Rural and Urban develoment Aloys new .pptx

Module: Introduction to Rural and Urban development
Unit: Rural and Urban development
Face to face hours: 40%
Teaching days: Friday, Saturday and Sunday
Facilitator: Aloys TWAGIRUMUKIZA (Msc)
Cell: 0788235566
Email: twaloys@gmail.com

Description of the unit
• Explain analytical frameworks for examining
issues and challenges of rural and urban
development
• Explain key policies and measures essential for
healthy rural and urban development in
developing countries such as Rwanda
• Appreciate the challenges of rural and urban
development as well as environmental
management in developing countries such as
Rwanda

Objective of the unit
• provide knowledge to students about theoretical
frameworks for examining issues concerning rural and
urban development
• Offering Students with capacity of establish planning,
management and problem-solving tools that are used
in the fields of development planning
• Provide to the students skills on development policies
and measures adopted in Rwanda and other
developing countries

Learning outcome
At the end of this unit, student should be able to:
• Analyse effectiveness of development policies and
measures adopted in Rwanda and other developing
countries
• Explain analytical frameworks for examining issues and
challenges of rural and urban development
• Explain key policies and measures essential for healthy
rural and urban development in developing countries
such as Rwanda

Requirements and assessment pattern
• Participation 10%
• Presentation 20%
• Group assignment 10%
• Midterm test 20%
• Final exam 40%

Requirement
• Every session shall have in class exercise
combined with short presentation
• Group assignment: chapter reading; due 10 Feb
2019
• Project on community development: due on 05
March 2019

References:
1. Grogan, Paul, Proscoi, Tony, Comeback cities: A Blueprint for
Urban Neighborhood Revival, 2000, ISBN 0-8133-3952-9
2. Crabgrass Frontier; The Suburbanization of the United Stases.
Oxford University Press.pp.13-16.
3. SMITH, MICHAELE. (May 2005). "City Size in Late Post-Classic
Mesoamerica" (PDF). Journal of Urban History (Beverley Hills, CA:
SAGE Publications) 31 (4): 403-434 doi:
10.1177/0096144204274396.QCLC 1798556.
4. Hall. Peter et al, Sociable Cities; the legacy of Ebenezer Howard,
1998, ISBN 0-471- 98504-X, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
5. Smith Moris et al British Town Planning and Urban Design, 1997
ISBN 0-582-23496-4, Longman, Singapore.
6. Willis, K. (2005). Theories and Practices of Development (3rd ed),
London and New York: Routledge

This unity is made of three sessions structured
as follows:
Session one: Introduction to Rural and Urban
development
The concept of development
Rural development ( definitions)
Rural poverty
Factors that promote rural poverty
Local microcosm
Creation of rural poverty
Policy of reducing rural poverty
Rural development programs in Rwanda

Session two: Theories of development
1.Modernization theory
2.Dependency theory
3.Human development theory
4.Human capital theory
Session three: Urban development
1.Definition and meanings
2.Urbanization
3.Urban development

Session One: Step by step reflection
• Differentiate rural to urban area
• What are the major characteristics of
rural/urban area?
• What are the challenges faced by rural/urban
communities

RURAL AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT
• THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT
• Definition: Development is a multidimensional
process that involves growth and development,
positive change, capacity building, as well as
improvement and transformation of society and
its peoples.
• UNDP’s definition of Development: “To lead long
and health lives, to be knowledgeable, to have
access to the resources needed for a decent
standard of living and to be able to participate in
the life of the community”.

Human Development: Achieving
human development means
• (a) Freedom: Freeing people from obstacles
that affect their ability to develop their own
lives and communities.
• b.) Empowerment: Human development is
empowerment. It’s about people taking
control of their own lives; expressing their
own demands and finding their own solutions
to their problems.

Rural Development
Definition and Meaning
• Definition I: Rural development generally refers
to the actions and initiatives taken to improve the
standard of living of people in Non-urban
neighborhoods, countryside and remote villages.
• Definition II: It is the process of improving the
quality of life and economic wellbeing of people
in rural areas, often relatively isolated and
sparsely populated areas.
• Rural areas: These are geographical areas located
outside cities and towns.

Rural occupation: Rural development has
traditionally centered on the exploitation of land
intensive natural resources e.g. agriculture and
forestry. However with changes in global
production rural areas have also covered tourism,
manufacturing and recreation in addition to the
traditional occupation.

Rural Development requires;
• Rural participation: Rural development aims
at finding ways to improve rural lives with
participation of rural people themselves, so as
to meet the required needs of rural
communities. The outsider may not
understand the setting, culture, language and
other things in the local area.
• Rural planning: This is the process of
improving the quantity of life and economic
wellbeing of communities living in relatively
unpopulated areas rich in natural resources.

ACTORS IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT
There are many actors that are involved in rural
development in many countries.
• The state: The state plays a big role in rural
development. It puts in place, policies, laws,
procedures, strategies and programs for
successful implementation of rural development.
• Local government (Districts, sectors…)
• Local governments works with the state to
implement rural development programs through
supervision of projects, provision of services (E.g.
education and health) and mobilization of the
rural people through sensitization.

• The private sector: It includes individual farmers,
traders processors and service providers. The private sectors
help to operationalize rural development through activities
e.g. production, processing, storage and marketing of various
products.
• Civil Society
Civil society includes NGO’s, CBO’s, FBOs Unions, individuals,
professional bodies and Associations that are involved in the
promotion and delivery of services.
Civil society organisations collaborate with the state in the
process of planning, implementing, financing and delivery of
services.
.Development Partners
Development partners include International Donors and
bilateral partners (governments that support National
Development Activities) They play a key role in funding the
key activities that are vital in Rural development for example
Modernization of Agriculture, Rural electricity etc

SOCIAL – ECONOMIC
CHARACTERISTICS OF RURAL AREAS
• Dependency on Agriculture – Basically Subsistence
Agriculture – “Hand to mouth” that makes rural areas
vulnerable in terms of productivity and output. This
calls for Modernization of Agriculture.
• Use of Rudimentary tools and technology – The use
of such backward technology is time consuming,
energy wasting and finally low productivity.
• Primary Economic activities – Most rural areas
depend on the production of raw materials without
value addition. This limits the rural earnings and
hence Rural savings and investment.

• Prevalence of Natural Resources – Positively rural areas
are endowed with resources suitable for Agricultural
productivity for example fertile soils that are free from
pollution, forest cover for rainfall and human health –
Hence fresh food stuffs can only be found in rural areas.
• Ethno-linguistic characteristic – Division of the
population on the basis of physical characteristics such
as race, tribe, clan or language. While such division can
be useful in creating social cohesion, it can also lead to
ethnicity.
• Land tenure systems
In most rural areas land is inherited from the parents to
children. This leads to land fragmentation which is not
suitable for Agricultural development.
This calls for land consolidation.

• Cultural beliefs and practices: Rural areas are
characterized by a number of customs,
ceremonies, taboos and prejudices which are
time consuming and promotes negative attitude.
• Demographic structure:
Demography is the statistical study of populations
that seeks to understand population dynamics in
reference to size, density and distribution of the
population.
Rural areas are sparsely populated, with high birth
rates and composed of the aged population due to
rural – urban migration effects.

• Simple societies.
Rural areas are basically simple societies –
societies where the rate of interaction is high,
mutual cooperation and togetherness.
This communication spirit can be utilized to
further progress and development.

RURAL POVERTY AS A BASIS OF
RURAL DEVELOPMENT
• Concept of poverty
Generally, poverty is defined as a state or condition in which a
person or community lacks the financial resources and
essentials to enjoy a minimum standard of life and wellbeing
that is considered acceptable to society.
Forms of Poverty
(i) Situational poverty – Poverty caused by a sudden crisis or
loss and is often temporary.
Events causing situational poverty include environmental
disasters, divorce, or severe health problems.
(ii) Generational poverty – poverty that occurs in families
where at least two generations have been born poor.
Families living in this type of poverty are not equipped with the
tools to move out of their situations.

• (iii) Absolute poverty – This type involves scarcity of basic
necessities of life for example food, shelter, clothing,
medical care and security or protection.
Families who live in absolute poverty tend to focus on
day-to-day survival.
• (iv) Relative poverty – Poverty in comparison to others. It
refers to the economic status of a family whose income is
insufficient to meet its society’s average standard of living.
• (v) Urban poverty – poverty that occurs in metropolitan
areas with populations of at least 50,000 people.
The urban poor deal with complex aspects of crowding,
violence, crime etc.
• (vi) Rural poverty – Rural poverty refers to poverty found
in rural areas including factors of rural society, rural
economy and rural political systems that give rise to
poverty found there.

THE SITUATION OF RURAL POVERTY
IN LDCs
• Global Poverty Trends: About one fifth of the world’s
population is afflicted by poverty. These people live on less
than one dollar a day.
• Global Rural poverty Trends: Rural poverty accounts for 63%
of poverty worldwide reaching 90% in some countries and
between 65-90% in Sub-Saharan Africa.
• Rural poverty conditions: In almost all countries rural
poverty conditions are worse in comparison to urban areas
(Except Latin American Countries) For example personal
consumption, access to education, health care, portable
water, sanitation, housing transport and communication.
• Causes of Rural poverty: The causes are complex and
multidimensional and involve such things like climate,
gender, culture, markets and public policy.

• Consequences of rural poverty
High levels of poverty has resulted into rapid
population growth and rural – urban migration –
urban poverty is created by the rural poor’s
efforts to get out of poverty by moving to cities.

THE RURAL POOR: Who are they?
• Definition: These are people with limited
access to productive means.
• Occupation: Rural poor largely depends on
agriculture, fishing, forestry and small scale
industries and households.
• Classification: Rural poor are classified into 3;
Cultivators, Non-cultivators and rural women.

Cultivators (Characteristics)
• Have access to level as small land owners and
tenants.
• Engage in production and management of
crops and livestock.
• Provide labor to others both farming and non-
farming activities outside their villages.
• Migration to towns and cities on rotational or
long term basis.
• Total migration to cities and Towns
“Depeasantilisation process”

Non – Cultivators
• Landless and unskilled workers.
• These are the poorest of the poor among the
rural poor.
• They depend on seasonal demand for labour in
agriculture and small scale industries and
services.
• Vulnerable to fluctuations in demand for labour,
wage rates and food prices.
• Find it difficult than cultivators to gain access to
social services.

Rural women
• These tend to suffer far more than rural men.
• Their poverty and low social status is a major
contributor to their chronic poverty.
• Hence empowerment of rural women is a key
to rural development

FACTORS THAT PROMOTE RURAL
POVERTY
THE POVERTY DEPRIVATION TRAP/POVERTY
TRAP
Definition: Any self-reinforcing mechanism,
which causes poverty to persist from generation
to generation if steps are not taken to break the
cycle.
Or poverty that persists from one generation to
the next if there are no interventions to break it.

CAUSES OF THE POVERTY TRAP
In developing countries many factors can contribute to a
poverty trap.
• Limited access to credit
• Extreme environmental degradation- reduces
agricultural production potential.
• Corrupt governance – diverts resources to personal
use.
• Poor education systems – creating more job seekers
than job creators.
• Lack of public health – creates ill health or sickly
population e.g. Immunization
• Poor infrastructure – reduces productivity
• Wars – scares investors and creates influx of refugees.
• Negative cultural attitudes – superstitions of
backwardness.

POLICIES TO REDUCE THE POVERTY
TRAP/MITIGATION MEASURES
Governments and public sector should focus mainly
on;
• Investment in Human capital (health, Education,
Nutrition)
• Infrastructural capital (roads, power, water,
sanitation and environmental conservation)
• Natural capital (conservation of Biodiversity and
Ecosystems)
• Public Institutional capital (a well-run public
administration, Judicial system and police force)
• Knowledge capital (scientific research for health,
energy, agriculture climate and Ecology)

CREATION OF RURAL POVERTY
How is Rural Poverty created?
Numerous characteristics of a country’s economy and
society as well as some external influences create and
perpetuate rural poverty.
• Political instability. The many wars on African
continent leads to influx of refugees and destitution
leading to rural poverty.
• Systematic discrimination. On the basis of gender,
ethnic group, religion or caster. This hinders
cooperation and progress.
• Land ownership and tenancy arrangements.
Land ownership tend be concentrated on a certain class
of people (royals)
Hereditary land ownership leads to land fragmentation

• Corruption
Diversion of resources for the wellbeing of the poor
• Over production of children. Large and rapidly growing families with high
dependency ratios.
• Market imperfections. The fluctuation of market prices does not only
discourage rural farmers from agricultural practice but also impoverishes
them.
• External shocks and changes in International economy. The external
shock arises from the conditions in international economy e.g. Dollar
fluctuation and economic crisis.
• Biases in National economic and social policies. These contribute to
rural poverty by excluding the rural poor from the benefits of
development. Such biases include;
a) Urban bias in public investment for infrastructure and provision of safety
nets e.g. health and insurance.
b) Direct taxation of agricultural exports and imports.
c) Bias in favor of large and commercial producers with respect to rights of
land ownership and tenancy.
These policies have both short and long term effects on the rural poor.

Reflection
• Explain the concept of rural poverty creation.
• Evaluate others 5 factors of poverty creation
in rural area.
• Suggest 5 measures to be followed for poverty
reduction in rural area

POLICIES FOR REDUCING RURAL
POVERTY
• Information gathering. Need to gather information about
particular Problems faced by the rural poor. (Needs
Assessment and participation).
• Focus on building assets. These assets would help the rural
poor. E.g. Agricultural land, access to credit, irrigation facilities
etc.
• Modernization of agriculture. Transition from subsistence
agricultural education, agro-processing and physical
infrastructure.
• The right to adequate land and water. Land reform program
including land titling, land redistribution and fair tenancy
arrangements (both women and men).
• Basic health care and literacy. Basic health care e.g.
Immunization, provision of clean water and family planning.

LOCAL MICROCOSM
Definition: It refers to a situation where rural areas
increasingly adopt characteristics of urban area. This
situation has both positive and negative consequence
Positive consequences of Local microcosm
• Reducing family size. The pressure of the urban setting
and higher cost of living in urban areas makes having large
families less popular.
The reduced family size may lead to corresponding reduction
in daily expenditure leading to higher savings and
investment.
• A growing industrial base Economic growth.
This is associated with urban areas than the rural areas.
In rural settings the main source of subsistence is agriculture
Industrial products generally have better economic returns when
compared to labor intensive agriculture.

• Increased mixed ethnicity.
• Multi-ethnicity may work towards enhancing
overall social economic, political and
environmental wellbeing leading to
development.
• However, sometimes it may generate civil and
race unrest, social divisions and
misunderstanding leading to under
development.

Increasing use of cash
• As local microcosm increase, more of
subsistence activities are likely to be
monetized.
• Improvements brought by local microcosm are
likely to increase trade with the rural area and
can lead to development (cash economy)

Negative consequences of local
microcosm
• Increased cost of living. This is due to;
• Reduction in agricultural output leading to higher prices.
• Change in rural lifestyle e.g. Recreation activities.
• Cultural change
• Influx of urban lifestyles into the rural area affects the
general way of life or culture.
• By adopting urban lifestyle, they are likely to lose certain
cultural attributions that are in conflict with urban
cultures. E.g. Hard work or laziness.
• Congestion and insecurity
• The large number of people with different economic
and social belonging may lead to insecurity as poorer
members of society find ways of making ends meet.

RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS IN
RWANDA
• “In Rwanda about one in four rural households live in
external poverty and agriculture remains the backbone
of the economy, accounting for one third of 33% of the
total GDP in 2014”
• (World Food Day concept from IFAD- International
Fund for Agricultural Development)
• The government addresses rural poverty through its
National Development Plan (NDP), a comprehensive
policy aimed at guiding development planning. The
objectives of the policy are to;

• Prioritize the agriculture sector for promoting
economic growth.
• Promote private public partnerships (ppps)
across a wide range of investment and
services sector; and
• Promote efficiency gains improve revenue
generations and collection.

MODERNISATION OF AGRICULTURE
• A big percentage of the population in Rwanda like
many other African countries depends on agriculture
production. For the rural population, agriculture is the
main way of making a living either as pure subsistence
farmers or with a little semi-commercial farming.
• The majority of these subsistence farmers poor people
faced with many constraints that keep them poor such
as lack of knowledge and skills, lack of credit, lack of
information and knowledge about what to produce
and how to produce to earn more money, HIV/AIDS,
Malaria, insecurity and poor yields.

• The most features of their poverty include; not
having enough food lack of money to meet health
and education costs, low yields, few productive
assets, lack of essential services, large families,
lack of support from communities they live in,
and so on.
• Modernization of agriculture is key to enabling
the rural population to improve their livelihood
ensure food security through changing
subsistence agriculture to doing farming as a
business.

What is modernization of Agriculture?
• It refers to the changing of the current subsistence
agriculture to doing-farming as business. Subsistence
agriculture is producing mainly for home consumption
while doing farming as business (Commercial
agriculture) is producing with the objective of selling
produce to earn money.
• Commercializing agriculture is hoped to result into
many people being able to earn incomes to meet other
needs, improve their lifestyle, create more jobs in rural
areas, ensure food security and use natural resources
sustainably.

How can we modernize our agriculture?
(Government and private sector initiatives).
• Agricultural Research and Technology Development
The main of this component is to make research and technology
address the needs of subsistence farmers. A decentralized client-
oriented and participatory formulated research agenda to ensure
more relevant and responsive advice will be formulated with all
stakeholders. Research and technology outputs can be disseminated
through Agricultural research and development centers.
• Rural Finance:
The rural farmers need to be financed in one way or the other. Rural
financial intermediaries should be promoted and strengthened for
provision of rural financial services on a viable and sustainable
manner. The public sector will provide a legal and regulatory
framework as well as capacity building for private sector involvement
in Micro-finance institutions (MFI)-Cooperative societies are also vital.

• Agro-processing and Marketing:
Inputs distribution, agro-processing and marketing can be carried
out by the private sector, while the public sector sets priorities,
removes barriers and put in place commercial laws as well as legal
and regulatory framework. The government can be responsible for
providing supportive infrastructure including rural electrification
which is critical in achieving modernization of agriculture goals.
• Agricultural education.
Human Resource development to meet the challenges of
transformation the agricultural sector is crucial. Agricultural
education can be incorporated at all levels of the educational
curricula together with adult education. An agricultural education
syllabus can be formulated that will promote agriculture as a
business discourage the use of agriculture as a punishment in
schools and prisons, encourages farmer participation in agricultural
knowledge and information exchange and recognize the role of
indigenous knowledge in agriculture.

• Sustainable natural resource management:
This can be achieved through development of a
comprehensive land-use policy to facilitate
development of efficient land use including
irrigation and management as well as administration
• Physical infrastructure:
The government t should spend on the
development of basic physical infrastructure that
will support the efforts to modernize agriculture.
These include; roads, rural electrification,
communication infrastructure and energy
development programmes.

KEY PLAYERS IN IMPLEMENTATION OF
MODERNISATION OF AGRICULTURE
There are 3 key players in the implementation of
modernization of agriculture namely; central
government, Local governments together with Civil
society organizations and development partners
a. Central government
• The core function of central government will be to
continue to put in place good policies, laws and
procedures for successful implementation of
modernization of Agriculture.
• The different ministries will handle the responsibilities
for policies, laws and procedures that fall directly
under their individual mandates.

b. Local governments (Districts, sub countries,
parishes)
Under modernization of Agriculture, Local
governments will be responsible for;
• Technical supervision of agricultural advisory
services,
• Provision of services for the management and
control of pests,
• Land survey and administration.
• Forestry and wetlands management.
• Licensing produce marketing

c. Private sector
• Includes subsistence farmers, traders, processors
and services providers. They will be directly
responsible for undertaking the key activities of
operationalisation and success of the
modernization of agriculture, including activities
as production, processing, storage and marketing
of agricultural inputs and outputs.
• The private sector will also be responsible for the
provision of advisory services through
contraction.

d. Civil society:
• These includes NGOs, CBOs, individuals, unions, professional
bodies and associations that are involved in the promotion
and delivery of services. They are a very important interest
group who will be involved, in collaboration with other
stakeholders, in the process of planning, implementing,
financing and delivery of services especially at lower levels of
government.
e. Development partners
• Development partners in the modernization of Agriculture
include international donors and bilateral
partners/governments that support National development
activities in the agricultural sector through grants and soft
loans. They will play a key role in providing funding to key
activities that government intends to fund under the
modernization of Agriculture.

AGRIBUSINESS
Agribusiness is the business of agricultural
production. The term was coined in 1957 by
Goldberg and Davis. It includes agrichemicals,
breeding, crop production (farming) ,
distribution, farm machinery, processing, and
seed supply, as well as marketing and retail
sales. All agents of the food and fiber value
chain and those institutions that influence it are
part of the agribusiness system

What are the Different Types of
Agribusiness Companies?
• Large Corporate Farms
• Corporate farms differ from small, private farms, which
may grow food for local use or for sale at nearby
markets or suppliers. Agribusiness companies generally
employ modern business strategies with the aim of
earning a profit on their goods. Some control the entire
food production process, from growing plants to food
processing and packaging goods. These agribusiness
companies are often criticized by worker advocacy and
environmental groups, which sometimes argue that the
corporations force smaller farms to go out of business
or cause environmental damage.

• Niche Markets
Corporations don’t have to be massive or far-reaching to participate in the
agribusiness sector, and some are legitimately small operations. Most of
these focus on regional supply and demand, and often produce only one or
two food types. Some of the largest corporations are national or even
international in reach, whereas smaller operations are more likely to be
strictly regional.
Seafood operations are often considered to be businesses that have a more
niche operation, and can be both large and small. Some specialize in
providing certain markets with things like fresh crab and lobster, or may be
engaged in creating canned tuna or sardines. These sorts of companies
generally have their own fishing vessels to harvest fish and their own
processing plant where the catch is processed and packaged.
• Machinery Producers
Farm machinery producers are also in the agribusiness sector. These firms
may manufacture any type of equipment that could be used in the
agricultural process. This can include products such as tractors or equipment
that is used in slaughterhouses. Some of these companies are hugely
profitable and hold the market edge when it comes to providing certain
things. Their primary focus is sales, and in most cases they aren’t actually
engaged in using the equipment themselves.

• Packaging and Processing
It’s also essential that food be packaged, and there are companies that
focus specifically on this aspect of the production process. Some
companies may lease out part of their business to another similar
business in order to increase profits. Examples of this include businesses
that rent packaging plant facilities to outside groups. This often means
that smaller companies can have their food packed and processed at the
larger plant, sometimes using cans or other packaging materials that are
used, or have been designed, by the corporation.
• Personnel Specialists
Other agribusinesses companies may specialize in providing personnel.
This means that they focus exclusively or almost exclusively on finding
qualified workers, such as field laborers or production and processing
plant employees. Many of these businesses also hire farm managers to
supervise operations, while some firms provide management services and
consultation themselves. Leaders of these sorts of companies often come
from a hands-on farming background which gives them a lot of experience
when it comes to knowing what these sorts of operations need, but they
can also simply be experts in human resources.

• Agrochemicals
• A number of chemical companies that create fertilizers
and pesticides for conglomerate farms can also be
classified within the agribusiness sector. Large farming
operations often have different needs when it comes
to chemicals than smaller farms do, and they often
contract directly with the manufacturers to provide
things more or less “to order.” Researchers from these
sorts of companies sometimes work directly with farm
owners and managers to create chemical products
designed specifically for certain uses. The widespread
use of chemicals on commercial farms has raised a lot
of concern with both environmentalists and human
health lobbyists, but the efficiencies these sorts of
products provide make them very compelling to farm
owners

DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
• MODERNISATION THEORY
• The “modernization theory” is a collection of development perspectives
which continue to dominate development practice today.
• The modernization theory sees development in terms of a progressive
movement towards technologically more complex and integrated forms of
‘modern’ society.
• Industrialization, the transition from subsistence agriculture to cash-cropping,
and urbanization are all keys to modernization. What can be labeled
"modernization theory" is a collection of perspectives which, while they were
most intellectually influential in the 1950s and 1960s, they continue to
dominate development practice today.
• Modernization is essentially evolutionary: countries are envisaged as being at
different stages of a linear path which leads ultimately to an industrialized,
urban and ordered society. Much emphasis is put upon rationality, in both its
economic and moral senses. While modern, developed societies are seen as
secular, universalistic and profit-motivated, undeveloped societies are
understood as steeped in tradition, particularistic and unmotivated to profit.

The Western “invasions” hasten the undoing of the traditional
society to such an extent that no space is left for indigenous
culture and knowledge.
The following characteristics can be identified according to Fair:
• Emergence of a new political elite for whom the
modernization of the economy is the highest priority
• New belief in private profit
• Rise of entrepreneurs
• Expansion of education
• Centralized government
• Training of labor
• Investment in infrastructure
Third stage is the stage of “self-sustaining” growth.
This stage is characterized by rapid economic growth and the
spread of western technology in agriculture and industry.

• Fourth stage is the “mature” stage, with high technology for
economic progress. The society’s economy demonstrates that it has
the technological and entrepreneurial skills to produce anything it
chooses.
• Fifth stage is “the age of high mass consumption”, with high
productivity, and high levels of urbanization. Economy shift towards
durable consumer goods. Personal income rises, consumption no
longer limited to necessity.
• Critique of Modernization Theory and Strategies
• The theory assumes that all development must follow the western
model. This is wrong.
• Modernization theory also ignores the problem of income
distribution. Not all people benefit from increased industrialization.
• By the late 1960s, it was clear that despite attempts to remove
obstacles to development, poverty was increasing.
• The failure of several large-scale development projects, which should
have prompted take-off, indicated that simplistic notions of
modernization were inadequate.

DEPENDENCY THEORY
• Dependency is a continuing situation in which the economies of one group
of countries are conditioned by the development and expansion of others.
Dependency theory understands underdevelopment as embedded within
particular political structures. The theory argues that development is
essentially unequal process where rich nations get richer, and poor
nations get poorer. Poor countries have been underdeveloped by the
processes of exploitation by rich countries by supplying raw materials,
which fed manufacturing industries in the west.
• These developing countries became dependent upon foreign markets and
failed to develop their own manufacturing bases. The dependency theory
conceives underdevelopment of African nations as something created by
capitalism and not as a result of internal weaknesses.
• Originated in Latin America during the early 1960s as result of failure of
modernization to address the under development in LDCs, dependency
theory holds that “the condition of underdevelopment is precisely the
result of the incorporation of the Third World economies into the capitalist
world system which is dominated by the West and North America”
(Randall and Theobald 1998, 120).

• The dependency theory suggests that the only solution
to bring development is structural changes within
nations to break free from international exploitation.
The structuralists became “dependency theorists”
describing the world as consisting: Core (or Centre) of
dominant nations and a “periphery” of dependent
ones. Frank argued that under development is not a
natural situation. Dependent theory is a process of
under development (Frank). It takes place on two
levels:
• Level one: national level (Urban and rural areas in
developing country). Resources are sucked from rural
areas to towns or cities
• Level two: International level (i.e Developed and less-
developed).
• To check levels of underdevelopment

• Dependency theory or dependencia theory is
a body of social science theories predicated
on the notion that resources flow from a
"periphery" of poor and underdeveloped
states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching
the latter at the expense of the former. It is a
central contention of dependency theory that
poor states are impoverished and rich ones
enriched by the way poor states are integrated
into the "world system”.

A Model Community
Agriculture
Economic
Education
Environment &
Energy
Health &
Nutrition
Leadership
Shelter
Social
Spiritual
Water & Sanitation
A Healthy community
is growing in all
areas

Cont’
For the community to take responsibility for the development
process, it needs information on:
- Agriculture and live-stock raising;
- Primary health care;
- Education and literacy;
- Appropriate technology;
- Information and Communication Technology (ICTs) to help
access and manage the vast quantities of human knowledge;
- Democracy, gender, social and cultural organization and human
rights.

Reflection
• Differentiate rural and urban area, which one
would you like live ? And why ?
• What are the majors characteristics of rural
area?
• What are the challenges of rural community
development?

What is development?
The concept of development has several different
and opposing definitions. These definitions are
based on the interests of different groups in the
world who define it depending on its own
interests.

Reflection
• Think of the timeline of development theory
• Which one is still applicable today?
• Which one can we take as appropriate for rural
development today ?

Community
development cycle
Community
Institutions:
universities,
GOs, CSOs
NGOs,
FBOs, COs

Cycle of community Development
approaches
Idea
Improveme
nt
Idea
selection
Idea
implement
ation
Idea
deployment
Idea
generation

Session two: Approaches to rural and
community development
Top down VS bottom up approaches
• The top-down approach is the more
traditional of the two project
management approaches. A top-down
strategy calls for all key decisions to be
made by the project manager or senior
organizational leaders.

Cont’
• When a project is managed from the top
down, the work breakdown structure and
project plan are usually completed by the
project manager alone, after which team
members are told which tasks they will
be completing and when their tasks are
due.

Cont’
• Top-down project management remains very
common, and it is well suited to projects in
which there are few unfamiliar tasks and few
unique challenges to be met. However, many
organizations have begun to find that the top-
down approach can leave team members
demoralized and demotivated, as they
typically have very little control over what
they are expected to do and how they are
expected to do it.

The Bottom-Up Approach
Bottom-up project management is rapidly gaining
popularity, especially in industries where projects tend to
involve new challenges that require innovative solutions.
In the bottom-up model, project objectives are still
determined by organizational leadership, but the team
members who will be doing the work are asked to
provide input as to how the project goals will be met.
Task lists and project timelines are usually not completed
until after the project team members have weighed in,
which often results in more realistic schedules and fewer
surprises down the road.

Choosing a Direction
Few organizations are likely to make a formal
decision to adopt either the top-down or bottom-
up approach for every project. Instead, more and
more companies are looking for ways to
incorporate certain elements of the bottom-up
philosophy into their current project management
practices. Even companies in industries where
projects are typically repeatable and predictable
can improve their employee morale by allowing
team members to participate in the project
planning process.

Cont’
• Organizations in rapidly-evolving industries
like software and technology have even
stronger incentives to move to bottom-up
project management, in order to get
maximum benefit from their employees’
expertise and creativity.

Questions to reflect on
• What do you understand by Top down and
Bottom up approaches
• which one will you choose to adopt in your
rural community development project ?
• Explain why ?

Session three: Participatory approach
What is participatory approach ?
In its simplest terms, a participatory approach is one in
which everyone who has a stake in the intervention has a
voice, either in person or by representation. Staff of the
organization that will run it, members of the target
population, community officials, interested citizens, and
people from involved agencies, schools, and other
institutions all should be invited to the table. Everyone's
participation should be welcomed and respected, and the
process shouldn't be dominated by any individual or
group, or by a single point of view.

Cont’
• That's the ideal. The reality may often be quite
different. Some people might not want to be
involved - they may feel it takes too much time,
or they don't have the skills needed. Particular
individuals or groups may feel left out and
disrespected if they're not invited to participate.
The planning process may be a rubber stamp for
ideas that have already been developed. Some
people's opinions may be listened to more
carefully than those of others. In some of these
situations, a participatory process can cause as
many problems as never involving people at all.

Cont’
A true participatory approach is one in which
everyone's perspective is considered. That doesn't
mean that people can't challenge others'
assumptions, or argue about what the best strategy
might be. It does mean, however, that everyone's
thoughts are respected, and it isn't necessarily
assumed that the professionals or the well -
educated automatically know what's best. Everyone
actually gets to participate in the planning process,
and has some role in decision-making

What are the advantages of a
participatory planning approach?
Participation carries with it feelings of
ownership, and builds a strong base for the
intervention in the community. If people are
integral to the planning of a community
intervention, then that intervention will be
theirs. They have a stake in it not only as its
beneficiaries or staff or sponsors, but as its
originators. They'll do what they can to see
their work succeed.

Cont’
A participatory planning approach avoids pitfalls
caused by ignorance of the realities of the
community or the target population. If, for
instance, Muslims are part of the planning
process for an intervention in a community which
includes many followers of Islam, they'll know
that lunch meetings during Ramadan, the Islamic
month of daytime fasting, are not likely to work.
Long-time community members will know what
has failed in the past, and why, and can keep the
group from repeating past mistakes.

cont’
A participatory planning process builds trust,
both between your organization and the
community and among the individuals
involved. This trust can serve as a foundation
for future community development and
community action.
A participatory planning process generally
reflects the mission and goals of grass roots
and community-based organizations.

Reflection
• What is participatory approach ?
• List others 5 advantages of participatory
approach
• What are the disadvantages of a participatory
planning approach?

What are the disadvantages of a
participatory planning approach?
• A participatory process takes longer. A diverse
group always takes longer to make decisions
and come to conclusions than does an
individual or small group.
• Members of the target population or the
community may not agree with the "experts "
about what is needed.

Cont’
• Education may be needed, for community
members and the organization. Members of
the target population and the community may
not have important technical knowledge or
experience, and may need to understand
some theory or past practice in order to see
what the organization is trying to do. Some
may need new skills in order to participate
fully in the planning process.

Cont’
• It may be difficult to assure that all the right
people get to the table. Some key people may
simply not want to participate.
• A participatory planning process takes
patience and commitment on everyone's part.
• One determined individual can wreck the
whole process if he's not handled well.

What are the levels of participatory
planning?
• Information - The least you can do is tell
people what is planned.
• Consultation - You offer a number of options
and listen to the feedback you get.
• Deciding together - You encourage others to
provide some additional ideas and options,
and join in deciding the best way forward.

Cont’
• Acting together - Not only do different
interests decide together what is best, but
they form a partnership to carry it out.
• Supporting independent community initiatives
- You help others do what they want - perhaps
within a framework of grants, advice and
support provided by the resource holder.

Group assignment
• When is participatory planning appropriate?
• When is participatory planning not
appropriate?

Who should be involved in a
participatory planning process?
• The ideal answer here is everyone who is
affected by the proposed intervention, but
that's seldom possible, or even desirable. You
may be talking about thousands of people, too
many for an effective planning process. In
reality, there should be strong and effective
representation for everyone involved,
including:

cont’
• Targets of Change
Targets of change are the people at whom the
intervention is aimed or whom it is intended to
benefit.
• Agents of Change
Agents of change are the people who make or
influence policy or public opinion. (Policy
makers and Influential people in the
community)

Cont’
• Interested members of the community
These might include parents, youth, or school
personnel, for instance, for an intervention
dealing with youth.
• Members of the organization itself
Administrators and line staff, volunteers, current
participants, board members, and supporters.

Session three: Presentation on PRA &
PLA Process

Group assignment
• Work on different tools of PRA/PLA
1. Social mapping
2. Transect walk
3. Trend analysis
4. Income and expenditure charts
5. Chapati diagram
6. Seasonality diagram

Session three: Building on indigenous
knowledge
• Example:
• - traditional medicine
• - dressing
• - ornament
• - solidarity

Building on Indigenous knowledge
• Community members with extensive indigenous
knowledge of their natural, social, and historical context
can contribute valuable ideas on available resources,
potentials, solutions, and challenges, and make locally
viable suggestions regarding project design from the very
beginning.
• Such an engagement throughout the process initiates
ownership by the community and ensures sustainability of
projects.

Reflection
• Think of your traditional belief and values that
are considered as hindrance to development
yet can actually promote development
• What is / are consequences of these belief
from question one

Case study
In Malawi, extension information is usually carried to selected farmers,
called pupil farmers. The farmers do not have the opportunity to
communicate their own needs to the extension system. One group of
farmers living near a Rice Research Centre was interested in improving
its rice growing techniques, but did not know how to approach the
Centre for help. Another group of fishermen was disturbed by low fish
catches from Lake Malawi. They believed that there were supernatural
forces that had to be appeased. The sacrifice was a young bull, taken to
the middle of the Lake. A nearby government unit had studied fish
migration patterns. It knew why there were few fish. It did not, however,
know that fishermen were concerned and did not therefore share its
knowledge.
Kingo J. Mchombu. Information Needs and Information Seeking Patterns
for Rural People’s Development in Africa. 1993.

Case study 2
The author, Eugene Linden, described how 1,600 years ago the wisdom of many
centuries went up in flames when the great Alexandria library burned down. Today,
with little notice, vast archives of knowledge and expertise are being lost, leaving
humanity in danger of losing its past and perhaps endangering its future as well. He
was referring to the knowledge stored in the memories of elders, healers, midwives,
farmers, fishermen and hunters, throughout the world. This knowledge base is
unrecorded, and includes: many technologies and arts, ways to farm deserts without
irrigation, produce from the rain forests without destroying the delicate ecosystem,
navigate seas using knowledge of currents and stars. These ancient cultures had
explored the medical properties of plants and learned how to farm in mountainous
regions without allowing the best soil to be washed away.
Eugene Linden. “Lost Tribes, Lost Knowledge” in Time Magazine, September 23,
1991. p. 44–56.

Challenges of community
development
Case study
According to South African Government
Information the challenges in rural areas in South
Africa include an unsustainable use of natural
resources, inadequate access to socio-economic
and cultural infrastructure and services, a lack of
access to water for both households and
agricultural developments, a low literacy rate and
skills levels, migratory labor practices, a decay of
the social fabric, and an abundance of unexploited
opportunities in many economic sectors.

Challenges of community
development
Gender
 Feminization of poverty
 Women have limited access to productive
resources
 The full participation of women and men in the
development is critical.
 Gender needs consideration

Poverty & Crime
• Drugs
• Terrorism
• Human trafficking
• Child Labor

Sectors of Rural Development
 Agriculture & Rural Development
 Environment & Rural Development
 Market Access & Rural Development
 Health & Education
 ICT & rural Development
 Culture & Work ethics

challenges on Health situation in Rural
Area
 Lack of enough facilities
Disease
TB/ Malaria – more readily transmitted in poverty
 Higher cost & Fewer resource
• direct - transportation, consultation, medicines
• Indirect – child care, loss of income
 Fragile and more susceptible environment
• flood, drought, landslide
• Drinking water shortage, poor sanitation

Ex. of Maternity Mortality
3 Life Threatening Delays for pregnant women
3rd Delay
Delay in receiving
care at
the health facility
1st Delay
Delay in making a decision at home
2nd Delay
Delay in accessing the
health facility

Why are mothers and newborns dying?
• No chance to decide when to get pregnant
• Limited access to skilled care
• Inadequate capacity at health facilities

Session Four: HOLISTIC COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
APPROACHES
• A deeper form of integrated community development
blends both the process of bringing collective social change
and justice, improving productivity and improving
livelihoods by working with communities to strengthen
their capacities to:

Cont’
• Identify their needs, opportunities, rights, and
responsibilities;
• Plan, organize, and take collective action; and,
• Evaluate the efficiency and outcomes of their actions,
vis-à-vis tackling inequalities and moving toward the vision
created by the community themselves.

Holistic community development
approaches
• A more evolved perception of, and approach to,
community development focuses on strengthening the
abilities of individuals and organizations within the
community to be efficient and effective in taking collective
action - for improving the quality of life in a productive and
sustainable way.
• Community development is a holistic process contributing
to the development of individuals and the community as a
whole.

Holistic community development
• Community capacity development is a complementary
process to that.
• Strengthening capacities of individuals, groups, and
organizations within the community needs appropriate
leadership, long-time thinking, and collaborative
development of strategic plans and skills to implement
specific projects that contribute to the long-term vision.

Cont’
• Information sharing is one of the very crucial for
community development and capacity building,
either from the planning, preventing or for the
market

CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT FOR COMMUNITY DEV.
• Principles of Capacity Development for communities dev.
• - don’t rush (it’s a long term process)
• - Respect the value system and foster self-esteem
• - Scan locally and globally; reinvent locally (Capacity
development for community development draws upon
voluntary learning, with genuine commitment and interest.
Knowledge cannot be transferred; it needs to be acquired).
• - Challenge mindsets and power differentials (Frank dialogue
and a collective culture of transparency are essential steps)

Principles of capacity development for
community dev.
• - Think and act in terms of sustainable capacity
outcomes
• - Build on existing capacities rather than creating new
ones (This implies the primary use of national expertise,
resuscitation and strengthening of national institutions, as
well as protection of social and cultural capital).
• - Stay engaged under difficult circumstances (The
weaker the capacity, the greater the need).
• - Remain accountable to ultimate beneficiaries

Cont’
• These principles try to pay attention to the fact that
capacity development is mainly a human process
driven by self-emerging phenomena. By reading the
principles one can clearly see the challenge of
supporting the communities in capacity development.

Session Five: The Advantages of
Integrated Rural Development
1. To enable multidisciplinary anti-poverty efforts in
rural areas
2. To enable solutions to regional problems, targeting
impoverished groups
3. To promote the participation of local people, local
administrative organizations, and civil society.

Agriculture as a Starting point
Historically, growth in agriculture productivity,
incomes, and output provide the foundation for
economic growth in today’s industrialized countries.
• Average more than 60-70% of the total work
force are in agriculture in developing countries.

Characteristics of Agriculture
• Rwanda economy is mainly on agriculture production (over
85%)
• Over 90% in Rwanda are involved in agriculture activities
• Traditional techniques have been there for long and thus
making change often difficult.
• Rural model of habitation so far
• The land is very important factor of production and it is
more subject to weather than any other industries.
• The only sector to produce food – Food Security

Agriculture’s role in Economic
Development
• The only source of labor power for both in rural
and urban sector
• Providing foreign exchange to import products
which can’t be produced domestically.
• The agriculture population provides market for
modern urban sectors.

Land Tenure & Productivity
 Property Right vs. Free Rider
(gender inequality)
 Well defined, exclusive, and secure rights to land can
increase farmers’ effort or skill to improve
productivity. – The family owned farm is ideal.
 Patterns of land Tenure
• Large scale modern farming
• (land consolidation for Rwanda?)
• Plantation
• Family farms
• Tenancy (rental)
• Sharecropping
• Communal farming

Technology in Agriculture
• Chemical fertilizer
• Improved plant varieties
• Adequate supplies of water
• Power supply
• Mechanical Package
• Biological Package –Green Revolution

Capital in Agriculture
• Rural Banks & Credit Cooperatives
• ROSCA (Rotating Saving and Credit
Association)
• Microfinance Institutions
Extension Service
• Information & Knowledge transfer
• Proving key link between the research laboratories or
experimental farms and the rural populations.

Market & Rural Development
• Market
Selling products
Buying inputs and food
Exchanging information

Market & Rural Development
• Enabling the rural poor to reach opportunities
in markets beyond their communities and to
improve the terms on which they interact with
them is a powerful tool to reduce poverty and
fuel economic growth.
• The adequate national and local institutions
providing accurate market & price information

Reflection
• Is there any institution or organization that
provide rural farmers on production and price
on the market ?
• Which one and how do they do that ?

Summing up : COMMUNITY AS A “LIVING” SYSTEM
• Experiences with community development reveal that
paying close attention to the historical and socio-cultural
aspects of community formation is crucial.
• A possible pitfall lies in perceiving communities as static
and closed entities, neglecting their dynamic nature and
their strong interrelationship with the environment.
• Such a misconception of community can guide us to
mislead community development as a process of protecting
a community from outside influences.

Community as a living system
• Living systems seek self-reliance within a nested system
of ever-larger communities. That seems only
contradictory, if we do not realize the true dialectic
nature of living systems, out of which the development is
born.
Society
individual
community

• Community development therefore focuses on
two key interrelated elements of the society:
- the communities themselves and the
agencies supporting them as well as the
interaction between the two.
• Facilitators and community workers play a
key role at the interface of these interrelated
systems.

Facilitator/ community worker
Community
Capacity development
Agencies supporting community

Reflection
 How are the ‘stakeholders’defined?
 How does one determine which stakeholders should be
included in a rural development project?
 When is the appropriate time to extend the invitation to
be part of the rural project?

Therefore, what are the rural and
community development approaches
Focus on community asserts and values
 Is there an inventory, based on discussion with the
people currently living there, of the natural and
cultural assets of the area to be developed?
 How are these natural and cultural assets related?
 How should the public, elected officials and
developers assign value to such tangible and
intangible assets?

What are the rural and community
development approaches
• Focus on Inclusion and participation (how are
people included in the sharing of information,
values, planning and implementation)
• Focus on Partnerships and Power (who has power
over who)
• Communication covers all

Project & Exercise 1
1. Map a rural community of your choice that you know
- what are the asserts of the community (culture,
nature, etc)
- Build on these asserts to discuss how the rural
community would develop by identifying one priority
project
- Explain how a priority project will be identified
- who should be partners (stakeholders) and based
on what do you think that they should be partners in this
project for the rural community development

Exercise 2
2. Two newspaper articles indicate the following:
a) Poor people are poor because they are lazy.
b) Boys get better marks than girls because men are more
intelligent than women.
Begin a discussion in the community to make people critical
consumers of information/knowledge, based on these two
beliefs.
What reasons are there to explain these two situations?
Is this situation true, Why?
What strategies will you use in the process of this mind set?
Who will you ask to be part of this project?

Exercise 3
• Local media has announced of a big strike in
Gishari rural area, they do not want to cultivate
anything any more because they don’t see the
benefit from last two years’ experiences. Now
local leaders need to explain why;
• Whose responsibility could it be?
• What do you think could be the reason for these
problems
• What type of agencies could you approach for
intervention and how could they intervene

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