Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells that contain RNA. A reticulocyte count involves staining a blood sample with new methylene blue to visualize the RNA-containing reticulum in reticulocytes. Reticulocytes are counted under a microscope and the percentage is calculated to assess bone marrow function. An increased reticulocyte count indicates the bone marrow is responding to blood loss or hemolysis by increasing red blood cell production, while a decreased count may indicate bone marrow suppression.
An immature red blood cell without a nucleus, having a granular or reticulated appearance when suitably stained.
Reticulocytes are the immature RBC that contain nucleus.
They are originally seen at the site of their formation i.e. bone marrow. They take 2-3 (lays for maturation only about 1-2% of circulating RBCs are Reticulocytes.
A blood smear is a sample of blood that's spread on a glass slide which is treated with a special stain. In the past, all blood smears were examined under a microscope by laboratory professionals. Now automated digital systems may be used to help examine blood smears.
This presentation is focused on diagnostic utility of Red blood cell indices which will be very useful for undergraduate and postgraduate of medical field.
An immature red blood cell without a nucleus, having a granular or reticulated appearance when suitably stained.
Reticulocytes are the immature RBC that contain nucleus.
They are originally seen at the site of their formation i.e. bone marrow. They take 2-3 (lays for maturation only about 1-2% of circulating RBCs are Reticulocytes.
A blood smear is a sample of blood that's spread on a glass slide which is treated with a special stain. In the past, all blood smears were examined under a microscope by laboratory professionals. Now automated digital systems may be used to help examine blood smears.
This presentation is focused on diagnostic utility of Red blood cell indices which will be very useful for undergraduate and postgraduate of medical field.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
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These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
2. RETICULOCYTES
Reticulocytes are young , premature, non
nucleated red blood cells, contain reticular material
(RNA) that stain gray blue.
Reticulum is present in newly released blood cells
for 1-2 days before the cell reach its full mature
state.
3. RETICULOCYTE STAINS
Reticulocytes are visualized by supra-vital staining (such
as new methylene blue, Brilliant Cresyl Blue, Pure azure
blue) that precipitate the RNA and organelles, forming a
filamentous network of reticulum
On Wright stain. the Reticulocyte appears
polychromatophilic or as a Macrocytic blue red cell.
4. PRINCIPLE
Whole blood is incubated with supra-vital
staining (new methylene blue). The vital stain
causes the ribosomal and residual RNA to
coprecipitate with the few remaining mitochondria
and ferritin masses in living young erythrocytes to
form dark-blue clusters and filaments (reticulum).
Smears of this mixture are then prepared and
examined. The number of reticulocytes in 1000
red blood cells is determined. This number is
divided by 10 to obtain the reticulocyte count in
percent.
5. SPECIMEN
Whole blood that is anticoagulated with either EDTA
or heparin is suitable.
Capillary blood drawn into heparinized tubes or
immediately mixed with stain may also be used.
Red blood cells must still be living when the test is
performed therefore it is best to perform it promptly
after blood collection.
Blood may be used up to 8 hours after collection.
Stained smears retain their color for a prolonged
period of time.
6. REQUIREMENTS
1. Commercially prepared liquid new methylene blue
solution. It should be stored in a brown bottle. If
precipitate is a problem on the smear, the stain
should be filtered prior to use.
2. Microscope slides
3. Microscope
4. 10 x 75 mm test tubes
5. Pasteur pipets (with bulb if pipets are glass)
6. Capillary tubes
7. Miller ocular (if available)
7. PROCEDURE
Preparation of smears
1. Add 3-4 drops of new methylene blue solution to 3-4
drops of thoroughly mixed EDTA anticoagulated blood to
a glass 10 x 75 mm test tube.
2. Mix the contents by gently shaking and allow to incubate
at room temperature for a minimum of 10 minutes.
3. At the end of 10 minutes, gently mix the blood/stain
solution.
4. Using a capillary tube, place a drop of the mixture on
each of three slides near the frosted edge as you would
when making a peripheral smear.
5. Using the wedge smear technique, make acceptable
smears not too thick or thin.
6. Label the slides with patient name, ID# and date.
7. Allow to air dry. (Do not blow to hasten to drying.)
8. COUNTING PROCEDURE
Place the first slide on the microscope stage and,
using the low power objective (10x), find an area in
the thin portion of the smear in which the red cells are
evenly distributed and are not touching each other.
Carefully change to the oil immersion objective (100x)
and further located an area in which there are
approximately 100 red cells per oil immersion field.
Do this by finding a field where the cells are evenly
distributed and mentally divide the field into 4
quadrants. Count the cells in 1 quadrant. If there are
about 25, you are in a good area. There will be a lot of
open space between the red cells.
9. 2. Be sure to count all cells that contain a blue-staining
filament or at least 2 or more discrete blue aggregates
of reticulum in the erythrocyte.
3. Count 1000 red cells in consecutive oil immersion
fields. Record the number reticulocytes seen.
4. You may count 500 cells on two slides each. They
should agree within ± 15% of each other. If they do
not, repeat the reticulocyte count on the third smear.
5. Calculate the result as follow:
%Retix= Reticulocyte counted/10
10. MILLER DISCS METHOD
1. Use a 100x objective and a 10x ocular secured with a Miller
disc.
The Miller disc imposes two squares (one 9 times the
area of t
h
eother) onto the field of view.
Find a suitable area of the smear. A good area will
show 3
-
1
0RBCs in the smaller square of the Miller disc.
2. Count the reticulocytes within the entire large square
including those that are touching the lines on the left and
bottom of the ruled area. Count RBCs in the smaller square
whether they contain stained RNA or not. A retic in the
smaller square should be counted as an RBC and a retic.
Record RBC # counted and retic # counted separately.
3. Continue counting until a minimum of 111 RBCs have been
observed (usually 15-20 fields). This would correspond to
999 RBCs counted with the standard procedure.
11. The Miller disc may be placed in one of the ocular
lenses to aid in the counting of the reticulocytes.
%Reticulocyte= total reticulocyte in square A*100
total RBC in square B*9
12. REFERENCE VALUES
RBCs life span ~ 100 days, ± 20 days
Reticulocyte ~ 1 day in peripheral blood, Then
the B.M. replaces approximately 1 % of the adult
red blood cells every day.
Normal value :
0.5 to 1.5/100 red blood cells (or, 0.5 to
1.5%)
Absolute count : 25 to 75 X 109/L
Newborn (0-2 weeks): 2.5-6.0%
Normal Reticulocyte Index : 1-3%
14. REPORTING PATTERN
Absolute Reticulocyte Count (ARC): is the actual
number of reticulocytes in 1L of whole blood. This is
calculated by multiplying the reticulocytes % by the
RBCs count and dividing by 100.
Corrected Reticulocyte Count is calculated based
on a normal hematocrit of 45%.
Reticulocyte Production Index (RPI) = Corrected
retic count (%) / # Days (Maturation time)
15. CORRECTED RETICULOCYTE COUNT
In states of anemia, the reticulocyte percentage is
not a true reflection of reticulocyte production. A
correction factor must be used so as not to
overestimate marrow production, because each
reticulocyte is released into whole blood containing
few RBCs - a low hematocrit (Hct) - thus relatively
increasing the percentage.
The corrected reticulocyte count my be calculated
by the following formula:
16. RETICULOCYTE PRODUCTION INDEX(RPI)
The RI is a measurement for reticulocytes when anemia is
present
Estimating RBC production by using the corrected
reticulocyte count may yield erroneously high values in
patients when there is a premature release of younger
reticulocytes from the marrow (owing to increased
erythropoietin stimulation).
The premature reticulocytes are called “stress or shift”
reticulocytes. These result when the reticulocytes of the
bone marrow pool are shifted to the circulation pool to
compensate for anemia.
The younger stress reticulocytes present with more
filamentous reticulum. The mature reticulocyte may present
with granular dots representing reticulum. Normally,
reticulocytes lose their reticulum within 24 to 27 hours after
entering the peripheral circulation.
17. The premature stress retics have increased reticulum
and require 2 to 2.5 days to lose their reticulum,
resulting in a longer peripheral blood maturation time.
The peripheral blood smear should be reviewed
carefully for the presence of many polychromatophilic
macrocytes, thus indicating stress reticulocytes and
the need for correction for both the RBC count and the
presence of stress reticulocytes. The value obtained is
called the reticulocyte production index (RPI).
19. INTERPRETATION
The Reticulocyte count is an important diagnostic
tool: The number of Reticulocytes is a good indicator of
bone marrow activity, because it represents recent
production. It is used to differentiate anemia's caused by
bone marrow failure from those caused by hemorrhage
or hemolysis.
It used also to check the effectiveness of treatment in
prenicious anemia and folate and iron deficiency.
To assess the recovery of bone marrow function in
aplastic anemia and to determine the effects of
radioactive substance on exposed workers.
A low reticulocyte count may mean a need for a bone
marrow biopsy. This can tell if is a problem with how new
reticulocytes are made by the bone marrow.
20. Reticulocytosis (Increased RBC Production)
Reticulocyte Index >3%, Reticulocyte Count >1.5%
1. Acute blood loss or hemorrhage
2. Post-Splenectomy
3. Acute Hemolytic Anemia (Microangiopathic
Anemia)
4. Hemoglobinopathy
Sickle Cell Anemia
Thalassemia major
5. Post-Anemia Treatment
Folate Supplementation
Iron Supplementation
Vitamin B12 Supplementation
21. Reticulocytopenia (Decreased RBC Production)
Reticulocyte Index <1%, Reticulocyte Count <0.5%
1. Aplastic Anemia
2. Bone Marrow infiltrate
3. Bone Marrow suppression or failure
1. Sepsis
2. Chemotherapy or radiotherapy
4. Disordered RBC maturation
1. Iron Deficiency Anemia
2. Vitamin B12 Deficiency
3. Folate Deficiency
4. Sideroblastic Anemia
5. Anemia of Chronic Disease
6. Hypothyroidism
5. Blood transfusion
6. Liver disease
22. FACTORS AFFECTING THE TEST
Reasons you may not be able to have the
test or why the results may not be helpful
include:
Taking medicines, such as levodopa,
corticotropin, azathioprine (Imuran),
chloramphenicol (Chloromycetin), dactinomycin
(Cosmegen), medicines to reduce a fever,
medicines to treat malaria, and methotrexate and
other cancer chemotherapy medicines.
Getting radiation therapy
Taking sulfonamide antibiotics (such as Bactrim or
Septra)
Being pregnant
Having a recent blood transfusion
23. ERROR SOURCES
1. A refractile appearance of erythrocytes should not be
confused with reticulocytes.
2. Filtration of the stain is necessary when precipitated
material is present which can resemble a reticulocyte.
3. Erythrocyte inclusions should not be mistaken for
Reticulocytes.
Howell-Jolly bodies appear as one or sometime two, deep-purple
dense structures.
Heinz bodies stain a light blue-green and are usually present at the
edge of the erythrocyte.
Pappenheimer bodies are more often confused with reticulocytes
and are the most difficult to distinguish. These purple-staining iron
deposits generally appear as several granules in a small cluster. If
Pappenheimer bodies are suspected, stain with Wright-Giemsa to
verify their presence. Hemoglobin H inclusions will appear as multiple
small dots in every cell.
24. 4. Falsely decreased reticulocyte counts can result
from under staining the blood with new methylene
blue. Be sure the stain/blood mixture incubates the
full 10 minutes.
5. High glucose levels can cause reticulocytes to stain
poorly.
6. There is high degree of inaccuracy in the manual
reticulocyte count owing to error (± 2%) in low
counts and ± 7% in high counts) and a lack of
reproducibility because of the inaccuracy of the
blood film. This inaccuracy has been overcome by
the use of automated instruments using flow
cytometry.
7. If no reticulocytes are observed after scanning at
least two slides, report “none seen”.