This document discusses key concepts in social science research methods. It covers research ethics like informed consent and protecting vulnerable populations. It explains that good research should be valid, reliable and generalizable. It discusses the differences between quantitative and qualitative research methods. It also covers the deductive and inductive approaches to research, and explains the difference between correlation and causation in research. Key variables like independent and dependent variables are defined. The importance of hypotheses and how they relate to the research question or theory is also outlined.
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Sociology Super-Notes >> Sociology of Development >> The Concepts of Development in Sociology >> Change, Modernization and Development
Understand the Meaning of Research, Social Research & Social Work Research and How Social Workers should do Research ?Social Work Research is the application of Research methods to the production of knowledge that Social Workers need to solve problems they confront in the practice of Social Work.Learn the types of Types of Social Work Research
This is the updated Social Work Research slideshow (Feb 19, 2014) which includes databases and how to search them; how to use the online catalog effectively for research; how to find online books on social work through the online catalog. Questions? llord@ku.edu
Critical Thinking and A Level Sociology by Charlie Masquelier - a presentation from the BSA Teaching Group Regional Conference at the University of Surrey on 31 May 2014.
48-110 (Foundations of Social Life) - Lesson Objectives:
1. Distinguish between positivist and interpretivist methodological approaches;
2. Differentiate the features of quantitative and qualitative research methods;
3. Identify and relate examples of key ethical issues involved in doing social research;
4. Summary the advantages of learning and understanding statistics
Understand the Meaning of Research, Social Research & Social Work Research and How Social Workers should do Research ?Social Work Research is the application of Research methods to the production of knowledge that Social Workers need to solve problems they confront in the practice of Social Work.Learn the types of Types of Social Work Research
This is the updated Social Work Research slideshow (Feb 19, 2014) which includes databases and how to search them; how to use the online catalog effectively for research; how to find online books on social work through the online catalog. Questions? llord@ku.edu
Critical Thinking and A Level Sociology by Charlie Masquelier - a presentation from the BSA Teaching Group Regional Conference at the University of Surrey on 31 May 2014.
48-110 (Foundations of Social Life) - Lesson Objectives:
1. Distinguish between positivist and interpretivist methodological approaches;
2. Differentiate the features of quantitative and qualitative research methods;
3. Identify and relate examples of key ethical issues involved in doing social research;
4. Summary the advantages of learning and understanding statistics
The Failure of Skepticism: Rethinking Information Literacy and Political Pol...Chris Sweet
Fake news has been shown to spread far faster than facts on social media platforms. Rampant fake news has led to deep political polarization and the undermining of basic democratic institutions. Skepticism is an important component of information literacy and has often been pointed to as the antidote to the fake news epidemic. Why are skepticism and information literacy failing so terrifically in this post-truth era?
The presenters will summarize research drawn from the fields of psychology and mass communication that shows just how hardwired people are to believe information from their own “tribes” and resist outside contrary information.
How we think about and teach skepticism and information literacy is in need of an overhaul for the twenty-first century. This webinar will introduce some ideas for that overhaul and will also provide practical classroom activities that do a better job of addressing the cognitive aspects of information literacy and skepticism.
Write a critical analysis post discussing the following questions .docxhelzerpatrina
Write a critical analysis post discussing the following questions in no less than 500 words.
1. What questions do you still have after reading chapter five of the textbook?
2. What does gender mean to you? How do you experience gender? What are the differences among gender identity, gender expression, and gender roles?
3. What do you think the Genderbread Person and/or the Gender Unicorn leaves out, in terms of how we experience our sexual identity? Are the separate labels it presents (gender identity, gender expression, biological sex, and sexual orientation) really all that separate? How are labels helpful and unhelpful in presenting who we are and in understanding other people’s experiences of their sexual identities? Think about the "transcension" piece with regards to these questions as well.
4. Was there anything new and surprising (or not) that you read on the Cisgender Privilege list?
5. What stories stood out to you from The T Word documentary?
Ethics in Criminal Justice Research
Chapter 2
*
Ethical Issues in Criminal Justice Research
Ethical - behavior conforming to the standards of conduct of a given group
Matter of agreement among professionals
Need to be aware of general agreements of ethical behavior among CJ “community”
Some research designs may be impractical because of ethical issues
No Harm to Participants
Weighing potential benefits against possibility of harm is an ethical dilemma in research
Possible harms of criminal justice research include:
Physical harm
Psychological harm
Embarrassment
Groups at risk include:
Research subjects
Researcher
Third parties
No Harm to ParticipantsAll research involves risksResearcher cannot completely guard against all possible harm Researcher should have firm scientific grounds for conducting research which could potentially present harmHarm to subjects is only justified if the potential benefits outweigh the potential harms
Voluntary Participation
CJ research often intrudes into subjects’ lives
Participation must be voluntary
This threatens generalizability
Results only represent those who participated
Often not possible with field observations
E.g., observe people without them being aware they are being observed
Anonymity and Confidentiality
Anonymity – when researcher cannot identify a given piece of information with a given person
Confidentiality – a researcher can link information with a subject, but promises not to do so publicly
Research must make it clear to the responded whether the survey is anonymous or confidential
Deceiving Subjects
Generally considered unethical
Use of deception must be justified
Widom (1999) – child abuse and illegal drug use
Telling research subjects the purpose of the study would have biased the results
Inciardi (1993) – studying crack houses
Advises researchers not to “go undercover”
Analysis and Reporting
Researchers have ethical obligations to scientific community
Make shortcomings and/or negative findings known
Tell ...
Discussion 2Ch 241.Compare and contrast various interpret.docxduketjoy27252
Discussion 2
Ch 24
1. Compare and contrast various interpretations of the complex painting Las Meninas by Velasquez (provided in your textbook, in the lecture, and in the three handouts). Briefly state the most important differences between these five interpretations. Which interpretation seems the most accurate to you? Explain why. Remember to use the painting itself as a guide and to support your answer with examples from the texts.
Ch 26
2. Select one example of Rococo painting and one example of a painting that references important ideas from the Enlightenment and explain how each represents the concepts and values of the
societies that produced them.
Ch 27
3. How did the Industrial Revolution influence the art of the nineteenth century? Explain how the Industrial Revolution changed cultural values and intellectual ideas in both of the following artistic movements: Romanticism and Realism. Explain what the visual styles and ideas of each movement were, and how the scientific and societal changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution were reflected visually in each movement.
Ch 28
4. Briefly discuss the main qualities of early Modernism. Be sure and discuss the changes in pictorial space. Be sure and include the relationship of photography to late nineteenth century artistic movements. Find two works of art in the chapter and use them as examples to explain how they fulfill the qualities of Modernist art and how they differ from art done earlier in the nineteenth century.
decision making
Why two heads are no better than one,
how never to regret a decision again,
protect yourself against
hidden persuaders,
and tell when someone is lying to you
WHEN PEOPLE HAVE an important decision to make in the workplace, they often arrange to discuss the issues with a group of well-informed and levelheaded colleagues. On the face of it, that seems a reasonable plan. After all, when you’re making up your mind, it is easy to imagine that consulting people with a variety of backgrounds and expertise could provide a more considered and balanced perspective. But are several heads really better than one? Psychologists have conducted hundreds of experiments on this issue, and their findings have surprised even the most ardent supporters of group consultations.
Perhaps the best-known strand of this work was initiated in the early 1960s by MIT graduate James Stoner, who examined the important issue of risk taking.1 It will come as no great surprise that research shows that some people like to live life on the edge, while others are more risk averse. However, Stoner wondered whether people tended to make more (or less) risky decisions when they were part of a group. To find out, he devised a simple but brilliant experiment.
In the first part of his study, Stoner asked people to play the role of a life coach. Presented with various scenarios in which someone faced a dilemma, they were asked to choose which of several options offered the .
WHERE TO START CHP. 2LEARNING OBJECTIVES· Discuss how a hypo.docxphilipnelson29183
WHERE TO START CHP. 2
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
· Discuss how a hypothesis differs from a prediction.
· Describe the different sources of ideas for research, including common sense, observation, theories, past research, and practical problems.
· Identify the two functions of a theory.
· Summarize the fundamentals of conducting library research in psychology, including the use of PsycINFO.
· Summarize the information included in the abstract, introduction, method, results, and discussion sections of research articles.
Page 21THE MOTIVATION TO CONDUCT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH DERIVES FROM A NATURAL CURIOSITY ABOUT THE WORLD. Most people have their first experience with research when their curiosity leads them to ask, “I wonder what would happen if …” or “I wonder why …,” followed by an attempt to answer the question. What are the sources of inspiration for such questions? How do you find out about other people's ideas and past research? In this chapter, we will explore some sources of scientific ideas. We will also consider the nature of research reports published in professional journals.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS, HYPOTHESES, AND PREDICTIONS
The result of curiosity is a question. Researchers use research questions to identify and describe the broad topic that they are investigating, and then conduct research in order to answer their research questions. A good research question identifies the topic of inquiry specifically enough so that hypotheses and predictions can be made. A hypothesis is also a question; it makes a statement about something that may be true. Hypotheses are more specific versions of research questions; they are directly testable whereas a research question may not be. Thus, a hypothesis is a tentative idea or question that is waiting for evidence to support or refute it. Once a hypothesis is proposed, data must be gathered and evaluated in terms of whether the evidence is consistent or inconsistent with the hypothesis. Researchers also make specific predictions concerning the outcome of research. Where a research question is broad and a hypothesis is more specific, a prediction is a guess at the outcome of a hypothesis. If a prediction is confirmed by the results of the study, the hypothesis is supported. If the prediction is not confirmed, the researcher will either reject the hypothesis or conduct further research using different methods to study the hypothesis. It is important to note that when the results of a study confirm a prediction, the hypothesis is only supported, not proven. Researchers study the same hypothesis using a variety of methods, and each time this hypothesis is supported by a research study, we become more confident that the hypothesis is correct.
Figure 2.1 shows the relationships among research questions, hypotheses, and predictions graphically. As an example, consider Cramer, Mayer, and Ryan (2007). They had general questions about college students’ use of cell phones while driving: “Are there differences among gro.
Imposter Syndrome
Finding the Predictors
Introduction
What is Imposter Syndrome?
Imposter Syndrome is a phenomenon originally termed by Clance and Imes in 1978. Those who have Imposter Syndrome are, in fact, not imposters at all. Imposter Syndrome (alternatively called Imposter Phenomenon) is a common psychological phenomenon in which individuals regularly believe that they are incompetent in their given field or at a type of task, regardless of their accomplishments and qualifications (Clance & Imes, 1978). These individuals deny their own skill and ability, chalking it up as “fooling others” or “luck” that has got them to where they are today.
2
3
“[I do not] carry such information in my mind since it is readily available in books. ”
“…The value of a college education is not the learning of many facts but the training of the mind to think.”
4
Hypothesis
The current study is going to investigate three variables that to be possible predictors of Imposter Syndrome.
Self Concept Clarity
Vulnerable Narcissism
Upward Social Comparison
5
Predictor #1: Self-Concept Clarity
Self-Concept is defined as what an individual considers to be the most emblematic of their true nature, regardless of if the cognitive schema aligns with “actual” self of the individual (Schlegel et al., 2009). Thus, a clarity of self-concept is the ability that one has on identifying the characteristics that define them.
Schlegel et al. (2009) suggests that finding one’s “true self” contributes significantly to the overall well-being of an individual. Should a conflict arise with this identification, so shall conflict arise in the well-being of an individual.
Many young adults today have identification issues due to not fully seeing themselves as an adult or an adolescent (Arnett, 2001). This identity tension that arises within emerging adults can then continue forward into their professional lives, especially as they continue to achieve higher education (Murphy, Blustein, Bohlig, & Platt, 2010). This lack of a clear identity is suggested by the current study to foster a state in which Imposter Syndrome can grow.
6
Predictor #2: Vulnerable Narcissism
When people think of Narcissism, they tend to think of those who are Grandiose Narcissists: self-important and with feelings of superiority, as well as interpersonal exploitativeness (Raskin and Hall, 1981). Vulnerable Narcissism, by contrast, is a more sensitive form of narcissism. Those who are vulnerable narcissists are hypersensitive, defensive, and withdrawal internally (Cain et al., 2008). The vulnerable narcissist will essentially seek out attention and approval from others to boost their weak esteem.
A study by Kaufman et al. (2020) found that vulnerable narcissism is associated with feelings of Imposter Syndrome, as well as a weak sense of self. This study collectively finds that both imposter syndrome and a weaker sense of self are related to vulnerable narcissism, ...
Getting a job in 2016 is a multifacted endeavor requiting specific skills with old and new technologies. Learners today willhave 12-14 jobs in thei lifetime!
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
3. What Makes “Good” Research?
Good research should be valid, reliable, and
generalizable:
Validity: does the study measure what it is intended to measure?
Reliability: if you conduct the study again, will you get the same
results?
Generalizability: will the findings of this study apply to some other
population or group of people?
3
8. What do you think is the difference between
personal and social problems?
9. Personal or social problem?
What difference does the distinction between personal and social problems make in
understanding the causes and consequences of problems?
Work in groups and choose one problem from the list you made at the beginning of this
class and try to understand this specific problems in terms of
a) A personal problem
b) A social problem
c) Make a comparison: what different analysis outcomes do you get? What
consequences does this have
10. Personal problem
A personal problem is one whose causes and solutions lie within the individual and
his/her immediate environment
“personal troubles or milieu”
11. Personal vs. Social problems
Viewing a problem as either personal or social leads to identifying very different
consequences as well as different causes
Helping individuals deal with personal problems is important but it is only a stopgap
approach to social problems.
13. rape
defined as a personal problem
due to personal inadequacies
results in guilt in victim and impunity for the
offender
ends in appropriate or no action and
continuation of the problem
rape
defined a social problem
due in part to social attitudes about women
results in collective action –education of the
public and criminal justice personnel
ends in amelioration of the problem as attitudes change and
women are treated as victims rather than as the guilty ones
15. Defining rapeas asocial problem organizestheneedforcollective action
thatattacksfactors outside the individual
16. Tackling personal problems
Individual strategies employed to deal with problem
Help from professionals depending on the type on problem (e.g. social workers,
psychologists etc.)
Possible consequences:
Personal empowerment
Escape mechanism
Sense of inadequacy (low self-esteem, self-fulfilling prophecy)
17. A broad definition of a social problem
“A social problem is a social condition that has negative consequences for individuals,
our social world, or psychical world” (Leon-Guerrero, 2010)
18. different Level of social problems
Problems of behavior deviance
Problems of inequality
Problems of social institutions
Global social problems
As we will learn it is difficult to place social problems in boxes of categories, since they
so complex and overlap.
21. 9fallaciesofthinkingwhenanalyzingsocialproblems:
1. Fallacy of dramatic instance:
Overgeneralizing
2. Fallacy of misplaced concreteness:
making something abstract into something concrete
3. Fallacy of personal attack:
Argument by attacking the opponent personally rather than dealing with the issue
Fallacies of thinking when analyzing SPs:
22. examples
Fallacy of dramatic instance:
Overgeneralizing
“We saw two young boys doing drugs in the street; the modern youth is really in decline”
Fallacy of misplaced concreteness:
Making something abstract into something concrete
“The masculine Aruban culture inhibits a good education for women.”
Fallacy of personal attack:
Argument by attacking the opponent personally rather than dealing with the issue
“We shouldn’t start a program for the homeless; they are all drug addicts.”
23. 9fallaciesofthinkingwhenanalyzingsocialproblems:
4. Fallacy of appeal to prejudice:
Argument by appealing to popular prejudices or passions
5. Fallacy of circular reasoning:
Using conclusions to support the assumptions that were necessary to make the conclusions
6. Fallacy of retrospective determinism:
That argument that things could have not worked out any other way than they did
Fallacies of thinking when analyzing SPs:
24. examples
Fallacy of appeal to prejudice:
Argument by appealing to popular prejudices or passions
“We shouldn’t hire gay people, they have AIDS”
Fallacy of circular reasoning:
Using conclusions to support the assumptions that were necessary to make the conclusions
“Poor people are inferior because they are unable to make any money.”
Fallacy of retrospective determinism:
That argument that things could have not worked out any other way than they did
“There will always be poor people, there always have been”
“Without tourism Aruba would be broke”
25. 9fallaciesofthinkingwhenanalyzingsocialproblems:
7. Fallacy of composition:
The assertion that what is true of the part is necessarily true of the whole
8. Fallacy of non sequitur:
Something that does not follow logically from what has preceded it
9. Fallacy authority:
Argument by an illegitimate appeal to authority
Fallacies of thinking when analyzing SPs:
26. examples
Fallacy of composition:
The assertion that what is true of the part is necessarily true of the whole
“Members of parliament are wasteful, parliament is wasteful”
Fallacy of non sequitur:
Something that does not follow logically from what has preceded it
“If you don’t donate to this charity organization, you don’t care about the poor.”
Fallacy authority:
Argument by an illegitimate appeal to authority
“Aruba’s crime rates are rising”
“Why do you think that?”
“Professor x said so.”
27. Defining the concept of “Social problems”
Defining the concept of ‘social problems’
Social problems can be defined in terms of different perspectives
The specific angle you choose will influence the way you approach social problems
28. Research Methods
Research methods are standard rules that social
scientists follow when trying to establish a causal
relationship between social elements.
Quantitative methods seek to
obtain information about the social
world that is in, or can be
converted to, numeric form.
Qualitative methods attempt to
collect information about the social
world that cannot be readily
converted to numeric form.
29. Approaches to Research
A deductive approach to research:
1) starts with a theory.
2)develops a hypothesis.
3) makes empirical observations.
4)analyzes the data collected through
observation to confirm, reject, or modify the
original theory.
29
32. The basic principle on which deductive
reasoning is based, is a well-known
mathematical formula;
If, 1 = 2 (premise)
and 2 = 3 (premise)
then, 1 = 3 (conclusion)
33. Given below are a few examples that will
help you understand this concept better:
All oranges are fruits
All fruits grow on trees
Therefore, all oranges grow on trees
Johnny is a bachelor,
All bachelors are single,
Hence, Johnny is single
34. Here are a few valid,
but unsound examples;
All flight attendants know how to swim
Ralph knows how to swim
Hence, Ralph is a flight attendant.
The above conclusion is untrue, because it is not necessary that
only flight attendants know how to swim. Absolutely any
swimmer can swim.
36. Everything is Data!
Data Will Rule Your lives!
You job – pre-interview – job performance - raise?
Your car insurance
Your credit
Your chances of staying married to a particular person.
Your chances of dying of dying soon.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AiAHlZVgXjk
37. Approaches to Research
An inductive approach to research:
1) starts with empirical observation.
2) then works to form a theory.
3) determines if a correlation exists by noticing
if a change is observed in two things
simultaneously.
37
38. Inductive reasoning is more open-ended and exploratory, especially during the early stages.
Sometimes called a “bottom up” approach.
39.
40.
41.
42. The Black Swan
Outliers
The stock market –
-the housing crash
–your life.
All the swans that I have seen till date are white in color.
Therefore, all swans are white.
46. In research it is often a combination..
His initial observations led him to inductively create a
theory of religion, social integration, anomie, and
suicide.
His theoretical interpretations in turn led him
to deductively create more hypotheses and
collect more observations.
He noticed that Protestant countries consistently had higher suicide rates than Catholic ones.
47. What the current research said about suicide:
Suicide is greatest in late spring and summer NOT winter.
Media perpetuates myths – the winter suicide is “sexy.”
No strong interest in correcting or challenging the myth.
Cover the story on the pre-set anniversary dates.
Suicide has a stronger association with free time (summer) than sunshine.
49. Causality vs. Correlation
Sociologists conduct research to try to prove causation.
To prove causation, correlation and time order are
established and alternative explanations are ruled out.
1.Correlation
2. Time order
3. Alternate Explanations.
49
51. Does it meet all threecriteria?
Spurious Correlation
52. Variables – What Are We Studying?
A dependent variable is the outcome that a researcher is
trying to explain.
An independent variable is a measured factor that the
researcher believes has a causal impact on the dependent
variable.
52
Example: a person’s income (dependent variable) may vary according
to age, gender and social class (independent variables).
53. The Hypothesis (if…then)
A hypothesis is a proposed relationship between
two variables, represented by either the null
hypothesis or an alternative hypothesis.
53
Null Hypothesis (sometime called no-difference)
Hyperactivity is unrelated to eating sugar.
The null hypothesis is good for
experimentation because it's simple to
disprove. If you disprove a null hypothesis, that is evidence for a
relationship between the variables you are examining.
54. Marijuana and serious mental illness
(SMI) research
Prevalence of Past Year SMI among Adults Aged 18 or
Older, by Gender and Age Group: 2002 and 2003
Prevalence of Past Year SMI among Lifetime Marijuana Users Aged 18
or Older, by Age at First Marijuana Use: 2002 and 2003
55. Example:
What affects a student’s arrival to class?
Variables:
Type of School
Liberals Arts v. University
Type of Student
Athlete? Gender? GPA?
Time
Bedtime, Waking, Arrival
Mode of Transportation
walk, bus, carpool
56. Independent
(input)
1. Intentionally manipulated
2. Controlled
3. Vary at known rate
4. Cause
1. Intentionally left alone
2. Measured
3. Vary at unknown rate
4. Effect
For example:
•If a scientist conducts an experiment to test the theory that a vitamin could extend a
person’s life-expectancy, then the independent variable is the amount of vitamin that is given to
the subjects within the experiment. This is controlled by the experimenting scientist.
•The dependent variable, or the variable being affected by the independent variable in this case, is
life span.
Dependent
(output)
59. Quantitative Methods
Quantitativeresearchis researchthat uses numerical analysis.
In essence, this approach reduces the data into numbers.
www.gapminder.com
http://www.gapminder.org/videos/200-years-that-changed-the-world-bbc/
Editor's Notes
It is important when we conduct a study that the results mean something to other people even if they weren’t involved in the study. As such, we look for validity, reliability, and generalizability to help us determine if the results of the study are applicable to the larger social world.
Exploration: let students analyze what they think is a possible social problem in this picture. This assignment is meant to identify fallacies of thinking
There are different ways to study social phenomena. If you wanted to study poverty, for instance, you could do a quantitative analysis by picking a neighborhood, getting the census data, and seeing how much money the average household makes. Then you could compare that to the federal poverty line to determine how many people are in poverty. On the other hand, you might not get a complete picture just by looking at the numbers. Some families have high incomes (maybe $100,000/year or more), but if you asked them, they might tell you that they don’t have enough money to get by. If you just look at the numbers, you might exclude these people from your study, yet you might be able to learn something interesting about social life by talking to these people. As a result, many studies include both quantitative and qualitative methods in order to produce more thorough data.
For example, you read somewhere that college graduates are likely to have higher incomes than non-college graduates, so you hypothesize that graduation from college increases salary. You collect some data and analyze it to determine whether your theory is correct.
In this case, you notice that one of your friends is making more money than one of your other friends, even though they have similar jobs. You have no idea why this could be, but you are interested in figuring it out. You think of all the differences between these two people. They are both females, they are from the same state, they like the same music, they work in the same area – but then you remember that one went to college and the other did not. You look back at their work history to see if there was always a big difference in the amount of income they made. You then see that they were making the same salaries while in high school, but after the first friend graduated from college, she got a huge raise. You can conclude that there is a correlation (or a connection) between college graduation and salary!
For example, in Chapter 1, you read about famous college dropouts like Woody Allen and Bill Gates. We might ask ourselves if people become successful because they go to college or if they would have been successful whether or not they went to college. In order to study success, we would want to determine if college caused them to be successful or if college was simply a coincidence and did not cause success. The cases that we mentioned (Allen and Gates) lead us to believe that successful people might be successful regardless of whether they finish college, but we would have to conduct a more thorough study to make a determination. We could do a quantitative study (maybe by looking at SAT scores before college, and salaries later in life), or a qualitative study (possibly by talking to individuals who are successful to find out how college did or didn’t influence their success).
Image: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Domino_Cascade.JPG
Causation is a stronger assertion than correlation. Let’s say you have noticed that people who have fender-benders (small car accidents) on their way to work are in a bad mood. But you wonder, did the car accident put them in a bad mood, or were they already in a bad mood, which caused them to have an accident? You see that there is a correlation –- bad moods and car accidents are related to each other (there is an association), but which causes the other? You would want to know which came first, the car accident or the bad mood. If you find that many people who have car accidents were actually already in a bad mood, you might prove causation: that being in a bad mood actually causes car accidents!
In our previous example, car accidents would be the dependent variable. We’re trying to explain whether mood changes the outcome (a car accident or no car accident). Therefore, mood is an independent variable. We want to see if mood has a causal impact on the dependent variable.
A null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the variables. If we are studying the impact of mood on car accidents, the null hypothesis is that mood does not affect car accidents (there is no effect of mood). The alternative hypothesis is that, as we thought, mood does affect car accidents.