The document discusses key concepts in research methodology, including different types of research (pure, descriptive, correlational, explanatory, exploratory), approaches (structured and unstructured), and variables (independent, dependent, extraneous, intervening). It also covers literature reviews, theoretical and conceptual frameworks, operational definitions, and scales of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio). The key stages of research methodology include identifying variables, types of research, approaches, and understanding concepts through literature reviews and frameworks.

1. TMK
&
KCS
1
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
KEY
CONCEPTS
&
KEY
TERMS
ee"ff
CHAPTER
1:
RESEARCH:
A
WAY
OF
THINKING
-­‐ Research
is
one
of
the
ways
to
find
answers
to
your
questions.
The
terms
research
composed
of
2
syllables:
re
and
search.
(re:
again,
anew;
search:
examine
closely,
to
test,
to
try
and
to
probe)
-­‐ Rigorous
:
the
procedures
that
are
followed
to
find
answers
to
questions
are
relevant,
appropriate
and
justified.
-­‐ Systematic
:
the
procedures
adopted
to
undertake
an
investigation
must
follow
certain
logical
sequences.
-­‐ Empirical
:
conclusion
that
are
drawn
are
based
upon
hard
evidence
gathered
from
information
collected
from
real-­‐life
experiences
and
observations.
-­‐ Pure
Research:
involves
developing
and
testing
theories
and
hypotheses
that
are
intellectually
challenging
to
the
researcher
but
may
or
may
not
have
practical
application
at
the
present
time
or
in
the
future.
-­‐ Pure
Research
is
also
concerned
with
the
development;
examination
verification
and
refinement
of
research
methods,
procedures,
techniques
and
tools
that
form
the
body
of
research
methodology.
-­‐ Descriptive
Research:
attempts
to
describe
systematically
a
situation,
problem,
phenomenon,
services…
-­‐ Correlational
Research:
attempts
to
discover
or
establish
the
existence
of
relationship
between
two
or
more
aspect
of
situation.
-­‐ Explanatory
Research:
attempts
to
clarify
why
and
how
there
is
a
relationship
between
two
aspects
of
situation
or
phenomenon.
-­‐ Exploratory
Research:
to
explore
an
area
where
little
is
known
or
to
investigate
the
possibilities
of
undertaking
a
particular
research
study.
-­‐ Structured
approach:
everything
that
forms
the
research
process-­‐
objectives,
design,
sample…
are
predetermined.
-­‐ Unstructured
approach:
allows
flexibility
in
all
these
aspect
of
process.
o Structured
approach
is
more
appropriate
to
determine
the
extent
of
a
problem,
issue
or
phenomenon.
o Unstructured
approach
is
used
to
explore
its
nature.
CHAPTER
3:
LITERATURE
REVIEW
-­‐ Literature
review:
the
preliminary
tasks
when
you
undertake
a
research
study.
You
need
to
go
through
the
existing
literature
in
order
to
acquaint
yourself
with
the
available
body
of
knowledge
in
your
area
of
interest.
-­‐ Theoretical
framework:
the
structure
that
can
hold
or
support
a
theory
of
a
research
study.
The
theoretical
framework
introduces
and
describes
the
theory
that
explains
why
the
research
problem
under
study
exists.
-­‐ Conceptual
framework:
stems
from
the
theoretical
framework
and
concentrates,
usually,
on
one
section
that
theoretical
framework
which
becomes
the
basis
of
your
research
study.

2. 2
TMK
&
KCS
CHAPTER
4:
LITERATURE
REVIEW
-­‐
Operational
Definition:
is
a
result
of
the
process
of
operationalization
and
is
used
to
define
something
(e.g.
a
variable,
term,
or
object)
in
terms
of
a
process
(or
set
of
validation
tests)
needed
to
determine
its
existence,
duration,
and
quantity.
CHAPTER
5:
IDENTIFYING
VARIABLES
-­‐
Variables:
an
image,
perception
or
concept
that
is
capable
of
measurement;
hence
capable
of
taking
on
different
values.
-­‐
Concept:
mental
images
or
perceptions;
therefore,
their
meaning
varies
markedly
from
individual
to
individual.
-­‐
Measurability:
the
main
difference
between
a
variable
and
a
concept.
• Concept
cannot
be
measured;
whereas,
variables
are
subjected
to
measurement.
-­‐
Operationalization:
how
concept
can
be
measured.
-­‐
Indicators
:
a
set
of
criteria
reflective
of
the
concept.
-­‐
Independent
Variable
:
the
cause
suppose
to
be
responsible
for
bringing
about
changes
in
a
phenomenon
or
situation.
-­‐
Dependent
Variable
:
the
outcome
of
the
changes
brought
about
by
the
introduction
of
independent
variable.
-­‐
Extraneous
Variable
:
real
life
situation
factors
that
affect
changes
in
dependent
variable.
-­‐
Intervening
Variable
(confounding
variable):
link
the
dependent
and
independent
variable.
-­‐
Active
Variables
:
variables
that
can
be
manipulated,
changed
or
controlled.
-­‐
Attribute
Variables
:
variables
that
cannot
be
manipulated,
changed
or
controlled.
-­‐
Constant
Variable
:
when
a
variable
can
have
only
one
value
or
category.
-­‐
Dichotomous
Variable:
2
categories
as
in
YES/NO,
GOOD/BAD
and
RICH/POOR
-­‐
Polytomous
Variable:
when
a
variable
can
be
divided
into
more
than
2
categories.
-­‐
Continuous
Variable:
have
continuity
in
their
measurement.
-­‐
Nominal
Scale
:
enables
the
classification
of
individuals,
objects
or
responses
based
on
a
common/shared
property
or
characteristics.
-­‐
Ordinal
Scale
:
has
all
properties
of
a
nominal
scale
plus
one
of
its
own.
It
ranks
subgroup
in
a
certain
order.
-­‐
Interval
Scale
:
has
all
characteristics
of
an
ordinal
scale;
that
is,
individuals
or
response
belonging
to
a
subcategories
are
arranged
in
an
ascending
or
descending
order.
-­‐
Ratio
Scale
:
has
all
properties
of
nominal,
ordinal
and
interval
scales
plus
its
own
property:
the
zero
point
of
a
ratio
scale
is
fixed,
which
means
it
has
a
fixed
starting
point.

3. TMK
&
KCS
3
CHAPTER
6:
CONSTRUCTING
HYPOTHESES
-­‐
Hypothesis
:
a
proposition,
condition,
or
principle
which
is
assumed,
perhaps
without
belief
in
order
to
draw
out
its
logical
consequences
and
by
this
method
to
test
its
accord
with
facts
which
are
known
or
may
be
determined.
-­‐
Hypothesis
:
is
written
in
such
a
way
that
it
can
be
proven
or
disproven
by
valid
and
reliable
data.
-­‐
Alternate
Hypothesis:
explicitly
specify
the
relationship
that
will
be
considered
as
true
in
case
the
research
hypothesis
proves
to
be
wrong;
other
words,
alternate
hypothesis
is
the
opposite
of
the
research
hypothesis.
-­‐
Null
Hypothesis
:
is
usually
written
as
H0
,
stipulating
that
there
is
no
difference
between
two
situations,
groups,
outcomes,
or
prevalence
of
a
condition
or
phenomenon.
-­‐
Hypothesis
of
difference:
stipulates
that
there
will
be
a
difference
but
does
not
specify
its
magnitude.
-­‐
Hypothesis
of
point-­‐prevalance:
Hypothesis
that
researcher
have
enough
knowledge
about
the
situation
or
the
treatment
and
its
outcome
to
speculate
almost
the
exact
prevalence
of
the
situation
or
the
treatment
or
the
outcome
of
a
treatment
in
quantitative
unit.
-­‐
Hypothesis
of
association:
This
hypothesis
implies
on
the
extent
of
the
relationships
in
the
study
population
as
prevalence
of
a
phenomenon
in
different
population
groups.
-­‐
Type
I
Error
:
rejection
of
null
hypothesis
when
it
is
true.
-­‐
Type
II
Error
:
acceptance
of
null
hypothesis
when
it
is
false.
CHAPTER
7:
THE
RESEARCH
DESIGN
-­‐ Research
design
:
is
a
plan,
structure
and
strategy
of
investigation
so
conceived
as
to
obtain
answer
to
research
question
or
problem.
-­‐ Traditional
research
design:
is
a
blueprint
or
detail
plan
of
how
a
research
study
is
to
be
complete
_
operationalizing
variable
so
they
can
be
measured,
selecting
a
sample
of
interest
to
study,
collecting
data
to
be
used
as
a
basis
for
testing
hypotheses,
and
analyzing
the
result.
-­‐ Independent
variable
:
any
variable
that
is
responsible
for
bringing
about
a
change.
-­‐ Dependent
variable
:
the
change
in
the
degree
of
marital
problems
was
depend
upon
counseling.
-­‐ Extraneous
variable:
all
other
factors
that
affect
the
relationship
between
marital
problem
and
counseling
-­‐ Change
variable
:
change
in
the
dependent
variable
because
of
the
respondent’s
state
of
mood
or
ambiguity
in
the
research
instrument.
-­‐ Change
or
Random
error
:
the
error
thus
introduced
in
the
change
variable.
CHAPTER
8:
SELECTING
A
STUDY
DESIGN
-­‐ Cross-­‐sectional
study:
this
design
is
best
suited
to
studies
aimed
at
finding
out
the
prevalence
of
a
phenomenon,
situation,
problem,
attitude
or
issue,
by
taking
a
cross-­‐section
of
the
population.

4. 4
TMK
&
KCS
-­‐ Before
and
after
studies:
are
conducted
by
measuring
the
dependent
variable,
or
the
variable
caused
by
the
manipulated
independent
variable,
before
and
after
the
manipulation
has
occurred.
-­‐ Longitudinal
study
:
is
an
observational
research
method
in
which
data
is
gathered
for
the
same
subjects
repeatedly
over
a
period
of
time.
-­‐ Maturation
effect
:
the
effect
of
this
maturation,
if
it
is
significantly
correlated
with
the
dependent
variable,
is
reflected
at
the
“after”
observation.
-­‐ Reactive
effect
:
when
the
instrument
itself
educates
the
respondents.
-­‐ Regression
effect
:
the
more
expression
of
an
attitude
in
response
to
the
questionnaire
or
interview
has
cause
them
to
think
about
after
their
attitude
at
the
time
of
the
past
test.
-­‐ Conditioning
effect
:
a
situation
where,
if
the
same
respondents
are
contacted
frequently,
they
begin
to
know
what
is
expected
of
them
and
may
respond
to
questions
without
though,
or
they
may
lose
interest
in
the
inquiry,
with
the
same
result.
-­‐ Reference
effect
:
refer
to
the
time
frame
in
which
a
study
is
exploring
a
phenomenon,
situation,
event
or
problem
-­‐ Retrospective
study
design:
studies
investigate
a
phenomenon,
situation
or
issue
that
has
happen
in
the
past.
-­‐ Prospective
study
design:
studies
refer
to
the
likely
prevalence
of
a
phenomenon,
situation,
problem,
attitude
or
out
come
in
the
future.
-­‐ Retrospective
prospective
study
design:
study
focus
on
the
past
trends
in
a
phenomenon
and
study
it
onto
the
past.
-­‐ Experimental
study:
the
study
starts
from
the
cause
to
establish
the
effect.
-­‐ After
only
experimental
design
:
researcher
knows
that
a
population
id
being,
or
has
been,
exposed
to
an
intervention
and
wishes
to
stud
its
impact
on
the
population.
-­‐ Control
group
design
:
the
researcher
select
too
groups
instead
of
one
(control
group
and
experimental
group).
This
group
is
expected
to
be
comparable
as
far
as
possible
in
every
respect
except
for
the
intervention.
-­‐ Double
control
design:
is
to
identify
and
separate
out
the
reactive
effect
maturation
or
regression
effect
of
placebo
effect.
-­‐ Comparative
design:
compare
the
effective
of
different
treatment
modalities.
-­‐ Matched
control
experimental
design:
in
this
studies,
comparability
is
determined
in
an
individual-­‐by-­‐individual
basis.
-­‐ Non
experimental
study:
to
study
starts
from
the
effect
to
trace
the
cause.
-­‐ Semi
experimental
study:
has
the
properties
of
both
experimental
and
non-­‐
experimental.
-­‐ Placebo
effect:
A
patient’s
believe
that
someone
is
receiving
treatment
can
play
on
important
role
in
his/her
recovery
from
an
illness
even
if
treatment
is
ineffective.
The
psychological
effect
called
placebo
effect.
-­‐ Cohort
studies:
The
study
bused
upon
the
existence
of
a
common
characteristic
such
as
year
of
birth,
graduation
a
marriage,
within
a
subgroup
of
a
population.
-­‐ Panel
studies:
The
same
to
cohort
study
except
that
panel
studies
are
longitudinal
and
prospective
in
nature
and
collect
information
from
the
same
respondents.
-­‐ Case
studies:
is
an
approach
to
studying
a
social
phenomenon
through
a
thorough
analysis
of
an
individual
case.

5. TMK
&
KCS
5
CHAPTER
9:
SELECTING
A
METHOD
OF
DATA
COLLECTION
-­‐ Observation:
Is
a
purposeful
systematic
and
selective
ways
of
watching
and
listening
to
an
interaction
or
phenomenon
as
it
takes
place.
-­‐ Participant
observation:
Researchers
participate
in
the
activity
of
the
group
being
observe
in
the
same
manner
as
its
members,
with
or
without
their
knowing
that
they
are
being
observed.
-­‐ Non-­‐Participant
observation:
Researcher
do
not
get
involved
in
the
activity
of
the
group
but
remains
a
passive
observer,
watching
and
listening
to
its
activities
and
drawing
conclusion
from
this.
-­‐ Hawthorne
Effect
:
When
a
charge
in
behavior
of
persons
or
groups
is
attributed
to
their
being
observed.
-­‐ Elevation
Effect
:
When
observer
have
a
tendency
to
use
particular
part
of
the
scale
in
recording
an
interaction.
-­‐ Halo
Effect
:
When
the
way
an
observer
rates
an
individual
on
one
aspect
of
the
interaction
influence
the
way
someone
rates
that
individual
on
another
aspect
of
the
interaction.
-­‐ In-­‐depth
interview
:
is
repeated
face
to
face
encounters
between
the
researcher
and
information
directed
toward
understanding
informants’
perspective
on
their
life,
experience,
or
situation
as
expressed
in
their
own
word.
-­‐ Focus
group
interview
:
research
explore
the
perception,
experiences
and
understanding
of
a
group
of
people
who
have
some
experiences
in
common
with
regard
to
a
situation
or
event.
-­‐ Structured
Interview
:
The
interviewer
asks
respondents
the
same
questions
using
a
predetermined
series
of
interview
questions.
Deviations
from
the
predetermined
series
of
questions
are
not
allowed
in
the
interview
process.
-­‐ Unstructured
Interview
:
An
interview
in
which
the
researcher
asks
open-­‐
ended
questions.
The
researcher
aims
to
give
respondents
the
latitude
to
talk
freely
on
a
topic
and
to
influence
the
direction
of
the
interview.
There
is
no
predetermined
plan
about
the
specific
information
to
be
gathered
from
these
types
of
interviews.
-­‐ Open-­‐Ended
Data
:
the
possible
response
are
not
given.
In
the
case
of
a
questionnaire,
the
respondent
write
down
the
answer
in
his/her
own
word.
-­‐ Close
ended
question:
the
possible
answers
are
set
out
in
the
questionnaire
or
schedule
and
the
respondents
or
investigators
ticks
the
category
that
best
describe
the
respondent’s
answer.
CHAPTER
10:
COLLECTING
DATA
AND
USING
ATTITUDINAL
SCALES
-­‐
Likert
Scale
:
summated
rating
scale
that
are
based
on
assumption
that
each
statement/item
on
the
scale
has
equal
‘attitudinal
value’,
‘importance’
or
‘weight’
in
terms
of
reflecting
an
attitude
towards
the
issue
in
question.
-­‐
Thurstone
Scale
:
equal-­‐appearing
interval
scale
or
differential
scale
that
calculates
a
‘weight’
or
‘attitudinal
value’
for
each
statement.
-­‐
Guttman
Scale
:
cumulative
scale
that
is
one
of
the
most
difficult
scales
to
construct
and
therefore
is
rarely
used.
-­‐
Attitudinal
Scale
:
measure
attitudes
toward
an
issue.
CHAPTER
11:
ESTABLISING
THE
VALIDITY
AND
RELAIBILITY
OF
RESEARCH

6. 6
TMK
&
KCS
-­‐
Validity
:
the
ability
of
an
instrument
to
measure
what
it
is
designed
to
measure.
-­‐
Face
Validity
:
the
establishment
and
judgment
of
a
logical
link
that
instrument
is
measuring
what
it
is
supposed
to
between
the
questions
and
objectives
of
the
study.
-­‐
Content
Validity
:
the
assessment
of
the
items
and
questions
that
cover
the
full
range
of
the
issue
or
attitude
being
measured.
-­‐
Predictive
Validity
:
is
judged
by
degree
to
which
an
instrument
can
forecast
an
outcome.
-­‐
Concurrent
Validity:
is
judged
by
how
well
an
instrument
compares
with
a
second
assessment
concurrently
done.
-­‐
Reliabity
:
it
is
considered
as
so
when
the
research
tool
is
consistent
and
stable,
and,
hence,
predictable
and
accurate.
-­‐
External
Consistency
Procedures:
compare
findings
from
2
independent
processes
of
data
collection
with
each
other
as
a
means
of
verifying
the
reliability
of
the
measure.
-­‐
Test/re-­‐test
:
an
instrument
that
is
administered
once,
and
then
again,
under
the
same
or
similar
condition.
-­‐
Parallel
forms
:
the
construction
of
2
instruments
that
are
intended
to
measure
the
same
phenomenon
to
2
or
similar
populations.
-­‐
Internal
Consistency
Procedure:
items
measuring
the
same
phenomenon
should
produce
similar
results.
-­‐
The
Split-­‐half
Technique
:
designed
to
correlate
half
of
the
items
with
other
half
and
is
appropriate
for
instruments
that
are
design
to
measure
attitudes
towards
an
issue
or
phenomenon.
-­‐
Stepped-­‐up
Reliability
:
calculated
by
Spearman-­‐Brown
Formula
on
half
the
instrument
that
are
needed
to
be
corrected
in
order
to
assess
the
reliability
for
the
whole
instrument.
CHAPTER
12:
SAMPLING
-­‐ Population
/
Study
population:
A
clearly
defined
group
of
people
or
objects.
Samples
are
drawn
from
the
population
and
statistical
results
that
are
derived
from
random
samples
can
be
generalized
to
the
whole
population.
-­‐ Sample
:
A
group
that
is
selected
from
a
larger
group
(the
population).
By
studying
the
sample,
the
researcher
tries
to
draw
valid
conclusions
about
the
population.
-­‐ Sampling
design
:
The
part
of
the
research
plan
that
specifies
how
and
how
many
respondents
will
be
selected
for
a
study.
-­‐ Sampling
unit
/
sampling
element:
each
respondent
that
become
the
basis
of
selecting
your
sample.
-­‐ Sampling
frame
:
the
list
identifying
each
despondent
in
the
study
population.
-­‐ Sampling
statistics
:
your
finding
based
on
the
information
obtain
from
your
respondents
(sample).
-­‐ Population
parameter/
population
mean
:
the
estimates
arrived
at
from
sample
statistics.
-­‐ Saturation
point
:
when
you
reach
a
stage
where
no
new
information
is
coming
from
your
respondents.

7. TMK
&
KCS
7
-­‐