Roman empire

Augustus
Rome’s first emperor

Detail from the
Cuirass
The symbolic figures on the breastplate
represent the following:
• At the top, Dawn riding her chariot,
bringing in a new day under the protective
mantle of the sky god.
•In the center, Tiberius, Augustus’
successor, accepts the return of captured
Roman army standards from a barbarian
prince.
•At the bottom, Mother Earth offers a horn
of plenty.

After the Battle of Actium
 Octavian had:
Vast military force + Egypt’s wealth
Cooperation: Italy wanted to end civil war
 Republican practices weakened
 People were ready for able ruler

Octavian and the Senate
 Fresh memories of
Julius Caesar’s fate
 Needed to work WITH
the Senate
 If Senate opposes ruler:
danger!
 Senate support helps
gain public support

Octavian’s Rise to Power
Augustus as Imperator
 principate = the rule of a
Roman emperor
 Augustan principate =
Augustus’ regime
 princeps = “first citizen”
 Ruler’s unofficial title; means
he founded the regime
 imperator = “emperor”

Pacifying the Senate: January 13, 27
B.C.
 Octavian offered to relinquish his power, provinces
 Senate begged him to reconsider
 Kept proconsular power in Spain, Gaul, Syria
 Also kept consulship in Rome
 Senate governed other provinces (this pacified
Senate)

Octavian’s Real Power
 Commanded 20 of Rome’s 26 legions
 Senate gave semi-religious title “Augustus”
 Implies veneration, majesty, holiness
 Became Rome’s first emperor

23 B.C.: Resigns consulship, given two
powers
 imperium maius
 Greater proconsular power than any other proconsul
 Could exercise imperium within Rome
 tribunician power
 Could conduct public business in assemblies, Senate
 Power of veto with sacrosanctity (no punishment)

Augustan Reforms
 Established a constitutional monarchy
 Lessened distinction between:
Romans & Italians; Senators & equestrians
More equestrians and Italians entered Senate

Reforming the Senate
 Senate took on majority of assemblies’ work
 Purged Senate; fixed number of senators: 600
 Recruited wealthy men of good character
 Had to serve as lesser magistrate first
 Controlled elections
 Always treated Senate with respect, honor

Caring for the People of
Rome
 Divided city into wards with
elected officials
 Rickety wooden housing
burned, collapsed
 First public fire department
+ first police force
 Controlled reasonable
grain distribution to poor
 Created organizations to
provide water

Rome’s Fire
Department
The underground remains of
an ancient Roman fire station

Time of Roman Prosperity &
Stability
 Wealth of Egypt
 More commerce and industry
 Vast program of public works
 Veterans resettled on farms
 Stable government

Octavian’s Stable Government
 Chose governors
 Removed incompetent leaders
 Good administrators ruled longer
 Greater local autonomy:
 Aristocrats ruled provincial cities; tribal leaders
ruled outer regions

A Tribute to Augustus
Augustus sits on a curule
chair, denotes high office
The inscription means “He
restored the laws and rights of
the Roman people”.

An Unstable Northern Frontier
Hermann
 Goal: pacify friendly tribes +
find defensible frontiers
 9 A.D. revolt: German tribal
leader (Hermann)
 Ambushed, destroyed three
Roman legions
 Older Augustus, abandoned
campaign
 Border defense became
ongoing problem

Following Marius’ Lead
 Invested money, effort to build up Roman
army
 All Roman soldiers had same weapons,
training
 Made legion better organized, more efficient

Changes to the Army
 Roman soldiers had professional status
 Enlistment for 20 years (mostly Italians)
 Pay was relatively good
Bonuses + pension upon retirement
 Money OR plot of land

Dressed to Kill
 Foot soldier equipped like a human tank:
 Metal armor protected chest, abdomen
 Metal greaves protected legs
 Helmet
 Shield
 Heavy leather belt with metal fittings
 Tunic underneath protected skin

Roman Armor and Helmet
Armor made of metal strips,
held together by leather
Centurions and other officers wore
crests on their helmets,
so that their men could see them
and follow them into battle.

Greaves and Cingulum
Metal greaves protected the
legs from enemy blades.
The cingulim was a soldier's
badge of office, worn with
the tunic at all times.

Sandals and Weapons
Military sandals were as important as armor,
because the legions won wars by fast
marches as much as by battle. These boots
were strong and well-ventilated. Patterns of
iron hobnails were especially designed to
take weight and withstand miles of marching.
The pugio or dagger was worn on the left,
and a gladius, or short sword, on the right.
The sword was a terrible stabbing weapon,
short enough to wield easily in the crush of
battle. It was horribly effective against the
Gauls, who were not armored.

Weapons of War
 pilum = iron-tipped spear; punched through shield,
bent after use
 gladius = short, two-edged sword; for hand-to-hand
combat
 shield used as a weapon (“bulldozer” broke up
formations)
 crossbow = shot arrows (sometimes flaming)
 catapult = hurled stones, flaming “bombs” over walls

A One-Time Weapon
The pilum bent upon impact
so that the enemy could not
pick it up and use it again.

A Roman Gladius
The term “gladiator” comes from glaidius.

The Ballista
After moving in catapults,
portable towers, and siege
engines, the legions’ attack
began with a relentless
barrage of spears, rocks,
and burning rags.
Then, legionaries climbed the
siege towers and rushed across
ramps into the burning city.

Organization
 Roman army: best equipped — best
organized
 Every man had specific job
 Orders flowed through a chain of command

Roman Officers
 Legatus = “governor”: commanded legions in his
province
 Centurion = led century of 80 to 100 men
 Signifier = carried the legion’s emblem
 Tesserarius = gave legionaries password to enter
camp
 Tribune = commanded a cohort (about 600 men)

The Chain of Command
The Legatus A Centurion and a Legionary

Other Soldiers
The Signifier The Tesserarius

The Roman Navy
 Second Punic War: found abandoned
Carthaginian ship
 Became model for Roman ships
 Built a fleet of 160 vessels
 Romans added secret weapon — the “corvus”

The Corvus
This ramp had a sharp point
on the end to smash down on
an enemy ship, enabling
soldiers to board and attack.
The corvus also punched
holes in enemy ships to hold
them in place.

A Soldier’s Life: Hard and
Tough
 Legionaries served for 20 years or more
 Marched to the ends of the known world
 Carried necessary tools + supplies
 Built roads, forts, camps along the way

Strength and Endurance
 Soldier carried 90 pounds: weapons, tools,
equipment
 Marched up to 20 miles each day

The Best Weapons?
 Might be the pick and spade
 Built fortified camps overnight
 Beseiged cities
 Could survive in enemy territory longer than
enemy

Roman legionary and his marching
pack

“All roads lead to Rome”
Soldiers usually set up camp and immediately began to
construct roads that could help them get to Rome quickly.
Good roads insured access to food and other supplies.
Some of these ancient roads are still in use today.

Via Appia
An Ancient Roman Road

The Frontier Army: 300,000 men
 Army permanently based in provinces
 Brought Roman culture: spread language, customs
 Married local women; settled down in area
 Attracted merchants; established new Roman
towns, cities
 Many provincials became Roman citizens

Auxiliary Troops
 Recruited from provinces (not professionals)
 Fought alongside legionaries
 P aid less than professionals
 Equipment, training not as good
 Some were excellent horsemen, archers
 If they survived, they received Roman citizenship

Praetorian Guards
 Emperor’s bodyguards
 Wore special uniforms
 Well paid
 Only armed soldiers allowed
within city of Rome
 Became very powerful

Contributions of the Roman
Army
 Conquered distant lands
 Brought vast riches to Rome
 Spread Roman culture
 Kept peace throughout the empire
 Built roads that expanded trade

Repairing the Damage
The family of Augustus,
depicted on a relief from the Ara Pacis
 Civil war, political strife
hurt Roman tradition
 Goal: restore traditional
values of family, religion
 Introduced laws curbing
adultery and divorce
 Encouraged early marriage
 Encouraged birth of
legitimate children

Setting an Example
 Lived in relative simplicity
 Austere behavior in his own household
 Banished daughter, Julia, for immorality

Julia’s Exile
Augustus’ only daughter was banished to one of the Pandataria Islands.
The islands are called the Pontine Islands today.

Uniting Romans through Religion
 Built temples, revived cults
 Reorganized priestly colleges
 Banned worship of newly introduced foreign
gods
 Writers, like Virgil, pointed out descent from
Venus
 Deified AFTER death, state cult to worship him

Preserving Tradition
Court built by Augustus Roman Temple of Augustus
in Croatia

Role of the High Priest
Augustus assumed the role of high priest.
He led efforts to restore traditional values
and religious practices.
 Augustus: Rome’s
pontifex maximus
 High priest
 Made sacrifices to gods
at important festivals

Pax Romana: “Roman
Peace”
 Initiated with the Augustine principate
 Time of political stability and great prosperity
 Lasted for nearly 200 years

Ruling the World
 Rome ruled Mediterranean + much of
western Europe
 Empire highly organized, centrally controlled
 Network of roads linked territories to Rome
 Well-trained Roman legions defended trouble
spots

Common Traits
 Citizens of the empire shared the following:
 Common laws
 Common culture
 Common language (Latin)

Cicero
 Famous orations delivered in courts, Senate
 Wrote treatises on rhetoric, ethics, and politics
 Put Greek philosophies into Latin terminology

Cicero’s Beliefs
 World is governed by divine law AND
natural law
 Human reason can perceive divine AND
natural law
 Human institutions reflect divine AND
natural law
 Law, custom, tradition produce stability and
liberty

Cicero’s Death
 Attacked Mark Antony in speeches
(The Philippics)
 Named after Demosthenes’ speeches
against Philip II
 Mark Antony ordered his death
 Too ill to escape; bundled into litter by
slaves
 Tracked down, killed; head, hands cut off,
displayed on Rostra in the Forum
 Antony’s wife repeatedly jabbed Cicero’s
tongue with hairpin as revenge against
his power of speech

Sallust
 Wrote about Jugurthine
War and Catiline
conspiracy
 Sympathetic to Julius
Caesar
 Critical of Senate
 Style similar to Thucydides

Julius Caesar, the Historian
 Wrote treatises on Gallic
and civil wars
 Military narratives written
from Caesar’s point of view
 Persuasive in style

Changes in Roman Law
 Originally developed by court, case by case
 Contact with Greeks + others forced change
 Edicts of praetors had increasing importance
 praetor = commander of the army or a magistrate

Terms
 jus gentium = “law of peoples”
 Body of Roman law that dealt with foreigners
 jus naturale = “natural law”
 Stoic concept of a world ruled by divine reason

Purpose
 Greeks believed purpose of poetry was to:
 Entertain and teach
 Romans adopted this idea but included:
 Historical and moral instruction

Lucretius
 Wrote De Rerum Natura
 Means On the Nature of the
World
 Took scientific and
philosophical approach
 Wanted to save society
from fear and superstition

Catullus
 Wrote for pleasure;
personal poems; some
autobiographical
 Allusions to mythology;
topics: love’s joy/pain
 Poetry criticized Julius
Caesar
 No moral lessons; nothing
about history, politics

A Golden Age
 Literature reflected new type of society
 Poets had patrons (like Maecenas)
 Patrons gave poets time, security to write
 Poets dependent on patrons; limited expressive
freedoms
 Poetry often promoted Augustus as ideal ruler

Virgil (Vergil)
 Most important Augustan poet
 Roman equivalent of Homer
 Eclogues, Bucolics: short
poems celebrating country life
 Georgics:
 Modeled after Hesiod’s Works
and Days

Virgil’s Aeneid
 His greatest work
 Rome’s national epic
 Aeneas personifies ideal Roman qualities:
 Duty and responsibility
 Patriotism

Horace: Another Important
Poet
 Joined army after Julius Caesar’s
assassination
 Served under Brutus; fought at
Philippi
 Octavian gave him amnesty after the
war
 Returned to Italy, estate
confiscated
 Worked as Treasury official;
Maecenas = his patron

The Quotable Horace
 Responsible for famous Latin phrases:
 Carpe diem:
○ “Seize the day”
 Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori:
○ “It is sweet and honorable to die for your country.”

Propertius
 Some considered his
poetry subversive,
immoral
 Famous for elegies
 His dead characters
speak to loved ones

Ovid’s Poetry
 Love and sex; seducing women
 Ars Amatoria = The Art of Love
 Abandoned women
 Mythological transformations:
Metamorphoses
 Angered Augustus because of
immoral topics; banished

History during the Augustan
Age

Livy
 Wrote The History of Rome;
moral purpose
 Focus: legendary origin of
Rome until 9 B.C.
 History as example of good/bad
behavior
 Glorified Rome’s greatness
 Wanted moral lessons to
advance Roman society

Beautifying Rome & Glorifying
Augustus
 Augustus ordered construction of new buildings:
 Theaters, baths, basilicas, temples
 Roman Forum (rebuilt); built his own Forum
 Influenced by Greek classical style
 Aimed at serenity and ideals

Ara Pacis or “Altar of Peace”
The greatest monument of the age
Shows a procession in which Augustus and his family appear to move
forward, followed by magistrates, Senate, and Roman people

The Forum
 Market square with public buildings around it
 People gathered here for business, to gossip
 Around the public square:
Shops, “fast food” stalls, monuments, statues
Temples to gods – and famous Romans
(emperors)

The Forum
Artist’s rendering, showing what
the Forum would have looked like
during Augustus’ reign.
Ruins from the Roman Forum

Ancient Graffiti
Samples of graffiti found on walls in Pompeii
Aufidius was here.
Marcus loves Spendusa.
I am amazed, O wall, that you
have not collapsed and fallen,
since you must bear the
tedious stupidities of so many
scrawlers.
On April 19 I baked bread.
Let anyone who invites me to
dinner prosper.

Roman Graffiti
Graffiti from the
Roman Colosseum at Arles
Photo by Robert Brown
Ancient Pompeii graffito
caricature of a politician

Ancient Roman Basilicas
On one side of the forum
was the basilica.
The basilica was used as:
 Town hall
 Court of law
 Public meeting place

The Emperors
 For 500 years, imperator had absolute power
 Beginning with Augustus, 79 men ruled Rome
 Few ruled and died peacefully

A Dangerous Time
 Men who took power by
force often died at the hands
of the same soldiers they
once commanded.
 Ambitious sons killed their
fathers, and brothers
murdered brothers to earn
the right to be hailed
emperor of Rome.

Expanding the Borders
 Augustus warned successors not to expand
empire
 Most didn’t listen
 Wanted glory of conquest + more wealth
 For 100+ years, emperors expanded Rome’s
borders

Coinage
 Most citizens never saw emperors,
except on coins
 Emperor’s face on every official coin
 Roman leaders showed power by
issuing coins
 Financial problems = emperors
decreased coins’ value
 Coins = thinner, lighter; paid for more
soldiers

The Julio-Claudian Dynasty
 Tiberius
 Gaius (Caligula)
 Claudius
 Nero
 Year of the Four Emperors

Tiberius
 Octavian’s step-son
 Married Augustus' daughter;
adopted by Augustus
 Became a Julian; took name
Tiberius Julius Caesar
 Considered one of Rome's
greatest generals
 Campaigns laid foundations for
northern frontier

A Somber Ruler
 Became dark, reclusive
 Never wanted to be
emperor
 After son’s death, rule
declined, ended in terror
 Consul (Sejanus) plotted
overthrow; caught, executed
 Tiberius hunted and killed
all political opponents

The historian Tacitus describes
the last years of Tiberius’ reign
Executions were now a stimulus to his fury, and he ordered the
death of all who were lying in prison under accusation of complicity
with Sejanus. There lay, singly or in heaps, the unnumbered dead, of
every age and sex, the illustrious with the obscure. Kinsfolk and
friends were not allowed to be near them, to weep over them, or even
to gaze on them too long. Spies were set round them, who noted the
sorrow of each mourner and followed the rotting corpses, till they
were dragged to the Tiber, where, floating or driven on the bank, none
extinguished the sense of human fellowship, and, with the growth of
cruelty, pity was thrust aside.

Tiberius’ Final Days
 Eventually exiled himself from
Rome
 Left Rome in hands of
unscrupulous men
 Tacitus records that crowd
rejoiced at news of Tiberius’
death — only to become
suddenly silent when they heard
that he had recovered.
 The crowd rejoiced again at the
news that Caligula and Macro
had smothered him.

Gaius (Caligula)
 Father’s soldiers called him
“Little Boots”
 Given nickname as a child
 Dressed in uniform, little sword,
shield, boots
 Became brutal as an adult
 Tiberius once called him a “viper”

An Insane Ruler
 “Conquered” ocean; ordered
troops to collect seashells
 Demanded worship
 Statues: replaced gods’ heads
with his head
 Kept favorite horse in marble
stable
 Tried to make his horse a consul

A Cruel Emperor
 Ordered his enemies’
murder — by slow
torture
 His own guards finally
murdered him

Claudius: The Reluctant
Emperor
 Lame, stammering, forced to
take throne
 Praetorian Guard dragged him
from behind curtain
 Made him emperor
 He surrounded himself with
able advisers
 Expanded empire’s wealth,
power

Nero
 Last of Julius Caesar’s
relatives to rule
 His mother convinced
Claudius to adopt Nero
 Seemed harmless
 Entered singing contests,
athletic competitions —
always “won”

A Vengeful Son
 Mother forbade relationship
with former slave
 Tried three times to poison
mother
 Made ceiling above bed fall;
didn’t die
 Put mother on boat that fell
apart at sea; swam to shore
 Eventually had mother, wives,
stepbrother killed

Nero: Insanity
 Probably started fire in 64
A.D.; blamed Christians
 Destroyed 10 of city’s 14
districts
 During fire, sang about fall of
Troy
 Built “Golden House” on
burned land
 “At last, I can begin to live as a
human being.”

Nero
 Declared himself a god
 Had towering bronze statue
of himself erected
 Very unpopular
 Fled Rome
 Committed suicide as
soldiers neared

69 A.D.: Year of the Four
Emperors
In one year, four different emperors assumed
power in quick succession as different Roman
armies took turns placing their commanders on
the throne.

The Flavian Dynasty
 Vespasian
 Titus
 Domitian

Vespasian
 Founded Flavian dynasty
 First emperor not from old
Roman nobility
 Italian middle class; lived
simply; respected army general
 Strengthened empire’s
borders
 Granted citizenship to many
people in provinces

Masada
 For 100+ years, Jews had rejected
Roman domination:
 Refused to obey emperor
 Denied Roman gods, continued their
religious traditions
 Jews captured desert fortress:
Masada; butchered Roman
garrison
 Vespasian outraged; besieged
Jews

Masada
 960 rebels fought for three
years; resisted siege
 73 A.D., Roman troops
built huge earthen ramp
 Night before attack, Jews
committed suicide
 Only two women + five
children, hidden in wells,
survived.

Vespasian’s Greatest Contribution
 Many grand building
projects
 Began Colosseum in
Rome
 Colosseum constructed
on land that had been
part of Nero’s palace

The Colosseum
 Proper name: Flavian
Amphitheater
 Very large: 160 ft. in height
 Seated up to 60,000 spectators
 People came to watch “sports”:
 Beast hunts, public executions,
gladiator fights

Structure and Design of the Colosseum
 Arena (Latin for “sand”)
 Sand covered fighting area to soak up
blood
 Flooded for mock sea battles
 80 entrance arches, all numbered
except four main entrances
 Free tickets given out early in morning
 Each ticket numbered, matched arch;
enter through arch
 Masts or “sails” sheltered crowd
from sun

Underground Passages
 Once covered by wooden
floor
 Prisoners, animals kept in
cages there
 Scenery also stored there
 Mechanisms used to hoist
people, animals to surface
 Exotic animals imported from
distant lands

Seating in Four Tiers
 Emperor sat in front row;
senators sat in front of first
tier, same level as emperor
 Only men allowed in first two
tiers; women sat above men,
separated by wall
 Behind women, against outer
wall: standing room for slaves
 The building can be
evacuated in ten minutes.

Battles
 Several pairs of
gladiators fought at
same time
 One battle staged in
Rome on orders from
Trajan lasted for 117
days.
 More than 10,000
gladiators took part.

Gladiators
 Convicts, slaves (men,
women) trained as
gladiators
 Equipped as warriors (like
Samnites, Thracians)
 Armed with fishing gear
 Fought each other and wild
animals
 Musicians played bronze
horns and water organs in
background

Gladiators
Retiarius
“The Net Man
Unlike other gladiators, who wore some
protective armor, the retiarius carried only a
weighted net, a Neptune’s trident used by tuna
fishermen, and a short sword.
Murmillo
“Fish man”
Wore a helmet decorated
with a fish symbol
Often pitted against the retiarius

Gladiators
Hoplomachus
Was the most heavily armed gladiator
Had leg and arm coverings,
a huge helmet,
a spear, and a bowl-shaped shield
Secutor
The “Pursuer”
Armed with a sword,
shield and manica (“arm guard)

Honor and Death
 The contestants shouted, “We who are about
to die, salute you!” as they filed past the
imperial stand during the opening parades.
 Wounded gladiators could appeal for mercy,
but jeers from the crowd and the thumbs-down
signal from the emperor brought death.
 Victorious gladiators were treated as stars and
could win their freedom.

Vespasian’s Dying Thoughts
 Had two sons to continue
in his footsteps
 Died peacefully
 On deathbed, ridiculed
practice of deifying
emperors, saying, “Alas, I
think I am becoming a
god.”

Titus
 Vespasian’s son
 Remained awhile in
Palestine after
Vespasian’s victory
 Captured Jerusalem for
the empire

The Arch of Titus
In 70 A.D., Titus conquered the province of Judea,
took the city of Jerusalem, and destroyed its holy Temple.
The Arch of Titus, still standing in Rome, celebrated this victory over the Jews.

Pompeii
The eruption of Mt. Vesuvius
buried Pompeii and Herculaneum
near the beginning of Titus’s reign
The Romans thought this was a
bad omen for Titus.

Completing the Colosseum
 Dedicated the
Colosseum
 Titus died two years
after taking power
 Poisoned by
ambitious younger
brother, Domitian

Domitian: Vespasian’s Son
 Strengthened economy by
reevaluating Roman coinage
 Expanded border defenses
 Massive building program;
restored damaged city of Rome
 Expanded Empire as far as
Scotland
 Assassinated by court officials

The “Five Good Emperors”
 Nerva
 Trajan
 Hadrian
 Antoninus Pius
 Marcus Aurelius

A Unique Plan for
Succession
 Domitian had no close relatives to succeed him
 Senate put Nerva on the throne
 None had sons, so they followed Nerva’s example
 Adopted an able senator, establishing him as
successor
 Nearly a century of peaceful succession, competent
rule

Nerva: First of “Five Good
Emperors”
 Wise, moderate ruler, good
intentions — but weak
 Vowed to restore liberties
curtailed during Domitian’s
reign
 Financial difficulties + little
authority over army
 Ruled only fifteen months;
died of natural causes

Trajan
 Simple man
 One of Rome’s most talented
military leaders
 During his rule, empire grew to
largest extent
 Empire stretched from Britain to
Africa, east to Persia
 Senate later told new emperors:
“May you be more successful
than Augustus, better than
Trajan.”

Trajan’s Column
Trajan’s Column still stands in Rome today.
It celebrates the emperor’s victories in Dacia and Parthia.
The column is almost 130 feet tall.

Hadrian
 Ruled during happiest period of
Roman Empire
 Respected soldier, spent much
time with armies
 Traveled throughout empire;
decided empire too large
 Reorganized government, legal
system
 Built fortifications as defense
against barbarians

Hadrian’s Wall
Hadrian was most famous for his stone wall
that stretches across northern Britain.

Antoninus Pius
 Earned name:
 After compelling Senate to deify
Hadrian
 Or, by saving senators Hadrian
sentenced to death in later years
 Built temples, theaters,
mausoleums; promoted arts,
sciences
 Bestowed honors, rewards upon
teachers of rhetoric, philosophy

Marcus Aurelius
 Last of “five good
emperors”
 Famous scholar and writer
 Wanted to read, write
memoirs, called Meditations
 Famous Stoic philosopher

Protecting Roman Borders
 Established, maintained peace
throughout Empire
 Most of reign along borders,
fighting barbarians
 Raised taxes to pay for more
soldiers
 Became increasingly unpopular
 Helped during famines,
emergencies; sold personal
possessions

Marcus Aurelius: Persecutor
 Mercilessly persecuted
Christians
 Believed that they
challenged imperial
authority
 Died from plague;
thousands of Romans
died

Commodus
 Vicious son of Marcus Aurelius
 One of Rome’s cruelest rulers
 Thought he was a great gladiator
 His own troops plotted against
him
 Was strangled by wrestler named
Narcissus

Septimius Severus: A Famous
Soldier
 Born in Roman family that lived in Africa
 Marched on Rome after Commodus’
murder
 To calm fears, switched from uniform to
civilian clothes before entering Rome
 Reorganized military, raised soldiers’
pay, executed enemies
 Died in Britain during military expedition

The Arch of Septimius Severus
Dedicated in 203 A.D., this arch celebrated military victories
and the tenth anniversary of Septimius Severus’s reign.

Dying Wishes
On his deathbed, Septimius Severus
ordered his sons to live in peace, keep the
soldiers happy by raising their pay, and
despise the rest of the world.
Instead, the brothers hated each other.

Diocletian
 Army general
 Army proclaimed him emperor in
284 A.D.
 Divided Roman Empire
 tetrarchy = rule of Empire by
four men with power divided
territorially

The Tetrarchy: Peaceful Succession
 Two co-emperors shared title of
Augustus
 Diocletian = senior Augustus
 Two given subordinate title of
Caesar
 Successors to half of the Empire
 Loyalty enhanced by marriages to
Augusti’s daughters

Dividing the Empire
 Each tetrarch was
supreme in his sphere
 Tetrarchs chose capital
where they ruled
 No one chose Rome

Diocletian’s Reign
 Reformed army; no leader to
become too powerful
 Constructed monumental
baths, but visited Rome only
once
 Passed Edict on Maximum
Prices
 Unsuccessful price controls to
curb inflation
 Moved capitals away from
Rome, East highlighted

Diocletian’s Persecution of
Christians
 Lasted from 303–311
 Empire's last, largest, bloodiest
persecution of Christianity
 Did not destroy Empire's Christian
community
 After 324, Christianity became the
Empire's preferred religion
 First Christian emperor: Constantine

Galerius
 One of four tetrarchs; served
with Diocletian
 First named Caesar; later,
promoted to Augusti
 Extended Roman Empire into
Persia
 Probably encouraged Diocletian
to persecute Christians
 May have burned Imperial
Palace, blaming Christians

Succession
 First emperor to abdicate throne
voluntarily
 Retired , compelled co-emperor to
do same
 Plan for smooth succession
failed
 In 310: five Augusti, no Caesars
 Constantine defeated opponent,
made himself emperor

Valerian
 Captured by Sassanids; insulted
 “Human footstool” when Shapur
mounted his horse
 Offered huge ransom; forced to
swallow molten gold
 Flayed alive; stuffed with straw,
temple “trophy”
 Eventually, skin was given
cremation and burial

Constantine the Great
 Also called:
 Constantine I
 Saint Constantine (by
Orthodox + Byzantine
Catholics)
 First Christian Roman
emperor
 Reversed Diocletian’s
persecutions

The Edict of Milan: 313 A.D.
 Proclaimed religious
toleration throughout
Roman Empire
 Removed penalties for
professing Christianity

Reforms of Constantine the
Great
 Reunited empire divided by
Diocletian
 Wanted to restore Rome’s
power
 Carried forward most of
Diocletian’s policies
 But supported Christianity

Constantine’s Conversion
 Adopted mother Helena was a Christian
 Christian in youth (Helena’s influence)?
Gradually? Later?
 Maintained pagan title Pontifex Maximus until
death
 Over 40 when he declared himself “Christian”
 Wrote Christians: “owed successes to God
alone”

Constantine’s Support of
Christianity
 Supported Church ($) + privileges for
clergy (tax exemptions)
 Promoted Christians to high ranking
offices
 Returned property confiscated during
Diocletian’s Great Persecution
 325 A.D.: Council of Nicaea
 First Ecumenical Council; dealt with Arian
heresy

Constantine’s Building Projects
St. Peter’s Basilica
 Built basilicas
 Most famous building
projects:
 Church of the Holy
Sepulchre
 Old Saint Peter's Basilica

Constantinople
The Hagia Sophia

Constantinople
 Moved empire’s capital to
Constantinople
 Formerly ancient Greek colony of
Byzantium
 Became new imperial residence
 Capital of Byzantine Empire 1,000+
years

Religious Terms
 catholic = majority opinion, considered
to be universal
 Example: “catholic belief”
 orthodox = holding the right opinion
 Example: “orthodox doctrines”

Controversy about Christian
Doctrine
 Occurred during 4th century A.D., focusing on:
 Jesus’ divinity
 His relationship to God the Father
 The nature of the Trinity
 325 A.D. = Constantine I gathered Christian
bishops at Nicaea

Response from the Council of
Nicaea
 Three points:
1. Jesus, the Son, is equal to the Father
2. Jesus is one with the Father
3. Jesus is of the same substance as the
Father
 The council condemned Arian teaching

Arianism
 Teachings of priest, named Arius,
who said:
1. Jesus was a created being
(therefore, not eternal)
2. Jesus is inferior to God the Father
3. Father and Son from similar
substance but not identical
4. Jesus neither fully man nor fully
God (something in between)

Heresy
Orthodox Christians
consider Arianism a
heresy because the
teaching denies the
biblical truth that the
Father, Son, and Holy
Spirit are co-equal and
co-existent.

The Nicene Creed
I believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things
visible and invisible.
And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father
before all worlds; God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God; begotten, not
made, being of one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made.
Who, for us men and for our salvation, came down from heaven, and was incarnate by
the Holy Spirit of the virgin Mary, and was made man; and was crucified also for us
under Pontius Pilate; He suffered and was buried; and the third day He rose again,
according to the Scriptures; and ascended into heaven, and sits on the right hand of
the Father; and He shall come again, with glory, to judge the quick and the dead;
whose kingdom shall have no end.
And I believe in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of Life; who proceeds from the Father
and the Son; who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified;
who spoke by the prophets.
And I believe one holy catholic and apostolic Church. I acknowledge one baptism for the
remission of sins; and I look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world
to come. Amen.

Julian the Apostate
 Apostate = one who abandons,
renounces religious beliefs
 Last non-Christian Roman Emperor
 Tried to stop growing power of
Christianity
 Revived traditional Roman religious
practices
 Rejected Christianity in favor of
Neoplatonism

A Military Leader
 No military education
 Yet, was an able military
commander
 Important victory in Gaul
 Led Roman army against
Sassanids (Persian Empire)

Valentinian I
 Often called "last great
western emperor"
 Brother = Emperor Valens
 Able soldier, good
administrator
 Interested in welfare of lower
classes (father’s)
 Sometimes chose unwise
people to advise him

Efforts to Improve Rome
 Founded schools
 Provided medical care for Rome’s poor
 1 doctor for each Roman district (14)
 Christian but tolerated paganism
 Forbad certain rituals/sacrifices; banned magic
practice
 Opposed civil/church abuses (e.g., clergy’s
increasing worldliness)

Mixed Reviews
 Terrible temper
 A.H.M. Jones writes that "he
was of a violent and brutal
temper, and not only
uncultivated himself, but
hostile to cultivated persons”
 Ammianus says “he hated
the well-dressed and
educated and wealthy and
well-born”

Co-Emperor with Valens
 Wanted help to govern large, troublesome
Empire
 Appointed brother Valens as co-emperor
 Two Augusti travelled together; divided
personnel
 Valentinian ruled West; Valens ruled East

Valens
 Ruled Eastern part of the Empire
 Sometimes called Last True
Roman
 Some religious persecution; was
an Arian
 Killed in Battle of Adrianople,
fighting Goths
 Marked beginning of Western
Roman Empire’s fall

Theodosius
 Born in Spain
 Reunited Eastern + Western
parts of Empire
 Last emperor of both Eastern
and Western Empire
 After death, two parts split
permanently
 Made Christianity Empire’s
official state religion

Manichaeism
 Founder: Mani (Persian, third century
A.D.)
 Light + darkness, good + evil,
constantly warring
 Good = spiritual, evil = material
 Body = prison of evil – contains some
good
 “Father of Goodness” sent Mani to free
humanity, gain salvation
 Man must seek “light,” abandon
physical desires

Period of Anarchy
 Bribery + murder became path to
power
 Less than 50 years = 20
emperors ruled
 All owed power to military, not
Senate
 Imperial throne not safe
 Troops who chose emperors
often murdered them

Slavery in the Roman Empire
Many slaves wore a bronze disc, like this
one. It looked something like a dog tag.
One tag said: “Hold me, in case I run away,
and return me to my master Viventius on the
estate of Callistus.”
 About 100 A.D.: wealthy
family might have had as
many as 500 slaves
 Slaves had few rights
 Could be branded on
forehead or leg as
owner’s property

Administration in the Early Empire
 Common religious practices
 Emperors deified after death, imperial cult established
 More people given citizenship, shared Roman
culture/traditions
 Latin = spread to western provinces
 Romanitas = “Roman-ness”

Local Municipalities
 Towns governed by local council
 Magistrates elected from local aristocracy
 Members of council given Roman citizenship
 Helped spread Roman law, culture
 Created loyalty among influential people

Foreign Policy
 Trajan = first to take sustained
offensive
 Success led to establishment
of new provinces
 Wealth from gold mines +
increased trade
 Desire to keep barbarians at bay
 Expanded territory harder to
defend

Decline of Slave Labor and Rise of
Coloni
 Extended territory = need for
more products
 Some small farms, but more
large estates
 Managed by absentee owner,
grew cash crops
 Tenant farmers (coloni)
replaced slave labor
 Workers tied to land

The Villa
 Large, country estate
• Supplied vast amounts of
grain, fruit, vegetables
• Oxen used to plough fields
• Grain harvested with sickle;
flour ground by hand
 Mosaics, painted walls:
ornate scenes of Roman
life

Wall Décor
Mosaics of a hunting scenes
Other scenes might include images of grain and farming or religious celebrations

Elaborate Art
Roman Villa - Butser Ancient Farm,
shows Prehistoric and Roman building
techniques and farming.
Piazza Armerina
Roman Villa of Casale (4th century)
Mosaic with the labours of Hercules – Detail

Hadrian’s Villa
• Parts still stand today.
• Stood on hilltop, with Rome
in distance
• Had pavilions, pools,
terraces, banquet halls,
theaters, libraries.
• Around the villa were
beautiful parks
• Didn’t spend much time
there; died four years after
completed

Inside a Roman House
 Designed to look inward
 Rooms surrounded atrium +
garden; few windows
 atrium: courtyard with pool to
collect rainwater
 triclinium: dining room (three
tables = nine guests)
 Front rooms usually bedrooms
or shops/workshops

Inside a Roman House
The Atrium The Triclinium

Furniture
 Clothes in cupboards or wooden
chests, not closets/dressers
 Wooden or metal stools, no chairs;
had couches
 Dining tables low; evening meal
lying on couches
 Wooden beds, slats or ropes
supported mattress, pillows
 Pillows stuffed with wool or straw

Roman Furniture
Silver Claw-Foot
Roman Stool
Roman couch and footstool

A More Simple Country Life
 Many farms small, run
by retired soldiers
 Raised cows, chickens,
geese, pigs; kept bees
 Grew olives, vegetables,
grain

Typical Meals
 Breakfast: bread, honey, olives
 Lunch: eggs or cold meats and fruit
 Dinner (cena): main meal
 Shellfish or salad, followed by roast meat (pork,
veal, chicken, goose) + vegetables
 Dessert of fruit or honey cakes
 Banquets:
 Songbirds, flamingo’s tongue, custard made
from calves’ brains and rose hips
 Food heavily spiced; often served with fish
sauce called garum.
 Wine usually mixed with water; sometimes
flavored with honey or spices

A Typical Roman Feast
A food stall in Pompeii
Guests started the meal with wine,
olives, hot sausages, plums, and
pomegranate seeds — or other tasty
appetizers, like sea hedgehogs, fresh
oysters and mussels, peacock brain or
eyeballs, lark tongues, or boar’s ribs.
The dinner itself might consist of sows’
udder, boar’s head, fish-pasties, duck,
hare, or roasted fowl.
Dessert was usually some type of sweet
pastry.

Trends
 More independent and influential
 Some became wealthy through inheritance
 Some well educated
 Some conducted literary salons
 Some decided not to have children at all

Livia
 Augustus’ wife
 Great influence during his
reign
 He honored her with title
“Augusta” in his will

City Life
 Insulae = “islands” = apartments
 Fresh water through aqueducts to:
 Fountains, public baths, homes; used
gravity
 Arches:
 Etruscan invention, Roman use = quick
construction
 Concrete
 Invented by Greeks, developed by Romans

Insulae
The streets divided the buildings into “island-type” blocks.
The term eventually came to mean
the apartment house itself.

Roman Aqueducts — with Arches!
Le Pont du Gard is a Roman
aqueduct in the south of France
A painting shows the complex
interlinking system of ancient
Roman aqueducts.

The Silver Age
 Between Augustus’ death and
Marcus Aurelius rule
 High quality work; inferior to
Augustan Age
 Gloomy, negative, pessimistic;
more criticism and satire
 Stoic in nature
 Hostility to growing power +
excesses of emperors

Types of Literature
 Historical writing:
 Focus: remote periods (Do not
anger emperors!)
 Poetry
 Not much written; all safe topics
 Romances
 Written in Greek; “escapist”

Main Contributions
 The great public bath
 The free-standing amphitheater
 Advances in engineering:
 Arch
 Concrete

Architectural Wonders
 Colosseum: built by Flavian emperors
 Pantheon: begun by Agrippa; rebuilt by
Hadrian
 Aqueducts and Bridges
 The Circus Maximus

The Pantheon
The Pantheon has Greek influences,
but its rotunda of brick-faced concrete,
its domed ceiling, and its arches
are distinctly Roman.
Interior of the Pantheon
In Rome

Troubles
 Abuses of power, from emperor to magistrates
 Decline in population
 Cost of government rising
 Expensive wars along the borders
 Efforts to keep the military happy

Juvenal’s Perspective
 Roman poet, wrote satires
 Said common people
cared little for freedom
 Wanted “bread and circuses”
(food and entertainment)

The Good News
“Christianity emerged, spread, survived, and
ultimately conquered the Roman Empire in
spite of its origin among poor people from an
unimportant and remote province of the empire.”
(The Western Heritage 174)

The Historical Case for Jesus of
Nazareth
 Oldest Gospel = Mark;
Last Gospel = John
 Born in Judaea during
Augustus’ rule
 Taught in tradition of prophets
 Motives › actions; spiritual
kingdom › politics
 Called “Christ,” means
“Messiah”

Jesus the Christ
 Fulfilled Old Testament prophecies
 Rejected by Jews
 Crucified by Romans
 Buried in tomb of Joseph of Arimathea
 Raised on the third day

The Gospel
Scripture says that
Jesus took our sin on
Himself and thus, took
the full force of God’s
wrath on our behalf.

Jesus of Nazareth
Stained glass window:
Jesus teaching
The Streets of Nazareth

Death and Resurrection
Golgotha,
also called “the skull,”
where Jesus was crucified
The tomb of
Joseph of Arimathea

The Reality of the Resurrection
 Guarded by Roman
soldiers (death penalty)
 Large stone at entrance
 Many eye witnesses
confirmed resurrection
 No ghost:
 Ate fish; told Thomas: “Touch
wounds”

Followers and Critics
 Many followers were poor, needed hope
 Most religious leaders suspicious (most to
lose)
 Romans feared revolution, political rebellion

Josephus, the Jewish Historian
 Jewish general and historian
 Led revolt against Roman rule
in Judea
 When revolt was crushed,
joined Romans
 Wrote detailed account of
Roman military skill
 Provided eye-witness account
about Jesus (not Christian)

Paul of Tarsus (“Saul”)
 Pharisee
 Jews with strictest adherence to
Mosaic law
 Persecuted Christians
 Held cloaks at Stephen’s stoning,
imprisoned Christians
 Converted on road to
Damascus

Paul’s Influence and
Leadership
 Wrote 13 letters (epistles) to Christian churches
 Explained doctrinal truths
 Stressed faith in Jesus (not works based)
 Said that Jesus will return someday
 Became a missionary to Gentiles

Organization of Believers
 Christians originally met in homes
 Prayed, sang hymns, read Gospels
 Marked by agape (“unconditional
love”)
 Shared what they had
 Lord’s Supper (Eucharist)

A True Community
 Poor people attracted to Christianity:
“hope”
 Later, wealthier people became
Christians
 Societal divisions not important
among Christians:
 Paul said, “There is neither Jew nor
Greek, there is neither slave nor free,
there is neither male nor female; for you
are all one in Christ Jesus.”
(Galatians 3:28)

Leadership in the Churches
 Little organization at first
 Leadership:
 Presbyters = “elders”
 Deacons = “those who
serve”
 Episkopoi = “bishops,
overseers”

Authority of the Bishops
 Authority over churches in cities, towns,
country
 Elected by congregation
 Led worship
 Supervised funds

Sacred Writings
 By end of second century A.D.:
 Orthodox canon was compiled
 Included:
○ Old Testament, Gospels, Paul’s
Epistles
 Creeds also important

What did it mean to be called a
Christian?
 Originally:
 Confess that Jesus is Lord
○ God’s Son, died for sin,
resurrected
 Be baptized
 Take Communion (Eucharist)

What did it mean to be called a
Christian?
 By the end of the second century:
 Jesus is Lord, baptism, Eucharist
 PLUS:
○ Accept creeds
○ Accept authority of holy writings, bishops

Roman Reaction to
Christians
 Romans saw Christians as sect; legal
protection
 Romans soon saw differences in Christians:
 Denied pagan gods; no emperor worship
 “Isolated,” met in homes; network of churches
 Misunderstood “love feasts” + Eucharist

Persecution
 Claudius expelled them from Rome
 Nero blamed them for fire in Rome
 Eventually, “the name alone” was a
crime
 Trajan urged “moderation”—
Christians acquitted: “Denounce
Christ”
 Diocletian initiated “Great
Persecution”

Polycarp
A Christian bishop martyred for his faith

Rome as a Center of the Early
Church
 Empire’s capital, center of communication
 Jerusalem destroyed in 135 A.D.
 Many Christians living in Rome
 Peter and Paul = martyred in Rome
 Peter = first bishop of Rome

Trouble in the East
Parthians
Broke free of Hellenistic kings
Established new kingdom, based on
Persian Empire
Sassanians
Seized control from Parthians
Took emperor Valerian prisoner;
he died in captivity

German tribes in the West and
North
 Hunters, not farmers
 Much drinking and
fighting
 Organized by clan and
tribe
 King surrounded by
warriors, called
“comitatus”

The Goths
 Most aggressive of the Germanic tribes
 Came from around Baltic Sea (southern
Russia)
 Eastern Goths = Ostrogoths
 Western Goths = Visigoths

Visigoths
 Huns forced Visigoths
out of homeland
 Visigoths asked for
permission to enter
Empire
 Permission granted
 Christianized, became
Roman allies

Broken Promises
 Visigoths retained weapons; plundered
Balkan provinces
 Romans’ cruel treatment
 “Trade your children for dogs” (ate dogs)
 Valens attacked Goths and died
 Theodosius gave land, autonomy; enrolled in army

The Franks and Alemanni
 Other Germanic peoples in the west

Failing to secure Roman borders
 Numerous and simultaneous attacks
 Roman army not at its best
 Training declined
 Plague reduced number of soldiers
 Recruited soldiers from slaves, gladiators,
barbarians, criminals

Economic Difficulties
 Inflation
 Coinage not worth as much
 Higher taxes
 Increased pay for soldiers

Shortage of Workers
 Small, family-owned farms nearly wiped
out
 Fewer crops produced
 Piracy, robbers, poor roads = all
hampered trade

Changes in the Social Order
 Senate filled with men who had served in
the army
 New titles (class distinctions) developed

Honestiores
 Senators, equestrians, municipal
aristocracy, soldiers
 Had privileged position; lighter
punishments

Humiliores
 Lower classes
 Tied to land
 Tied to jobs

Civil Disorder
 Assassination of Commodus brought civil war
 Later rulers gained power through military force
 Yet, military primarily composed of mercenaries
 Many from least civilized provinces
 Others were Germans

The Fourth Century and Imperial
Reorganization
 Diocletian introduced tetrarchy;
emperor became remote figure
 Subjects prostrated selves, kissed
robe’s hem
 Emperor addressed as dominus
(“lord”)
 Right to rule seen as divine right
 Use of secret police and spies

The Rural West
 Cities began to shrink
 Emphasis on farms, villas
 Upper classes moved to the country
 Only institution that provided unity: the
Church

The Byzantine East
 Constantinople = center of
culture and trade
 Cities grew, commitment to
Roman law
 Christianity flourished;
Eastern art became influential
 Became the “New Rome”
 Byzantines called themselves
“Romans”

The Great Schism
A division between the East and the West

Preservation of Classical
Literature
 Works by classical authors reproduced (many
copies)
 From perishable papyrus rolls to bound volumes
 Divided long works into shorter versions
 Like Livy’s History of Rome
 Wrote commentaries; compiled grammar books

Christian Writers
 Apologetics (a defense
of the faith)
 Poetry and Prose
 Sermons
 Hymns
 Biblical commentaries

Jerome
 Produced version of the
Bible in Latin
 Called the Vulgate
 Became the Bible used
by Catholic Church

Eusebius of Caesarea
 Wrote idealized
biography of Constantine
 Wrote Ecclesiastical
History
 His most important
contribution
 Presents a Christian view
of history

Saint Augustine
 Bishop of Hippo in North
Africa
 Born at Carthage; trained as
rhetoric teacher
 Father pagan, mother
Christian
 Explored heresies before
conversion
 Skepticism, Neoplatonism,
Manichaeism

Saint Augustine’s Work
 Wrote two important books:
 Confessions
 City of God
 Impacted the Church then
and now

Roman empire

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Roman empire