Machine vision involves the capture, processing, and analysis of image data through a system of cameras, digitizers, and computers. It executes three main functions: sensing and digitizing images, processing and analyzing those images for data reduction, and applying this analysis in practical applications like robotics. Essential to machine vision are components like analog-to-digital converters, frame grabbers, and various imaging technologies that work together to produce high-contrast, informative digital representations of visual scenes.

1. Machine vision Introduction
Machine Vision is concerned with sensing of vision data and its
interpretation by a computer.
Typical vision system consist of camera and digitizing hardware, a digital
computer, hardware and software necessary to interface them.
This interface hardware and software is often referred to as a
preprocessor
The operation of vision system consist of three function
1. Sensing and digitizing image data
2. Image processing and analysis
3. Application

3.  Sensing and digitizing function involve the input of vision data by means of
camera focused on scene of interest.
 Special lighting techniques are frequently used to obtain an image sufficient
contrast for later processing.
 The image viewed by camera is typically digitized and stored in computer
memory.
 The digital image is called a frame of vision data and is frequently captured
by hardware device called frame grabber.
 These device are capable of digitizing image at the rate of 30 frame per
second
 The frame consist of matrix of data representing projections of the scene
sensed by camera

4.  The element of matrix are called picture element or pixels.
 The number of pixels are determined by a sampling process performed on
each image frame
 A single pixel is the projection of small portion of the scene which raduce that
portion to a single value.
 The value is measure of light intensity for that element of scene.
 Each pixel intensity is converted into a digital value.

5.  The digitized image matrix for each frame is stored and then subjected to
image processing and analysis function for data reduction and interpretation
of the image
 These steps are required in order to permit the real time application of vision
analysis required in robotic application.
 Typically, an image frame will be thresholded to produced binary image and
then various feature measurement will further reduce the data
representation of image
 This data reduction can change the representation of a frame from several
hundred thousand bytes of raw image data to several hundred bytes of
feature value data

6.  Various technique to compute the feature value can be programmed into the
computer to obtain feature descriptors of the image which are matched
against previously computed value stored in computer
 These descriptor include shape and size characteristics that can be readily
calculated from the thresholded image matrix

7.  To accomplished image processing and analysis, the vision system frequently
must be trained.
 In training, information is obtained on prototype object and stored as a
computer model.
 The information gather during training consist of features such as the area of
object, its perimeter length, major and minor diameter and similar features

8.  The third function of machine vision system is the application function.
 The current application of machine vision in robotics include inspection, part
identification, location and orienetation.

9. The sensing and digitized function in
machine vision system
 Image sensing required some type of image formation device such as a
camera and a digitizer which stores a video frame in the computer memory
 We divide the sensing and digitizing function into several steps
 Initial steps involve the capturing the image of the scene with the vision
camera.
 The image consist of relative light intensities corresponding to various portion
of scene. These light intensities are continuous analog value which must be
sampled and converted into digital form

10.  The second step, digitizing, is achieved by an analog to digital (A/D) converter
 The A/D converter is either a part of a digital video camera or the front end of a
frame grabber.
 The choice is dependent on the type of hardware in the system
 The frame grabber, representing the third step, is an image storage and
computation device which stores a given pixel array
 The frame grabber can vary in capability from one which simply stores an image to
significant computation capability
 In the more powerful frame grabbers, thresholding, windowing and histogram
modification calculation can be carried out under computer control. The stored
image is then subsequently processed and analyzed by combination of frame
grabber and vision controller

11. Imaging devices
 There are variety of commercial imaging device available.
 Camera technologies available include older black and white vidicon camera
and the newer second generation, solid state cameras
 Solid state cameras used for robot vision include charged coupled devices
(CCD), charge injection device (CID) and silicon bipolar sensor cameras

12. Vidicons camera Tube
 The Vidicons camera tube is based on the photoconductive properties of
semiconductors. When light falls on it, the number of free electrons created
at any point is directly proportional to the intensity of light falling on that
point.
 A photo-conductive property of semiconductors means a decrease in
resistance with the amount of incident light.
 Brighter the light, greater is the number of free electrons.
 These electrons are removed from the material by using a positive voltage
and hence that becomes positively charged.
 The value of charge on the target at any point is proportional to the intensity
of light at the corresponding point in the original scene. So, the charge image
of the picture is formed on the surface of the target.

13. Construction of Vidicons Camera Tube
 The Vidicons consists of a glass envelope with an optically flat face plate.
 A photosensitive, target plate is available on the inner side of the face plate.
 The target plate has two layers. To the front, facing the face plate is a thin
layer of tin oxide. This is transparent to light but electrically conductive.
 The other side of the target plate is coated with a semiconductor,
photosensitive antimony trisulphide.
 The tin oxide layer is connected to a power supply of 50V.
 Grid-1 is the electron gun, it consists a cathode and a control grid.
 The emitted electrons are accelerated by Grid-2.

14.  The accelerated electrons are focused on the photo conductive layer by Grid-
3.
 Vertical and Horizontal deflecting coils, placed around the tube are used to
deflect the electron beam for scanning the target.

16. Working
 When the scanning beam passes over the photo-conductive material of the
signal plate, it deposits electrons so that the potentials of this side of the
plate are reduced to that of the cathode.
 But the other side of the film (plate) is still at its original potential
consequently a potential difference across a given point on the photo-
conductive material is created.It is approximately 40 V.
 Before the next scanning (which may be done after an interval of 1/50 or
1/25 sec.), the charge leaks through photoconductive material at a rate
determined by the conductivity of the material which in turn, depends upon
the amount of incident light.

17.  White portions of the object will, in turn, depend upon the film and make it
more conductive.
 This change leaked to the photoconductive side of the film will vary according
to the illumination of the object. As a result potential at every point on the
photoconductive side of the film but this time the charge deposited by the
beam in order to reduce its potential towards zero (cathode potential) will
vary with time.
 Therefore current through load resistance (RL) will follow the changes in the
potential difference between two surfaces of the film and hence follow the
variation of light intensity of successive points in the optical image.

18. Vidicon Camera
 Fig. illustrate the vidicon camera. In the operation of this system, the lens
form an image on the glass faceplate of camera

19.  The faceplate has inner surface which is coated with two layers of material.
 The first layer consist of transparent signal electrode film deposited on the
faceplate of the inner surface.
 The second layer is, a thin photosensitive layer consist of a high density of
small areas. These area are similar to pixel. Each area generates decreasing
electrical resistance in response to increasing illumination.
 A charged is created in each small area upon illumination
 An electrical charge pattern is thus generated corresponding to the image
formed on faceplate.
 A charged accumulated for an area is function of intensity of impinging light
over a specified time

20.  Once light sensitive charge is built up, this charge is read out to produce a
video signal. This is accomplished by scanning the photosensitive layer by an
electron beam.
 The scanning is controlled by a deflection coil mounted along the length of
the tube.
 For an accumulated positive charge the electron beam deposit enough
electron to neutralize charge.
 An equal number of electron flows to cause a current at video signal
electrode
 The magnitude of the signal is proportional to the light intensity and amount
of time with which an area is scanned

21.  The current is then directed through a load resistor which develops a signal
voltage which is further amplified and analyzed
 Raster scanning eliminate the need to consider the time at each area by
making the scan time the same for all areas. Only the intensity of impinging
light is considered.
 In united state, the entire faceplate is scanned approximately 30 frame per
second.
 The European standard is 25 frames per second
 Raster scanning is typically done by scanning the electron beam from left to
right and top to bottom.
 The process is such that the system is designed to start the integration with
zero accumulated charge.

22.  For the fixed scan time, the charge accumulated is proportional to intensity
of portion of image being considered.
 The output of camera is continuous voltage signal for each line scanned
 The voltage signal for each scan line is subsequently sampled and quantized
resulting in a series of sampled voltages being stored in digital memory.
 This analog to digital conversion process for the complete screen( horizontal
and vertical) result in two dimensional array of picture element (pixels)
Typically a single pixel is quantized to between six and eight bit by an A/D
converter

23. By used of charged coupled display
 Another approach to obtaining a digitized image is by used of charged coupled
device (CCD). In this technology image is projected by a video camera on to
the CCD which detects, stores and read out the accumulated charge
generated by light on each portion of image.
 Light detection occurs through the absorption of light on a photoconductive
substrate (e.g. Silicon)
 Charges accumulated under positive control electrode in isolated wells due to
voltage applied to the central electrode
 Each isolated well represent one pixel and can be transferred to output
storage resister by varying the voltage on the metal controlled electrode.
 This is illustrate in fig.

25.  Fig Indicate one type of CCD imager. Charges are accumulated for the time it
takes to complete a single image after which they are transferred line by line
into storage register
 For example resister A accumulate the pixel charge produced by light image
 Once accumulate for single picture, the charges are transferred line by line to
resister B. the pixel charges are read out line by line through horizontal
resister C to an output amplifier. During readout resistor A accumulating new
pixel element.
 The complete cycle is repeated approximately every 1/60 th of a second

27. Lighting Technique
 Proper lighting technique should provide high contrast and minimize specular
reflection and shadows unless specifically designed into the system.
 the basic type of lighting devices used in machine vision may be grouped into
following categories
 1. Diffuse surface devices - examples of diffuse surface illuminator are the
typical fluorescent lamps and light tables.
 2. Condensor projector - a condensor projector transform an expanding light
source into a condensing light source.
 3. flood or spot projectors - Flood light and spot light are used to illuminate
surface area

28.  4. Collimator - Collimators are used to provide a parallel beam of light on the
subject.
 5. Imagers - Imagers such as slide projector and optical enlargers form an
image of the target at the object plane.

29. Analog to digital convertion
 Analog to digital (A/D) conversion process involves taking an analog input
voltage signal and producing an output that represents the voltage signal in
digital memory of a computer
 A/D conversion consist of three phases
 1. Sampling
 2. Quantisation
 3. Encoding

30. Sampling
 a given analog signal is sampled periodically to obtain series of discrete time
analog signal. this process is illustrate in fig.

31.  by setting a specified sampling rate analog signal can be approximated by the
sampled digital output. how well we approximate the analog signal is
determined by sampling rate of A/D convertor.sampling rate should be at
least twice the highest frequancy in the video signal

32. Quantization
 Each sampled discrete time voltage level is assigned to a finite number of
defined amplitude level
 the predefined amplitude levels are characteristics to a perticular A/D
converter and consist of a set of discrete values of voltage level
 the nmber of quantzation level is defined by
 Number of quantization level=2^n
 Where n is number of bit of A/D converter
 an 8 bit converter would allow us to quantize at 2^8=256 different value
whereas 4 bit would allow only 2^4=16 different quantization level.

33. Encoding
 The amplitude level that are quanized must be changed into digital code. this
process, termed encoding, involves representing an amplitude level by a
binary digit sequence.
 given a full scale range of an analog video signal, the spacing of each level
would be defined by
 Quantization level spacing= Full scale range/2^n.


34. Image storage
 Following A/D convertion, the image is stored in computer memory, typically
called frame buffer.this buffer may be part of frame grabber or computer
itself
 various technique have been developed to acquire and access digital images.
 the frame grabber is one example of a video data acquisition device that will
store a digitized picture and acquire in it=1/30s.
 a combination of row and column counters are used in the frame grabber
which are synchronized with the scanning of electron beam in the camera.
thus, each position on the screen can be uniquely adressed.
 to read information stored in frame buffer the data is grabbed via signal sent
from computer to the adress sorrosponding to row-column combination.

35. Image processing and analysis
 Image processing and analysis includes
 1. Image data reduction
 2. Segmentation
 3. Feature extraction
 4. Object recognition

36. Image data reduction
 In image data reduction, the objective is to raduce volume of data.
 as preliminary step in data analysis, the following two schemes have found
common usages for data reduction.
 1. digital conversion
 2. Windowing
 Digital conversion reduces number of gray level used by machine vision
system for example 8 bit resister used for each pixel would have 2^8=256 gray
level.depending on the requirement of application, digital conversion can be
used to reduce the number of gray level by using fewer bits to represent the
pixel light intensity. four bits would reduce the nmber of gray level to 16
 Windowing invoves using only a portion of total image stored in the frame
buffer for image processing and analysis. this portion is called Window

37. Segmentation
 Segmentation is general terms which applies to various method of data
reduction.
 There are many ways to segment an image. three importaint technique that
we will discuss are
 1. Thresholding
 2. Region growing
 3. Edge detection
 Thresholding is binary conversion technique in which each pixel is converted
into a binary value,either black or white. this is acomplished by utilizing a
frequency histogram of the image and establishing what intensity is to be the
border between black and white.

38.  If necessary, it is possible to store different shades of grey in an image,
popularly called the grey-scale system. If the computer has a higher main
memory and a faster processor, an individual pixel can also store colour
information. For the sake of simplicity, let us assume that we will be content
with a binary vision system. Now the entire frame of the image will comprise
a large number of pixels, each having a binary state, either 0 or 1. Typical
pixel arrays are 128 × 128, 256 × 256, 512 × 512, etc.

39.  Region growing is a collection of segmentation techniques in which the pixels
are grouped in regions called grid elements based on attribute similarities. To
differentiate between the object and the background assign 1for any grid
element occupied by an object. A typical region growing techniques for
complete images could have the following procedures
1. Select the pixel, In the simplest case select white pixel and assign a value
of 1
2. Compare the pixel, selected with all adjacent pixels
3. Go to an equivalent adjacent pixel and repeat the until no equivalent pixels
can be added to the region.

40.  Edge detection is considered as the intensity change that occurs in the pixels
at the boundary or edges of a part. The boundary can be determined by a
simple edge following procedure is to scan a image until a pixel within the
region is encountered. For a pixel within the region, turn left and step,
otherwise turn right and step.
 the procedure is stopped when boundary is traversed and path has return to
the starting pixel.
 this is illustrate in fig. as shown

42. Feature Extraction
 In machine vision application, it is often necessary to distinguish one object
from another. This is usually accomplished by means of features that uniquely
characterized the object. Some features of object that can be used in
machine vision include area, diameter and perimeter. The region growing
procedures described before can be used to determine the area of an object
image.

43. Object Recognition
 The next step in image data processing is to identify the object the object
the image represents. The object recognition techniques used in industry
today may be classified into two major categories
 a) Template matching techniques
 b) Structural techniques
 Template matching techniques are a subset of the more general statistical
pattern recognition techniques that serve to classify objects in an image into
predetermined categories. The basic problem in template matching is to
match the object into a stored pattern feature set defined as a model
template. These techniques are applicable if there is no requirement for a
large number of model templates. When the match is found, allowing for a
certain statistical variations in the comparison process. Then the object has
been properly classified.

44.  Structural techniques of pattern recognition consider relationships between
features or edges of an object. For examples, if an image of an object can be
divided into four straight lines (the lines are called primitives)connected at
their endpoints and the connected lines are at right angles, then the object is
rectangle . This kind of technique is known as syntactic pattern recognition is
the most widely used structural techniques.
 Structural techniques differ from decision theoretic techniques in that the
later deals with a pattern on a quantitative basis and ignores for the most
interrelationship among object primitives.

45. Training the vision system
 The process of vision system training is to program the vision system with
known objects. The system stores these objects in the form of extracted
feature values which can be subsequently compared against the
corresponding features values from images of unknown objects. Physical
parameters such as camera placemet, aperture setting, part position and
lighting are the critical conditions that should be simulated as closely as
possible during the training vision.

46. Robotic Application
 1. The object can be controlled in both position and appearance
 2. Either position or appearance of the object can be controlled but not both.
 3. The third level of difficulty requires advanced vision capabilities.
 4. Large scale industrial manufacture
 5. Short iron unique object manufacture.
 6. Inspection of pre manufactured objects.
 7. Visual stock control and management systems(counting , barcode reading ,
store interfaces for digital systems)

47.  8. Control of automated guided vehicles(AGV’s)
 9. Quality control and refinement of food prodects.
 10. Retail automation.
 11. Machine vision systems are widely used in semiconductor fabrication.
Inspect silicon wafers, processor chips and subcomponents such as resistors
and capacitors.
 12. In the automotive industry machine vision systems are used to guide
industrial robots.
 These levels depend on whether the object to be viewed is controlled in
position and or appearance. Controlling the position of an object in a
manufacturing environment usually requires precise fixturing. Controlling the
appearance of an object is accomplished by lighting techniques.

48.  Robot applications of machine vision fall into the three categories
 a) Inspection
 b) Identification
 c) Visual servoing and navigation

49.  Inspection: The first category is one in which the primary function is the inspection
process. This is carried out by the machine vision system and the robot is used in a
secondary role to support the applications The objectives of the machine vision
inspection include checking for
1. Gross surface defects
2. Discovery of flaws in labeling verification of the presence of components in
assembly
3. Measuring for dimensional accuracy
4. Checking for presence of holds and other feature in a part.
 When these kinds of inspection operation are performed manually, there is a tendency
for human error and also time required in manual inspection operation requires
sampling basis. With machine vision these procedures are carried out automatically
using hundred percent inspections and usually in much less time.

50.  Identification: The second category identification is concerned with
applications in which the purpose of the machine vision system is to recognize
and classify an object rather than to inspect it. Inspection implies the part
must be either accepted or rejected. Identification implies that the part
involves recognition process in which the part itself or its position and / or
orientation is determined. This is usually followed by a subsequent decision
and action taken by the robot. Identification applications of machine vision
include
1. Part sorting
2. Palletizing
3. Depalletizing
4. Picking parts

51.  Visual servoing and navigation:
 In the third application category, visual servoing and navigational control the
purpose of the vision system is to direct the actions of the robot based on its
visual input. The generic example of the robot visual servoing is where the
machine vision system is used to control the trajectory of the robots end
effecter toward an object in the workspace. Industrial example of this
applications include part positioning, retrieving parts moving along the
conveyor retrieving and reorienting parts moving along a conveyor, assembly,
bin picking and tracking in continuous arc welding.

52.  An example of navigational control would be in automatic robot path planning
and collision avoidance using visual data. The bin picking application is an
interesting and complex application of machine vision in robotics which
involves both identification and servoing. Bin picking involves the use of a
robot to grasp and retrieve randomly oriented parts will be overlapping each
other.
 The vision system must first recognize a target part and its orientation in the
container and then it must direct the end effecter to a position to permit
grasping and pickup. Solution of the bin picking problem owes much to the
pioneering work in vision research at the University of Rhode Island. There
are two commercially available bin picking systems one offered by object
recognition systems inc called the i-bot 1 system and the other by general
electric co called bin vision. Tracking in continuous arc welding is another
example of the visual servoing and navigation in robotic vision systems.