB-FC), double sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC), and single sideband suppressed carrier (SSB-SC). It also covers power in amplitude modulation, noting that the carrier contains most power while each sideband contains half the carrier power. Finally, it defines modulation index as the ratio of the modulating signal to the unmodulated carrier signal, which should not exceed 1 or 100% modulation to avoid signal distortion.
This document describes an experiment to analyze the frequency response of passive low-pass and high-pass filters. The objectives are to plot the gain and phase responses of first-order RC filters, determine cutoff frequencies, and observe how component values affect cutoff frequency. Simulation results show that low-pass filters pass low frequencies and attenuate high frequencies above the cutoff frequency. High-pass filters do the opposite, passing high frequencies and attenuating low frequencies below the cutoff. For both filters, the cutoff frequency is determined by the RC time constant, and increasing or decreasing resistance and capacitance values lowers the cutoff frequency as expected. The phase response also shifts as expected, with about a 45 degree phase shift at the cutoff frequency for both single
1. The experiment demonstrated pulse-code modulation (PCM) using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and digital-to-analog converter (DAC).
2. The DAC output had a staircase-like waveform that was smoothed into an analog signal by a low-pass filter.
3. The sampling frequency determined by the pulse generator affected the time between samples but did not change the cutoff frequency of the filter or the output frequency, which matched the input analog signal frequency.
This document describes an experiment involving active band-pass and band-stop filters. The objectives are to determine the gain-frequency response, quality factor, bandwidth, and phase shift of these filters. The experiment uses op-amps, capacitors, and resistors to build a multiple feedback band-pass filter and a two-pole Sallen-Key notch (band-stop) filter. Equations are provided to calculate the center frequency, bandwidth, quality factor, and voltage gain of the filters based on their circuit component values. The procedures involve simulating the filters and measuring their gain-frequency responses to determine these characteristics and compare them to theoretical calculations.
The document summarizes the history and development of cellular technology through its different generations. It discusses the transition from 1G analog networks to 2G digital networks using technologies like GSM. 2G introduced features like SMS messaging. 3G networks focused on packet switching and higher data speeds for internet access through emerging standards like WCDMA and CDMA2000. The first 3G networks launched in 2001 in Japan and South Korea.
Modulation
In the modulation process, some characteristic of a high-frequency carrier signal (bandpass), is changed according to the instantaneous amplitude of the information (baseband) signal.
Satellite communications play a vital role in global telecommunications by relaying signals between locations worldwide using approximately 2,000 orbiting satellites. Key applications include telephone via satellite phones, television via direct broadcast satellites and fixed service satellites, radio via satellite radio services, internet access, and military communications. There are three main satellite systems: INTELSAT for international routes, DOMSAT for domestic services within countries, and SARSAT for search and rescue using polar orbiting satellites.
This document provides an overview of satellite communications systems and applications. It discusses the basic components of satellite communications systems, including active and passive satellites. It then summarizes several applications of satellite technology, including telephone communications, satellite television, satellite radio, amateur radio, satellite Internet, and military uses. Finally, it briefly outlines the history of satellite communications, noting that the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik, in 1957.
Satellite communication has become an integral part of global communication infrastructure. Satellites relay radio signals between Earth stations to enable services like television broadcasting, telephone calls, and internet access across long distances. There are different types of communication satellites depending on their use - fixed satellites provide point-to-point communication, broadcast satellites deliver television and radio signals directly to receivers, and mobile satellites facilitate services like satellite phones. While satellites provide advantages like universal coverage and independence from terrestrial infrastructure, they also have disadvantages like high initial costs and potential signal interference issues.
Satellite systems provide global coverage without the need for wiring infrastructure. They can broadcast TV and radio signals and provide telecommunication services. Early systems included Syncom (1963), the first geostationary satellite, and Intelsat (1965), the first commercial geostationary system. Modern systems include Iridium (66 satellites at 780km), Globalstar (48 satellites at 1414km), and proposed systems like Teledesic (288 satellites at 700km) that provide voice and data services from low Earth orbit. Handover between satellites and ground stations allows mobility but introduces complexity in routing calls and data.
Satellite communications began in 1962 with the launch of Telstar 1, which demonstrated transmitting radio signals between Earth and a satellite. Since then, satellite technology has advanced, allowing international phone calls and television distribution globally. Satellites function as wireless repeaters in orbit, receiving and retransmitting signals. They provide communication links over large areas and distances independently. Various protocols like TDMA are used to manage communications over the delay-prone satellite links.
This document discusses satellite communication, including what satellites are, how satellite communication systems work, different types of satellite orbits, the evolution of satellite technology from passive to active satellites, services provided by satellites such as television and radio broadcasting, advantages of satellite communication such as its universal and reliable coverage, and applications such as military and internet access. The future of satellite communication is discussed, with expectations that satellites will have more onboard processing capabilities and power to handle higher bandwidth demands.
This document provides information on satellite communication, including the different types of satellite orbits. It begins with definitions of key terms like satellite, communication, and satellite communication. It then discusses the history of satellites, including early satellites from the 1950s-1960s and the introduction of geostationary satellites. The document also covers the advantages and disadvantages of satellite communication compared to terrestrial networks. It describes low earth orbit (LEO), medium earth orbit (MEO), and geostationary orbit (GEO) satellites and their characteristics. Finally, it discusses various applications of satellite communication systems.
This document summarizes key aspects of satellite communications technology. It describes transponders that relay signals between satellites and Earth, how satellites control their orientation, and how they are powered by solar cells. It discusses low Earth orbiting satellites and very small aperture terminals that allow communication across wide areas. The document outlines domestic, regional, and international satellite types and some advantages of satellite circuits like independent coverage over distance.
This document provides an introduction to satellite communication. It discusses the basic structure of a satellite link with uplinks and downlinks using separate frequency bands. Common frequency bands used include C-band, extended C-band, Ku-band, and Ka-band. The document also describes geostationary satellites, signal levels, propagation delay, transponder equipment on satellites, and India's INSAT satellite program. Advantages of satellite communication include wide coverage area, suitability for both digital and analog transmission, high quality, flexibility, and ability to provide quick services and mobile/emergency communication.
This document discusses satellite communication systems. It begins with an introduction describing satellites and their components. It then describes the principles of satellite communication, including how they function as repeater stations in space to extend the range of radio signals beyond line-of-sight limits. The key components of satellite systems are the space segment, consisting of satellites in orbit, and the ground segment, including earth stations. Various types of satellite orbits and applications are also outlined, such as global mobile communication, military uses, and navigation. The document concludes with references on satellite channel impairments and modeling.
INTELSAT was created in 1964 to provide international telecommunications via satellite. It has over 140 member countries and investing entities. In 2001, INTELSAT became a private company providing end-to-end solutions globally. INSAT is India's domestic satellite system launched in 1983 as the largest in Asia-Pacific. It provides transponders for television, communication, meteorology, and search and rescue. VSAT systems use small satellite dishes for networks connecting geographically dispersed locations like banks, retailers, and hotels. GSM is the global standard for digital cellular communications networks adopted worldwide that allows more network users through digital encoding.
Satellite communication involves transmitting information from one location to another using an artificial satellite orbiting Earth. A communication satellite receives signals from transmitting ground stations, amplifies and processes the signals, and transmits them back to receiving ground stations on Earth. The key components of satellite communication systems are the space segment, consisting of the satellite, and the ground segment, consisting of transmitting and receiving earth stations.
The Iridium satellite system allows for global mobile communications through a constellation of 66 low Earth orbit satellites. It uses a digitally switched network architecture to provide telephone service anywhere on Earth. Each satellite is crosslinked to four other satellites to relay digital information and determine the best routing path for calls through inter-satellite links and ground-based gateways. The unique feature of the Iridium system is its crosslinks that allow two-way global communications even when the destination location is unknown.
This document provides an overview of satellite communication. It defines a satellite and communications satellite, and explains that satellites receive, amplify and redirect radio frequency signals to enable global telecommunications. The key components of a satellite communication system are the space segment, including the satellite, and the ground segment, including earth stations. Satellites can be placed in different orbits, such as low earth orbit, medium earth orbit or geostationary orbit. Early systems used passive reflective satellites but active satellites now amplify signals. Satellite communication provides advantages like universal coverage and support for various applications including television, radio, internet and more. Future innovations will increase satellite capabilities and bandwidth.
This document discusses satellite communication, including defining a satellite, describing how satellite communication works, and outlining the key elements and orbits involved. It explains that satellites amplify and redirect radio signals and how early systems used non-geostationary orbits, while modern satellites use geostationary orbits. The document also covers services provided by satellite communication, frequency bands, advantages like accessibility, and applications such as television, radio, and internet access. Finally, it discusses how future satellites will have more capabilities and enable higher bandwidth to ensure the long-term viability of commercial satellite systems.
This document discusses applications of satellite communication. It begins by providing background on satellites and noting that over 6,600 satellites have been launched, with around 1,000 currently operational. It then discusses key applications such as fixed satellite services for voice, data and video transmission globally, mobile satellite systems for remote connectivity, and scientific research satellites. The document focuses on communication satellites and their uses for television, radio, internet access and more. It also describes very small aperture terminals (VSAT) systems and how they transmit data in real-time to satellites and between locations via satellites. The document outlines advantages of VSAT like easy deployment and independence from local networks, as well as disadvantages like latency. It concludes by restating how satellite systems
The document discusses the evolution of telephony from 1876 to the present, including the development of mobile telephony. It describes the public switched telephone network and how it connects to subscribers. It also covers multiple access procedures used in mobile networks, including FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, and SDMA. Finally, it discusses technologies that enabled mobile computing through telephony networks, such as computer telephony interface, intelligent networks, and interactive voice response systems.
The document summarizes the history and activities of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). It discusses key ISRO missions and systems including the Indian National Satellite System (INSAT), the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite System (IRS), the Stretched Rohini Satellite Series (SROSS), the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV). The document outlines ISRO's role in applying space technology to address national needs and its contributions to India's development.
Microwave systems (140403111014,16) ppt1Vijay Kumar
This document provides an overview of microwave systems and their applications. It discusses wireless communication, radar systems, satellite systems, and microwave antennas. Wireless communication uses radio waves to transfer information between points without wires. Radar systems detect objects using radio waves. Satellite systems use satellites as relay stations to enable communication over large distances. Microwave antennas can be omni-directional or directional depending on the application. The document also briefly discusses adaptive beam forming, remote sensing from platforms like satellites, satellite communication advantages and disadvantages, common satellite orbits, and frequency bands used.
SIGNAL SPECTRA EXPERIMENT 2 - FINALS (for PULA)Sarah Krystelle
This document describes an experiment conducted on a class B push-pull power amplifier. The objectives were to determine the dc and ac load lines, observe crossover distortion, measure maximum output voltage and power, and calculate efficiency. The circuit diagram and theory of operation for a class B push-pull amplifier are provided. Key steps in the procedure involve using simulations and equipment to analyze the input/output waveforms, dc bias voltages, and performance metrics.
SIGNAL SPECTRA EXPERIMENT 2 - FINALS (for CAUAN)Sarah Krystelle
This document describes Experiment #2 on a class B push-pull power amplifier. The objectives are to determine the dc and ac load lines, observe crossover distortion, measure voltage gain, output power, and efficiency. Sample computations are provided for voltage gain, output power, input power, and efficiency. The theory section describes class B push-pull amplifiers and how biasing the transistors slightly above cutoff can eliminate crossover distortion. Procedures are outlined to simulate and measure the amplifier's input, output, voltage gain, power output, and efficiency.
SIGNAL SPECTRA EXPERIMENT 1 - FINALS (for PULA)Sarah Krystelle
The document describes Experiment #1 on a class A power amplifier. It involves determining the operating point (Q-point) on the DC and AC load lines, measuring the voltage gain, maximum undistorted output, and efficiency. The student is to perform steps such as calculating voltages/currents, drawing load lines, measuring gain, and adjusting the emitter resistance to center the Q-point on the AC load line. Objectives include analyzing the amplifier's DC and AC characteristics, measuring linearity and maximum output before clipping occurs.
SIGNAL SPECTRA EXPERIMENT 1 - FINALS (for CAUAN)Sarah Krystelle
This document describes an experiment conducted on a Class B push-pull power amplifier. The experiment involves determining the operating point on the DC and AC load lines, centering the operating point on the AC load line, measuring the voltage gain, maximum undistorted output power, and efficiency of the amplifier. Objectives of the experiment include locating the operating point, drawing load lines, measuring voltage gain, output power, and efficiency. Components used include a transistor, resistors, capacitors, a power supply, function generator, oscilloscope and multimeter. Calculations are shown for determining load lines, voltage gain, output power and efficiency. Results are recorded for undistorted output voltage and input voltage.
SIGNAL SPECTRA EXPERIMENT 1 - FINALS (for AGDON)Sarah Krystelle
This experiment analyzed the operation of a class A power amplifier. Key findings include:
1) The initial operating point (Q-point) was not centered on the AC load line, resulting in output clipping.
2) Adjusting the emitter resistance centered the Q-point on the AC load line, eliminating clipping and increasing the maximum undistorted output voltage.
3) A class A amplifier has low efficiency due to conduction over the entire input cycle, but provides the most linear amplification.
SIGNAL SPECTRA EXPERIMENT 1 - FINALS (for ABDON)Sarah Krystelle
The document describes Experiment #1 on a class A power amplifier. Key points:
1. The operating point (Q-point) of the amplifier was initially not centered on the AC load line, causing distortion. Adjusting the emitter resistor centered the Q-point.
2. With the centered Q-point, the maximum undistorted output voltage increased. The expected and measured output voltages matched closely.
3. A class A amplifier has low efficiency due to conduction over the full input cycle, but provides an undistorted output waveform.
SIGNAL SPECTRA EXPERIMENT AMPLITUDE MODULATIONSarah Krystelle
1. The document describes an experiment on amplitude modulation (AM) involving modulating a carrier signal with different modulation indexes and frequencies.
2. Key objectives are to demonstrate AM signals in the time and frequency domains, determine modulation indexes and bandwidths, and compare side frequency levels.
3. Amplitude modulation varies the amplitude of a carrier signal based on an information-carrying modulating signal. This generates sidebands above and below the carrier frequency.
SIGNAL SPECTRA EXPERIMENT AMPLITUDE MODULATION COPY 2Sarah Krystelle
This experiment demonstrates amplitude modulation (AM) using a circuit that multiplies a carrier signal with a modulating signal and adds the results.
1. The experiment showed AM signals in the time and frequency domains for different modulation indexes. In the time domain, the envelope matched the modulating signal.
2. For 100% modulation, the sideband voltages were half the carrier voltage, matching expectations. The bandwidth matched the modulating frequency.
3. Reducing the modulating signal amplitude to 0.5 V resulted in a modulation index near 50%, close to the expected value, demonstrating the circuit can produce AM signals.
This document describes an experiment on amplitude modulation. The objectives are to demonstrate AM in the time and frequency domains, determine modulation index from plots, and examine how modulation index affects sideband levels. The experiment uses a circuit to multiply a carrier and modulating signal, producing an AM carrier viewed on an oscilloscope in the time domain and a spectrum analyzer in the frequency domain. For a modulation index of 1, the sideband voltage is half the carrier voltage as expected. Changing the modulating signal amplitude produces a lower modulation index as seen in the modulated carrier plot.
1. The document describes an experiment on amplitude modulation (AM) that demonstrates AM in the time and frequency domains for different modulation indexes and modulating frequencies.
2. Key objectives are to observe the modulation index, sideband frequencies, bandwidth, and power distribution between the carrier and sidebands for AM signals.
3. The experiment uses a circuit that multiplies a carrier signal with a modulating signal to generate an AM signal, which is then observed on an oscilloscope in the time domain and a spectrum analyzer in the frequency domain.
The document describes an experiment on amplitude modulation (AM). The objectives are to demonstrate AM signals in the time and frequency domains for different modulation indexes and frequencies. Key aspects covered include modulation index, sideband frequencies, bandwidth, and power distribution between the carrier and sidebands. The experiment uses function generators, an oscilloscope, and spectrum analyzer to generate and analyze AM signals.
1. The document describes an experiment on amplitude modulation (AM) that aims to demonstrate AM in the time and frequency domains for different modulation indexes and frequencies.
2. Key objectives are to determine modulation index, side frequency levels, signal bandwidth, and effects of complex modulation.
3. AM involves varying the amplitude of a carrier wave using a modulating signal, generating sidebands above and below the carrier frequency. The bandwidth occupied depends on the modulating signal frequencies.
1) The document describes an experiment on amplitude modulation (AM) involving demonstrating AM signals in the time and frequency domains for different modulation indexes and frequencies.
2) Key aspects of AM are discussed, including how the modulation index is defined and relates to percent modulation. Modulation indexes above 1 cause overmodulation and distortion.
3) AM generates sidebands above and below the carrier frequency by the modulating frequency. The bandwidth occupied depends on the highest modulating frequency components.
This document describes an experiment on amplitude modulation. The objectives are to demonstrate AM in the time and frequency domains for different modulation indexes and frequencies. The experiment uses a circuit to mathematically multiply a carrier signal with a modulating signal. Key findings include:
- For a 5 kHz modulating signal, the modulation index was 100% and sideband frequencies were 5 kHz from the 100 kHz carrier.
- Reducing the modulating signal to 0.5 V reduced the modulation index to 51%, as expected based on the signal amplitudes.
- Sideband voltage levels were half the carrier voltage for 100% modulation, matching theoretical calculations.
This experiment examines amplitude modulation (AM) using a circuit that mathematically multiplies a carrier signal and a modulating signal.
When the modulating signal amplitude is 1 V, the modulation index is 100% based on both calculation and observation of the modulated carrier waveform. The frequency spectrum shows sidebands separated from the carrier by the modulating frequency.
Reducing the modulating signal to 0.5 V yields a modulation index of 50% as expected. Overall the experiment demonstrates the generation of an AM signal and measurement of modulation index from the signal waveform and spectrum.
This document describes an experiment on amplitude modulation (AM). The objectives are to demonstrate AM in the time and frequency domains, determine modulation index and bandwidth, and examine how sideband power depends on modulation index. The experiment uses a circuit to mathematically multiply a carrier and modulating signal. Measurements are made on an oscilloscope in the time domain and a spectrum analyzer in the frequency domain. Results show the expected relationships between carrier, sideband frequencies and voltages, and how modulation index impacts bandwidth and sideband power. Changing the modulating signal amplitude alters the measured modulation index as expected.
This document discusses Fourier theory and how it can be used to represent non-sinusoidal signals as a combination of sinusoidal waves of different frequencies and amplitudes. It provides examples of how square waves and triangular waves can be produced by adding together sine and cosine waves. The document also discusses the difference between analyzing signals in the time domain versus the frequency domain and how these representations provide different insights. Finally, it discusses how Fourier analysis can be used to understand the bandwidth requirements to transmit digital pulses accurately.
1. The document describes an experiment on Fourier theory and how signals can be represented in both the time domain and frequency domain. Square waves and triangular waves are generated from a series of sine and cosine waves (Fourier series) and plotted in both domains.
2. Low-pass filters are used to remove higher harmonics from signals. This distorts the original waveshape as more harmonics are removed. The bandwidth needed to transmit pulses with minimal distortion depends on the duty cycle.
3. Objectives include learning how square and triangular waves can be produced from Fourier series, comparing time and frequency domain plots, and examining how duty cycle and filtering affect pulses in both domains.
This document discusses Fourier analysis of signals in the time and frequency domains. It explains that any non-sinusoidal periodic signal can be represented as a sum of sinusoidal waves of different frequencies and amplitudes. Signals are normally expressed in the time domain but Fourier theory allows expressing them in the frequency domain. The frequency spectrum reveals the bandwidth needed to transmit the signal with minimal distortion. Fourier analysis is useful for analyzing digital pulses, and the duty cycle of a periodic pulse train affects its frequency spectrum. Sample circuits are provided to generate square and triangular waves using Fourier series approximations.
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Satellite communication bani
1. NATIONAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Amafel Bldg. Aguinaldo Highway Dasmariñas City, Cavite
Assignment 1
SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
Bani, Arviclyn C. September 05, 2011
Communications 1/BSECE 41A1 Score:
Engr. Grace Ramones
Instructor
2. SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
Satellites have now become an integral part of the worldwide communication systems. Although
long–range and long distance communication took place much before the introduction of satellite
systems, they had a lot of disadvantages. Point – to – point communication systems are very
difficult in the case of remote & isolated locations, which are surrounded by oceans, mountains
and other obstacles created by nature.
The satellite is nothing more than a radio-relay station But, they have one potential advantage-
The capability of a direct line of sight path to 98% (excluding the polar caps, which are in
accessible to satellites) of the earth's surface.
One of the most important event in the history of satellite communication took place when
COMSAT or communication satellite corporation, launched four satellites within 6 years that is
between 1965 to 1979. The first of these series was the ‘Early Bird' , which was launched in 1965.
This was the first communication station to handle worldwide commercial telephone traffic from a
fixed position in space. The next series INTELSAT was a group of satellites that served 150
stations in 80 countries.
Basic Elements
Satellite communications are comprised of 2 main components:
The Satellite
The satellite itself is also known as the space segment, and is composed of three separate
units, namely the fuel system, the satellite and telemetry controls, and the transponder.
The transponder includes the receiving antenna to pick-up signals from the ground station,
a broad band receiver, an input multiplexer, and a frequency converter which is used to
reroute the received signals through a high powered amplifier for downlink. The primary
role of a satellite is to reflect electronic signals. In the case of a telecom satellite, the
primary task is to receive signals from a ground station and send them down to another
ground station located a considerable distance away from the first. This relay action can
be two-way, as in the case of a long distance phone call. Another use of the satellite is
when, as is the case with television broadcasts, the ground station's uplink is then
downlinked over a wide region, so that it may be received by many different customers
possessing compatible equipment. Still another use for satellites is observation, wherein
the satellite is equipped with cameras or various sensors, and it merely downlinks any
information it picks up from its vantagepoint.
The Ground Station.
This is the earth segment. The ground station's job is two-fold. In the case of an uplink, or
transmitting station, terrestrial data in the form of baseband signals, is passed through a
baseband processor, an up converter, a high powered amplifier, and through a parabolic
dish antenna up to an orbiting satellite. In the case of a downlink, or receiving station,
works in the reverse fashion as the uplink, ultimately converting signals received through
the parabolic antenna to base band signal.
Various Uses of Satellite Communications
Traditional Telecommunications
Since the beginnings of the long distance telephone network, there has been a need to
connect the telecommunications networks of one country to another. This has been
accomplished in several ways. Submarine cables have been used most frequently.
However, there are many occasions where a large long distance carrier will choose to
establish a satellite based link to connect to transoceanic points, geographically remote
areas or poor countries that have little communications infrastructure. Groups like the
international satellite consortium Intelsat have fulfilled much of the world's need for this
type of service.
Cellular
3. Various schemes have been devised to allow satellites to increase the bandwidth available
to ground based cellular networks. Every cell in a cellular network divides up a fixed range
of channels which consist of either frequencies, as in the case of FDMA systems, or time
slots, as in the case of TDMA. Since a particular cell can only operate within those
channels allocated to it, overloading can occur. By using satellites which operate at a
frequency outside those of the cell, we can provide extra satellite channels on demand to
an overloaded cell. These extra channels can just as easily be, once free, used by any
other overloaded cell in the network, and are not bound by bandwidth restrictions like
those used by the cell. In other words, a satellite that provides service for a network of
cells can allow its own bandwidth to be used by any cell that needs it without being bound
by terrestrial bandwidth and location restrictions.
Television Signals
Satellites have been used for since the 1960's to transmit broadcast television signals
between the network hubs of television companies and their network affiliates. In some
cases, an entire series of programming is transmitted at once and recorded at the affiliate,
with each segment then being broadcast at appropriate times to the local viewing
populace. In the 1970's, it became possible for private individuals to download the same
signal that the networks and cable companies were transmitting, using c-band reception
dishes. This free viewing of corporate content by individuals led to scrambling and
subsequent resale of the descrambling codes to individual customers, which started the
direct-to-home industry. The direct-to-home industry has gathered even greater
momentum since the introduction of digital direct broadcast service.
o C-band
C-Band (3.7 - 4.2 GHz) - Satellites operating in this band can be spaced as close
as two degrees apart in space, and normally carry 24 transponders operating at 10
to 17 watts each. Typical receive antennas are 6 to 7.5 feet in diameter. More than
250 channels of video and 75 audio services are available today from more than
20 C-Band satellites over North America. Virtually every cable programming
service is delivered via C-Band.
o Ku-Band
Fixed Satellite Service (FSS)
Ku Band (11.7 - 12.2 GHz) - Satellites operating in this band can be spaced
as closely as two degrees apart in space, and carry from 12 to 24
transponders that operate at a wide range of powers from 20 to 120 watts
each. Typical receive antennas are three to six feet in diameter. More than
20 FSS Ku-Band satellites are in operation over North America today,
including several "hybrid" satellites which carry both C-Band and Ku-Band
transponders. PrimeStar currently operates off Satcom K-2, an FSS or so-
called "medium-power" Ku-Band satellite. AlphaStar also uses an FSS-Ku
Band satellite, Telestar 402-R.
Broadcasting Satellite Service (BSS)
Ku-Band (12.2 - 12.7 GHz) - Satellites operating in this band are spaced
nine degrees apart in space, and normally carry 16 transponders that
operate at powers in excess of 100 watts. Typical receive antennas are 18
inches in diameter. The United States has been allocated eight BSS orbital
positions, of which three (101, 110 and 119 degrees) are the so-called
prime "CONUS" slots from which a DBS provider can service the entire 48
contiguous states with one satellite. A total of 32 DBS "channels" are
4. available at each orbital position, which allows for delivery of some 250
video signals when digital compression technology is employed.
o DBS
DBS (Direct Broadcast Satellite) -The transmission of audio and video signals via
satellite direct to the end user. More than four million households in the United
States enjoy C-Band DBS. Medium-power Ku-Band DBS surfaced in the late
1990s with high power Ku-Band DBS launched in 1994.
Marine Communications
In the maritime community, satellite communication systems such as Inmarsat provide
good communication links to ships at sea. These links use a VSAT type device to connect
to geosynchronous satellites, which in turn link the ship to a land based point of presence
to the respective nations telecommunications system.
Spacebourne Land Mobile
Along the same lines as the marine based service, there are VSAT devices which can be
used to establish communication links even from the world's most remote regions. These
devices can be hand-held, or fit into a briefcase. Digital data at 64K ISDN is available with
some (Inmarsat).
Satellite Messaging for Commercial Jets
Another service provided by geosyncronous satellites are the ability for a passenger on an
airbourne aircraft to connect directly to a landbased telecom network.
Global Positioning Services
Another VSAT oriented service, in which a small apparatus containing the ability to
determine navigational coordinates by calculating a triangulating of the signals from
multiple geosynchronous satellites.
Technological Overview
Satellites for Data
Characteristics
Incorporating satellites into terrestrial networks is often hindered by three characteristics
possessed by satellite communication.
o Latency (propagation delay): Due to the high altitudes of satellite orbits, the time
required for a transmission to navigate a satellite link (more than 2/10ths of a
second from earth station to earth station) could cause a variety of problems on a
high speed terrestrial network that is waiting for the packets.
o Poor Bandwidth: Due to radio spectrum limitations, there is a fixed amount of
bandwidth allocable to satellite transmission.
o Noise:A radio signals strength is in proportion to the square of the distance
traveled. Due to the distance between ground station and satellite, the signal
ultimately gets very weak. This problem can be solved by using appropriate error
correction techniques, however.
Error Correction
Due to the high noise present on a satellite link, numerous error correction techniques
have been tested in on such links. They fall into the two categories of forward-error-
correction (FEC) and automatic-repeat-request (ARQ):
o Forward-error-correction (FEC)
In this method a certain number of information symbols are mapped to new
information symbols, but in such a way as to get more symbols than were original
had. When these new symbols are checked on the receiving end, the redundant
symbols are used to decipher the original symbols, as well as to check for data
integrity. The more redundant symbols that are included in the mapping, the better
5. the reliability of the error correction. However it should be noted that the more
redundant symbols that are used to achieve better integrity, the more bandwidth
that is wasted. Since this method uses relatively a large amount redundant data, it
may not be the most efficient choice on a clear channel. However when noise
levels are high, FEC can more reliably ensure the integrity of the data.
o Automatic-repeat-request (ARR)
In this method, data is broken into packets. Within each packet is included an error
checking key. This key is often of the cyclic redundancy check (CRC) sort. If the
error code reflects a loss of integrity in a packet, the receiver can request the
sender to resend that packet. ARR is not very good in a channel with high noise,
since many retransmissions will be required, and the noise levels that corrupted
the initial packet will be likely to cause corruption in subsequent packets. ARR is
more suitable to relatively noise free channels.
Stop and Wait (SW)
With this form of ARR, the sender must wait for an acknowledgement of
each packet before it can send a new one. This can take upwards of
4/10ths of a second per packet since it takes 2/10ths seconds for the
receiver to get the packet an another 2/10th seconds for the sender to
receive the acknowledgement.
Go-back-N (GBN)
This method of ARR is an improvement over stop and wait in that it allows
the sender to keep sending packets until it gets a request for a resend.
When the sender gets such a request, it sends packets starting at the
requested packet over again. It can again send packets until it receives
another retransmit request, and so on.
Selective-repeat (SR)
This ARR protocol is an improvement over GBN in that it allows the
receiver to request a retransmit of only that packet that it needs, instead of
that packet and all that follows it. The receiver, after receiving a bad packet
and requesting a retransmit, can continue to accept any good packets that
are coming. This method is the most efficient method for satellite
transmissions of the three ARR methods discussed.
ARR methods can be demonstrated to provide a usable error correction
scheme, but it is also the most expensive, in terms of hardware. This is in
part due to the buffering memory that is required, but more importantly to
the cost of the receiver, which needs to be able to transmit re-requests.
Systems such as the Digital Broadcast Satellites used for television signal
distribution would become inordinately expensive if they had to make use of
ARR, since the home based receiver would now need to be a transmitter,
and the 18 inch dish would be inadequate for the requirements of
transmitting back to a satellite.
Hybrid Networks
In today's global networking landscape, there are many ways to transmit data from one
place to another. It is desirable to be able to incorporate any type of data transmission
media into a network, especially in networks that encompass large areas. A hybrid
network is one that allows data to flow across a network, using many types of media,
either satellite, wireless or terrestrial, transparently. Since each type of media will have
different characteristics, it is necessary to implement a standard transmission protocol.
One that is normally used in hybrid networks is TCP/IP. In addition, much work is being
done to use TCP/IP over ATM for the satellite segments of hybrid networks, about which
more will be discussed later.
6. One way to get around the need in ARR for the receiver to have to request retransmit via
an expensive and slow satellite link is to use a form of hybrid network. In one form of
hybrid network, the reciever transmits its requests back to the sender via a terrestrial link.
Terrestrial link allows for quicker, more economical and less error prone transmission from
the reciever, and the costs associated with the receivers hardware are greatly reduced
when compared to the costs involved if it had to transmit back over the satellite link. There
are products on the market today that allow a home user to get intenet access at around
400MB via digital satellite, while its retransmit signals are sent via an inexpensive modem
or ISDN line.
In fact, a product currently being marketed by Direct PC called Turbo Internet uses a form
of hybrid network. The system uses two network interfaces; one connects via a special
ISA bus PC adapter to a receive-only Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT), while the
other is a modem attached to a serial port. Inbound traffic comes down to the VSAT, while
outbound traffic goes through the modem link. The two interfaces are combined to appear
as a single virtual interface to upper layer TCP/IP protocol stacks by a special NDIS
compliant driver. The Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) is used to connect the modem-
based link with an internet service provider. Packets, which are encapsulated by the
terminal such that the desired ip address of the destination host is embedded underneath
the IP address of the Direct PC Gateway, to which all packets leaving the terminal must
go. Once at the gateway, the outer packet is stripped, and the gateway contacts the
destination address within. Upon the gateway's receiving the request from the host, it then
prepares the packet for satellite transmission, which is then used to send the packet back
to the terminal.
7. ATM Over Satellite
Two qualitites of Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) made it highly desirable for the
implementation of satellite links within hybrid networks. The first is the ATM's asynchrony
and the second is its ability to use variable transfer rates. In addition, ATM fits well into
existing networks with its wide range of upper-layer services and its ability to operate in a
wide range of environments.
There are problems, however. ATM's relatively large propagation delays can significantly
increase the latency of feedback mechanisms essential for congestion control. acquisition
time, cell in-synch time and cell discard probability. Solutions to these issues are still being
explored.
The group that is currently working to develop interoperability specifications that facilitate
ATM access and ATM network interconnect in both fixed and mobile satellite networks is
known as The TIA/SCD/CIS - WATM group. As of March, 1997 they have proposed the
following standards:
o SATATM Type 1 - Fixed ATM Direct Access
Fixed network access via satellite that is characterized by a large number of
small inexpensive user terminals and a small number of gateway earth
stations. Provides for a radio interface of 64 kbit/s - NxE1 and a service
interface of 2.4 kbit/s - NxE1 while providing no mobility support
o SATATM Type 2 - Fixed ATM Network Interconnect
High speed interconnections using PNNI, B-ICI, or Public UNI between
earth stations and fixed ATM networks.
Allows for a radio interface of T1 - 1.2 Gbit/s but provides no mobility
support.
o SATATM Type 3 - Mobile ATM Direct Access
8. ATM network access by mobile terminals. The radio interface provides for
64 kbit/s - E1 for moving, 64 kbit/s - NxE1 for portable terminals and the
rervice interfaceallows for 75 bit/s - E1 for moving, 75 bits/s - NxE1 for
portable terminals.
o SATATM Type 4 - Mobile ATM Network Interconnect
High speed interconnections between mobile and fixed networks or
between two mobile networks providing fast moving land-mobile data rates
< NxE1 and slow-moving airborne data rates of < 622 Mbit/s.
The group also has established requirements for dealing with the physical layer, the media
access control layer and the data link control layer.
SATIN - Satellite Integrated Terrestrial Network:
The goal of SATIN is to create a fully integrated hybrid network in which the
method of communication, which can incorporate networks of local, metropolitan
and wide area scope, Broadband ISDN, Integrated Network Management, AIN
(Advanced Intelligent Networks) and PCS (Personal Communications Services), in
addition to ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) over satellite, is totally transparent
to the user. The difficulties inherent in this are obvious. Differences in latency,
noise, bandwidth and reliability must be equalized in all the media that will
encompass the network.
VSAT Networks
VSAT stands for Very Small Aperture Terminal. Although this acronym has been used
amongst telecom groups for some time now to describe small earth stations, the concepts
of VSAT are being applied to modern hand held satellite communications units, such as
GPS (Global Positioning System), portable Inmarsat phones and other types of portable
satellite communication devices.
Orbits
o GEO
GEO stands for Geostationary Earth Orbit. This refers to satellites that are placed
in orbit such that they remain stationary relative to a fixed spot on earth. If a
satellite is placed at 35,900 km above the earth, its angular velocity is equal to that
of the earth, thereby causing it to appear to be over the same point on earth. This
allows for them to provide constant coverage of the area and eliminate blackout
periods of ordinary orbiting satellites, which is good for providing television
broadcasting. However their high altitude causes a long delay, so two way
communications, which would need to be uploaded and then downloaded over a
distance of 72,000 km, are not often used with this type of orbit.
o LEO
LEO stands for Low Earth Orbit, and it refers to satellites in orbit at less that 22300
miles above the earth. This type of an orbit reduces transmission times as
compared to GEO. A LEO orbit can also be used to cover a polar region, which the
GEO cannot accomplish. Since it does not appear stationary to earth stations,
however, earth stations need an antenna assembly that will track the motion of the
satellite.
Constellations
The idea behind a constellation is to use to acheive global simultaneous satellite coverage
by placing enough satellites into orbit so that (nearly) every point on earth is covered.
There are currently two main types of service being planned at the moment, global voice
and global data.
o Global Voice Communications
9. There are currently several consortiums that are working on global voice via
satellite. One of the most prominant is the IRIDIUM constellation, which will
consist of 66 interconnected satellites orbiting 420 nautical miles above the
earth. The satellites will use a LEO orbit so that very small handheld
terminals can be used by ground-based cutomers. The system will use
intersatellite crosslink transmissions that will take place in the Ka frequency
band between 23.18 and 23.38 GHz. The IRIDIUM system will use a
combination of Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) and Time
Division Multiple Access (TDMA) signal multiplexing to make the most
efficient. The L-Band (1616-1626.5 MHz), is used to link the satellite and
IRIDIUM the subscribers equipment. The Ka-Band (19.4-19.6 GHz for
downlinks and 29.1-29.3 GHz for uplinks) links the satellite and the
gateways and earth terminals.
o Global Broadband Networks
There are basically two types of networks being proposed here, namely LEO
based and GEO based ones.
LEO
LEO networks use low orbits, which allows for much less latency that do
GEO based networks. One problem that these satellites have is that since
the are not geostationary (they are contsantly orbiting around the earth)
they cannot talk continuously to that same ground station. The way this is
overcome is by using intesatellite communications, so that the sattellites
function together as a blanket of coverage. A major player in this are is
Teledesic.
The Teledesic Network uses a constellation of 840 operational interlinked
low-Earth orbit satellites. The system is planned to provide "on-demand"
channel rates from 16 Kbps up to 2.048 Mbps ("E1"), and for special
applications up to 1.24416 Gbps ("OC-24"). The network uses fast packet
switching technology based on the Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
using fixed-length (512) bit packets.. Each satellite in the constellation is a
node in the fast packet switch network, and has intersatellite
communication links with eight adjacent satellites. Each satellite is normally
linked with four satellites within the same plane (two in front and two
behind) and with one in each of the two adjacent planes on both sides.
Each satellite keeps the same position relative to other satellites in its
orbital plane. The Teledesic Network uses a combination of multiple access
methods to ensure efficient use of the spectrum. Each cell within a
supercell is assigned to one of nine equal time slots. All communication
takes place between the satellite and the terminals in that cell during its
assigned time slot . Within each cell’s time slot, the full frequency allocation
is available to support communication channels. The cells are scanned in a
regular cycle by the satellite’s transmit and receive beams, resulting in time
division multiple access (TDMA) among the cells in a supercell. Since
propagation delay varies with path length, satellite transmissions are timed
to ensure that cell N (N=1, 2, 3,...9) of all supercells receive transmissions
at the same time. Terminal transmissions to a satellite are also timed to
ensure that transmissions from the same numbered cell in all supercells in
its coverage area reach that satellite at the same time. Physical separation
(space division multiple access (SDMA) and a checkerboard pattern of left
and right circular polarization eliminate interference between cells scanned
10. at the same time in adjacent supercells. Guard time intervals eliminate
overlap between signals received from time-consecutive cells.
Within each cell’s time slot, terminals use Frequency Division Multiple
Access (FDMA) on the uplink and Asynchronous Time Division Multiple
Access (ATDMA) on the downlink. On the uplink, each active terminal is
assigned one or more frequency slots for the call’s duration and can send
one packet per slot each scan period (23.111 msec). The number of slots
assigned to a terminal determines its maximum available transmission rate.
One slot corresponds to a standard terminal’s 16 Kbps basic channel with
its associated 2 Kbps signaling and control channel. A total of 1800 slots
per cell scan interval are available for standard terminals. The terminal
downlink uses the packet’s header rather than a fixed assignment of time
slots to address terminals.
GEO
GEO's high points are that it's satellites are geostationary, which means
that the difficulties of intersatellite communications are avoided. The
problem arises due to the latency delays caused by the high orbit.
Applications which rely on steady bandwidth, like multimedia, will definately
be affected.