Ressearch design - Copy.ppt

Topic
Comprehensive Presentation
Regarding Educational
Research Methods

What is Research?
• Research is not only a set of skills, but
also a way of thinking. Within this
framework of thinking,
• A systematic means of problem solving
(Tuckman 1978)
• 5 key characteristics:

What is Research?
1. Systematic – research process
2. Logical – induction/deduction
3. Empirical – evidence based
4. Reductive – generalisation
5. Replicable – methodology.

Research Process
Formulate a
Question
Select an Appropriate
Research Design
Collect Relevant
Data
Interpret
Findings
Publish
Findings
Review the Available
Literature

Research Design Continuum
Research Design
Analytical Research
Descriptive Research
Experimental Research
Reviews
Historical
Philosophical Case Study Survey
Cross-Sectional
Longitudinal
Correlational
Pre-designs
Quasi-designs
True-designs
Statistical-
designs
Meta-Analyses

Classifying Research
Two helpful ways to view research
• 1 Research By Purpose
• 2 Research by Methods

Research By Purpose
• Five categories
I. Basic
II. Applied
III. Evaluation
IV. Research and development (R & D)
V. Action

Research by Methods
1. Descriptive Research.
1. Quantitative Research (Survey, Causal-comparative, Correlation)
2. Qualitative Research ( Case study, Ethnography, Phenomenology, Grounded
theory)
2. Experimental Research. (Qualitative Research)
1. Pre-experimental designs
2. True-experimental designs
3. Quasi-experimental designs
4. Factorial design
3. Historical Research.(Qualitative Research)
Legal Research, Bibliography Research are the part of the Historical Research

Data
• Two way of Data
– Primary Data
– Secondary Data

Population
• Population: A particular group of individuals or
elements who are the focus of the research
Two way of Population
1. Target population: The target population is also know as
the theoretical population and refers to the entire group of individuals or
objects to which a researcher is interested to generalize the conclusions. This
type of population usually has varying degree of characteristics.
2. Accessible population: The accessible population as the
study population. It is the population to which a researcher can apply the
conclusion of the study. This population is a subset of the target population.

The Big Picture
Population
Sample
Sampling
Statistical
Inference

Statistical Inference
Statistical inference is the process of drawing
conclusions about the entire population based
on information in a sample.

Statistic and Parameter
A parameter is a number that describes some
aspect of a population.
A statistic is a number that is computed from
data in a sample.
• We usually have a sample statistic and want to
use it to make inferences about the population
parameter

The Big Picture
Population
Sample
Sampling
Statistical
Inference
PARAMETER
S
STATISTICS

Parameter versus Statistic
mu
sigma
rho
x-
bar
p-
hat

Confidence Intervals
If context were added, which of the following would
be an appropriate interpretation for a 95% confidence
interval:
a)“we are 95% sure the interval contains the parameter”
b)“there is a 95% chance the interval contains the parameter”
c)Both (a) and (b)
d)Neither (a) or (b)
95% of all samples yield intervals that contain the true parameter, so we say
we are “95% sure” or “95% confident” that one interval contains the truth.
We can’t make probabilistic statements such as (b) because the interval either
contains the truth or it doesn’t, and also the 95% pertains to all intervals
that could be generated, not just the one you’ve created.

Confidence Intervals
Population Sampl
e
Sampl
e
Sampl
e
Sampl
e
Sampl
e
Sampl
e
. . .
Calculate
statistic for
each sample
Sampling
Distribution
Standard Error
(SE): standard
deviation of sampling
distribution
Margin of Error
(ME)
(95% CI: ME =
2×SE)
statistic ± ME

Sample
• A sample is simply a subset or subgroup of population. Sampling
is the process of selecting some individuals from the accessible
population in a way that these individuals represent whole
accessible population.
• Sampling frame: A listing of every member of the population,
using the sampling criteria to define membership in the
population
• Subjects are selected from the sampling frame
• Sampling plan: Outlines strategies used to obtain a sample for a
study
– Probability sampling plans
– Non probability sampling plans

Probability Sampling
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified random sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Systematic sampling

Non probability Sampling
• Quantitative research
– Convenience (accidental) sampling
– Quota sampling
• Qualitative research
– Purposive sampling
– Network or snowball sampling
– Theoretical sampling

Convenience Sampling
• Also called accidental sampling
• Weak approach to sampling because it is hard to
control for bias
• The sample includes whomever is available and
willing to give consent.
• Representativeness is a concern.

Quota Sampling
• Uses convenience sampling, but with a strategy
to ensure inclusion of subject types who are
likely to be underrepresented in the convenience
sample
• Goal is to replicate the proportions of subgroups
present in the population
• Works better than convenience sampling to
reduce bias

Purposeful or Purposive Sampling
• Also called judgmental or selective sampling
• Efforts are made to include typical or atypical
subjects.
• Sampling is based on the researcher’s judgment.

Network Sampling
• Also called snowball sampling
• Takes advantage of social networks to get the
sample
• One person in the sample asks another to join the
sample, and so on.

Theoretical Sampling
• Used in grounded theory research
• Data are gathered from any individual or group
that can provide relevant data for theory
generation.
• The sample is saturated when the data collection
is complete based on the researchers’
expectations.
• Diversity in the sample is encouraged.

Technique of Data Collection
Quantitative and Qualitative :
• There are many different tools for collecting
quantitative and qualitative data. Questionnaires,
observations, focus groups, Case Studies,
Checklists, interviews, Surveys and documents
analysis.

What is Variable
• A variable is a characteristic that varies from one person
or thing to another. It is a characteristic number that
increase or decrease over time or take different value in
different situations.
• A variable is a variation within a class of objects (i.e.,
eye color).
• A constant is a characteristic with no variations within a
class of objects (i.e., grade level of ninth graders).
• Researchers choose certain variables to study since they
are suspected to be related to a possible relationship to
be discovered.

Independent and Dependent Variables
• Independent Variable: The variable in the study
under consideration. The cause for the outcome
for the study.
• Dependent Variable: The variable being
affected by the independent variable. The effect
of the study

The Relationship between Independent
and Dependent Variables

Other Types of Variables
• Outcome Variable
– A dependent variable that is quantitative
– Most studies demonstrating this would have a categorical
independent variable
– The investigator is interested in the effects that might lead
to differences in methods = outcomes
• Moderator Variable
– Special type of independent variable
– Selected to determine if it affects (modifies) the basic
relationship between the primary independent variable and
the dependent variable

Other Types of Variables
(cont.)
• Extraneous Variable
– Independent variables that have not been controlled
– Considered a basic problem in research
– The task is to control these variables by reducing or
eliminating their effects
– A method to control extraneous variables is to hold them
constant

What is a Hypothesis
• A hypothesis is a prediction regarding the
possible outcome of a study
• Type of Hypothesis
– Null Hypothesis (H0)
– Alternative Hypothesis (Ha)

Hypotheses from a Single Research Question

Directional vs. Non-directional
Hypotheses
• A directional hypothesis is one in which the researcher indicates the specific
direction that he or she expects will emerge in a relationship in the study.
– The direction is based on what the researcher has found from:
• Literature
• Personal experiences
• Experience from others
• A non-directional hypothesis is when there is no specific prediction about
what direction the outcome of a study will take.
– Sometimes it is difficult to make specific predictions upon a study
• A study may state that it would point to non-specific directions vs.
distinct possibilities

Directional vs. Non-Directional Hypotheses

1.42
What is Statistics?
“Statistics is a way to get information from data”
Data
Statistics
Information
Data: Facts, especially
numerical facts, collected
together for reference or
information.
Definitions: Oxford English Dictionary
Information: Knowledge
communicated concerning
some particular fact.

There are two areas of statistics:
Descriptive Statistics: collection,
presentation, and description of sample data.
Inferential Statistics: making decisions and
drawing conclusions about populations.

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Descriptive Statistics
• Descriptive statistics are methods for organizing
and summarizing data.
• For example, tables or graphs are used to
organize data, and descriptive values such as the
average score are used to summarize data.
• A descriptive value for a population is called a
parameter and a descriptive value for a sample
is called a statistic.

Descriptive Statistics
• Descriptive Statistics are Used by Researchers to Report on
Populations and Samples

46
Inferential Statistics
• Inferential statistics are methods for using sample data
to make general conclusions (inferences) about
populations.
• Because a sample is typically only a part of the whole
population, sample data provide only limited
information about the population. As a result, sample
statistics are generally imperfect representatives of the
corresponding population parameters.

Reliability
• Reliability can be assessed by posing three
questions, namely:
– Will the measure yield the same results on other
occasions?
– Will similar observations be reached by other
observers?
– Is the measure consistent across time, space and
researcher in yielding findings?

Reliability
• According to Uma Sekaran (2003),
The reliability value falling below 0.60s is poor,
the 0.70s range is acceptable and 0.80 range and
above are good.

Reliability
 Reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces
stable and consistent results.
 Reliability is the extent to which an experiment, test, or any
measuring procedure shows the same result on repeated trials.
The degree of consistency between two measures of the same
thing.
 The measure of how stable, dependable, trustworthy, and
consistent a test is in measuring the same thing each time
 Reliability is the extent to which an experiment, test, or any
measuring procedure yields the same result on repeated trials
 The three key aspects of reliability:
 Stability , Internal consistency and equivalence

Reliability test used for?
• Reliability test is used to evaluate the consistency
of items or questions asked to read the mind of
respondents on a variable across time (now, in
the past or in future), space (one place or the
other) and researcher (one researcher or the
other).

How is this test carried out?
• Reliability test is test of the consistency of items
or questions, so items (A1,B2,C3…) of a sub-
scale on a variable (Main Statement) are gone
through this test.

How are its results interpreted?
• When items are gone through the test of reliability, its
output reflects estimated Cronbach’s Alpha, which is
considered poor if Cronbach’s Alpha estimates in the
range of 0.60s; while Cronbach’s Alpha in the ranges of
0.70s, 0.80s and 0.90s and considered as acceptable,
good and excellent.

How are data on variables generated?
• Primary data are collected as responses of respondents to the
questions or items of a sub-scale on a variable. Respondents pick
options (1 to 5, 6 or 7) in response to each of the questions asked.
Data on these picked options are then transferred to computer
spread-sheet under various columns relating to each of the items
or questions. After entry of data on responses or items in
computer, the same is then used to take its mean to generate data
on variable like JS, or DG or PJ,……

1.INTER-RATER REALIABILITY
Inter-Observer OR Inter-coder reliability :-
It is the extent to which two or more individuals (coders or raters)
agree. Inter-rater reliability assesses the consistency of how a
measuring system is implemented. For example, when two or more
teachers use a rating scale with which they are rating the students’
oral responses in an interview (1 being most negative, 5 being most
positive). If one researcher gives a "1" to a student response, while
another researcher gives a "5," obviously the inter-rater reliability
would be inconsistent. Inter-rater reliability is dependent upon the
ability of two or more individuals to be consistent. Training,
education and monitoring skills can enhance inter-rater reliability

INTER-RATER REALIABILITY
Observer 1 Observer 2
Object or
phenomenon
=
?

2.STABILITY (TEST, RETEST)
REALIBILITY
It is the agreement of measuring instruments over time.
the same test to the same sample on two different occasions. This
approach assumes that there is no substantial change in the construct
being measured between the two occasions. The amount of time
allowed between measures is critical. if the same thing measure
twice that the correlation between the two observations will depend
in part by how much time elapses between the two measurement
occasions. The shorter the time gap, the higher the correlation; the
longer the time gap, the lower the correlation. This is because the
two observations are related over time -- the closer in time get the
more similar the factors that contribute to error. Since this
correlation is the test-retest estimate of reliability, which can obtain
considerably different estimates depending on the interval.

2.STABILITY (TEST, RETEST)
REALIBILITY
Test Test
Time 1 Time 2
=
Stability over time
Example: A test designed to assess student learning in psychology
could be given to a group of students twice, with the second
administration perhaps coming a week after the first. The obtained
correlation coefficient would indicate the stability of the scores

PARALLEL (ALTERNATIVE,EQUILVENT,
COMPARABLE ) FORM REALIBILITY
First have to create two parallel forms. One way is to create a large
set of questions that address the same construct and then randomly
divide the questions into two sets. Then administer both instruments
to the same sample of people. ( One way to achieve this is to have,
20 items that measure one construct and to administer 10 of the
items to one group and the other 10 to another group, and then
correlate the results and se for high correlations and no systematic
difference in scores between the groups).The correlation between the
two parallel forms is the estimate of reliability. One major problem
with this approach is that it generate a lots of items that reflect the
same construct. This is often no easy feat. Furthermore, this approach
makes the assumption that the randomly divided halves are parallel
or equivalent. Even by chance this will sometimes not be the case.

PARALLEL (ALTERNATIVE,EQUILVENT,
COMPARABLE ) FORM REALIBILITY

4.INTERNAL CONSISTENCY
It is the extent to which tests or procedures assess the same characteristic, skill or
quality.
Internal consistency reliability is a measure of reliability used to evaluate the
degree to which different test items that probe the same construct produce
similar results.
It is a measure of the precision between the measuring instruments used in a study.
This type of reliability often helps researchers interpret data and predict the
value of scores and the limits of the relationship among variables. For example,
analyzing the internal reliability of the items on a vocabulary quiz will reveal
the extent to which the quiz focuses on the examinee’s knowledge of words.

There are four major types of internal consistency testing:
 Average Item total
 Average Inter-item
 Split-Half
 Cronbach's Alpha

1. Average Item total Correlation
Average item total correlation takes the average inter-item
correlations and calculates a total score for each item, then
averages these.
2. Average Inter-item Correlation
Average inter-item correlation compares correlations between
all pairs of questions that test the same construct by calculating
the mean of all paired correlations. The average inter-item
correlation uses all of the items on our instrument that are
designed to measure the same construct. We first compute the
correlation between each pair of items. The average inter-item
correlation is simply the average or mean of all items
correlations.

3. Split-half correlation divides items that measure the same
construct into two tests, which are applied to the same group of
people, then calculates the correlation between the two total scores.
In split-half reliability randomly divide all items and measure the
same construct into two sets. Administer the entire instrument to a
sample of people and calculate the total score for each randomly
divided half.
It is often not feasible to obtain to obtain two or more measures of
the same item by the same person at different points in time. This
involves dividing a single survey measuring instrument into two
parts and then correlating responses (scores) from one half with
responses from other half. If all items are supposed to measure the
same basic idea, the resulting correlation should be high..

4.Cronbach’s alpha
Cronbach's alpha calculates an equivalent to the average of all possible split-half
correlation .This is a single correlation coefficient that is an estimate of the
average of all the correlation coefficients of the items within a test. If alpha is high
(0.80 or higher), then this suggests that all of the items are reliable and the entire
test is internally consistent. If alpha is low, then at least one of the items is
unreliable, and must be identified via item analysis procedure.

Analyze > Scale > Reliability Analysis... on
the top menu, as shown below:

Major Statistical Analytic Tools
1. One-sample t test
2. Independent-samples T- test
3. Paired-sample t test
4. One-way ANOVA
5. Repeated ANOVA
6. Pearson Correlation
7. Chi-square test of association
8. Regression
(Simple regression versus Multiple regression;
Linear versus Log-linear regression)

What is One Sample t-Test
• The one sample t-test is used to determine the central
tendency of the respondents regarding the points raised
in questionnaire hence the mean value yielded by the
test was greater than the mid- point indicates that the
respondents are agreed.
• The one-sample t-test is used to determine whether
a sample comes from a population with a specific mean.
This population mean is not always known, but is
sometimes hypothesized.

Independent Samples T-test and One-way
ANOVA
• Independent samples t-test is used when there are two
different independent groups of people and the
researcher is interested to compare their scores. In this
case the researcher collects information from two
different groups of people on only one occasion.
• One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is an extension
of Independent two-sample t-test. The test is used to
evaluate whether mean of a variable in more than two
sample-groups remains the same or differs from each
other.

Paired-sample T-test and Repeated ANOVA
• Paired sample t-test is also called repeated measures. It is used the
researcher is interested in comparing changes in the score of the
same group tested at two different
• REPEATED ANOVA test is used to evaluate whether means of
more than two variables in the same/one sample-group are equal
or differ from each other.

Pearson Correlation
• The most commonly used correlation is the Pearson Correlation.
It is also known as Pearson product-moment Correlation. It
measure the degree and the direction of linear relationship of
between two variable. It is donated by r, and r=degree to which X
and Y vary together/degree to which X and Y vary separately
=co-variability of X and Y/variability of X and Y vary separately.
• P-Value: The p-value is the level of marginal significance within
a statistical hypothesis test representing the probability of
occurrence of a given even. This value is used as an alternative to
rejection points to provide the smallest level of significance at
which the null hypothesis would be rejected.

Chi-Square Test of Association
• The chi-square (X2) statistics is commonly used for testing relationship
between categorical variables.
• To evaluate whether there is an association between two categorical variables
on the basis of their categories.
• Uses of Chi-Square Distribution
The chi-square distribution has may uses which include:
– Confidence interval estimation for population standard deviation of normal
distribution from a sample standard deviation.
– Independence of two criteria of classification of qualitative variables
(contingency tables)
– Relationship between categorical variables.
– Sample variance study when the underlying distribution is normal.
– Test of deviations of differences between expected and observed
frequencies (one-way table).
– The chi-square test (a goodness of fit test).

Regression
• Regression is used when the relationship includes a
dependent variable and one or more independent
variables. It helps us understand which among the
independent variables are related to the dependent
variable and to explore the forms of these relationship.
• To evaluate whether ONE variable (called dependent
variable) depends upon ONE or MORE THAN ONE
independent or explanatory variables
Y = f(X + e)
Y = f(X1, X2, X3, e)

Simple Versus Multiple Regression
• Simple Regression
Y = β0 + β1X + e
(Whether Y depends upon X)
ii. Multiple Regression
•
Y = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3 + e
(Whether Y depends upon X1, X2 and X3)

Linear Versus Log-Linear Regression
• i Linear Regression
Y = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3 + e
(Data on Y and X variables are in level form;
Interpretation: if Xi changes by 1 unit, Y will change by
βi units
• ii. Log-Linear Regression
Y = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3 + e
(Data on Y and X variables are in log-form;
Interpretation: if Xi changes by 1%, Y will change by
βi%)

Evaluation & Interpretation Of Regression Models
• Whether Simple or Multiple, Linear or Log-linear model,
We first need to evaluate the results of estimated model, on the basis of t-
statistic (or its p-value),
F-statistic (or its p-value) coefficient of determination R2, and
then interpret the model’s results
• Evaluation Of Regression Model
Y = -133.535 + 0.577X1 + 2.637X2
(257.933) (0.159) (4.124)  Standard error
(-0.5180) (3.636) (0.639)  t-statistic
(0.62100) (0.008) (0.543)  p-value

Evaluation & Interpretation Of Regression Models
• F = 142.755 (p = 0.000) R2 = 0.976
* Individual coefficient (β1) carrying with X1 is statistically
significant at p < 0.01, suggesting that variable X1 is contributing
towards determination of dependent variable Y; while variable X2
does not contribute to Y because its p-value is statistically
insignificant at p > 0.10.
* Model as a whole is statistically significant as F-statistic is
statistically significant (p < 0.01).
* Coefficient of determination suggests that 97.60% variations in
Y has been explained by variations in explanatory variables
involved.

Interpretation Of Linear Regression Model
• Y = -133.535 + 0.577X1 + 2.637X2
(257.933) (0.159) (4.124)  Standard error
(-0.5180) (3.636) (0.639)  t-statistic
(0.62100) (0.008) (0.543)  p-value
F = 142.755 (p = 0.000) R2 = 0.976
* If X1 is changed by 1 unit, Y will change by 0.577 units.
* If X2 is changed by 1 unit, Y will not change much as X2
happens to be statistically insignificant (does not affect Y).

Interpretation Of Log-Linear Regression Model
• lnJS = 0.943 + 0.156lnDJ - 0.015lnPJ + 0.080lnIJ + 0.308lnINJ
(4.594) (2.829) (-0.308) (1.554) (4.506)
(0.000) (0.005) (0.758) (0.122) (0.000)
R2 = 0.2720 F = 19.309 (p-value = 0.000)
* If variables lnDJ and lnINJ are is changed by 1% each, Y will change by
0.156% and 0.308%.
* If lnPJ and lnIJ are changed by 1% each, Y will not change or will be
changed negligibly as these two variables have turned out statistically
insignificant.

Likert-scale questionnaire
• Likert-scale questionnaire is considered an important tool which helps
collect data whereon the researcher can make use of maximum
statistical analysis.
• Likert-scale questionnaire usually consists of 2 sections: the first part or
section collects information on general characteristics of respondents –
his/her age, experience, education, marital status, etc. while the second
part or section provides space to collect technical information on
variables involved in the research.
• The second part or section of Likert-scale questionnaire usually
contains several sub-scales on each of the variables involved. Each sub-
scale of a variable consists of a few items (questions), for which the
Likert-scale question provides 1 to 5, 6 or 7 options. Respondent has to
pick one of these 5 or 7 options for each of the questions (items) asked.

How to Write a research Proposal
 To write Down a Research Proposal Draft
90

Writing The Proposal
Your proposal describes your proposed plan of work:
• What you intend to study (scope and research questions)
• How you intend to study your topic (methodology)
• Why this topic needs to be studied (significance)
• When you will complete this work (timeline)
• (Occasionally) Where you will conduct this work
• What you will need for completion (Resources)
91

• One of the skills essential to successful research is that of
writing
• Good communication is required at every stage of the
project
• The main writing tasks are located at the beginning and
end of the research project
• At the beginning to explain what you will do in the
research
92

• At the end, to explain what you have done and what
you have found out
• The task is made much easier these days with the help of
word processing packages (MS Word)
• It provide simple ways to record, store, edit, expand
and condense text
• To present it in an attractive fashion (Power Point)
93

Formulating A Successful Research
Proposal
• Before starting a research program it is necessary to work
out exactly what you want to do, why and how.
• A research proposal is a succinct summary of just that.
• Obviously it will be very helpful to you, the researcher,
to make it clear to yourself;
 what are the aims of the research
what you need to do to achieve the desired outcome
• It will also be useful as a way to inform others of your
intentions
94

Proposal
• Research proposals tend to follow a defined pattern
• We need to explain the nature of the research and its
context, and why it is needed
• This prepares the way for a statement of the problem
and objectives of the research and how it will be
carried out and what the outcomes are likely to be
• A description of what resources will be required (time,
money, equipment, staffing etc.)
95

Proposal
• The research proposal, once approved, will act as a
contract agreement between the parties involved, e.g.
the researcher, supervisors, institutions (e.g. university or
college)
• In funded research, this will be part of a formal signed
contract, which cannot be substantially altered
without the agreement of all the parties
• It is therefore advisable not to ‘promise mountains and
deliver molehills’!
96

The Main Ingredients & Sequence
Academic research proposals are usually composed of the
following elements:
• The title;
• The background to the research – context and previous research;
• A definition of the research problem (Problem Statement);
• Possible outcomes (Research Objectives);
• Literature Review
• Outline of methods of data collection and analysis (Methodology);
• Timetable of the project and description of any resources required
(Schedule);
• List of references 97

The Title
• The function of the title is to encapsulate in a few words
the essence of the research
• Ideally it should contain all the essential key words that
someone might use in an attempt to locate the kind of
study you are proposing
• These words are likely to include the main concept and
variables, and limits to the scope
• You can leave out such phrases as ‘an investigation into’,
‘a study of’, ‘aspects of’, as these are obvious attributes
of a research project 98

The Title
• Take for example the title ‘’Real Time Prediction of failure of
Saturated-Unsaturated Road Embankment and/or cut
Slopes’’.
• The independent variables are “Real Time Prediction”, and the
dependent variable is “failure of Saturated-Unsaturated Road
Embankment and/or cut Slopes”;
• the type of research is Applied;
• the purpose of the study is to predict Real time failure of Road
Slopes.
• Also important are the words which limit the scope of the research,
e.g. “Saturated-Unsaturated Road Embankment and/or cut
99

The Context – Background & Previous
Research
• Explain the background from which the research
problem emerges
• Explain the major factors which surround your problem,
and of any significant literature which relates to it
• Capturing the interest of the reader
100

Research
• Some of the factors which make up the context might
be of a physical nature, such as location, materials,
organizations, processes etc.
• while others might be more abstract like theoretical
concepts such as power, energy, poverty
• The research problem should emerge from this context
101

Research
• Every subject has been researched previously, so a
critical account of what has been achieved so far to
address the problem is required in order to identify the
gaps in knowledge
• Accurate referencing is essential here
• The research should fill one of these gaps
• Do not assume that the reader knows anything about
your subject
102

The Problem Statement
• Find the gap in the research
• Ask yourself:
What is the gap that needs to be filled?
What is the problem that needs to be solved?
• State the problem clearly early in a paragraph
• Focus your question on a specific gap/problem
• Limit the variables you address in stating your
problem or question
103

The Problem Statement
• The problem statement provides the focus of the
research project
• It is the culmination of the background work and the
initiator of the specific research tasks
• It must be very clearly defined to explain the nature
of the problem and why it is significant
104

Research Objectives - Possible
Outcomes
• No need of a lot of Objectives
• You should try to be quite precise as to the nature and
scope of the outcomes and as to who might benefit
from the information
• Note that in PhD proposals and most funded research
there is a need to indicate what will be the original
contribution to knowledge
105

Literature Review
• To explain the historical background of a topic
• To highlight gaps in the existing research
• To describe and compare the schools of thought on
an issue
• To synthesize the available research
• To highlight and critique research methods
• To note areas of disagreement
106

Literature Review
• To justify the topic you plan to investigate
• Situates the current study within a wider disciplinary
conversation
• Illustrates the uniqueness, importance of and need for
your particular project
• Justifies methodological choices
• Demonstrates familiarity with the topic and
appropriate approaches to studying it
107

Literature Review - Tips
• Categorize the literature into recognizable topic:
 stake out the various positions that are relevant to your
project,
 build on conclusions that lead to your project, or
 demonstrate the places where the literature is lacking
• Avoid “Smith says X, Jones says Y” literature reviews
• Avoid including all the studies on the subject
• Avoid praise, and blame
108

Methodology - Outline of Methods
• This part of the proposal explains briefly what you are
going to do in order to carry out your research, based on
your chosen research approach
• In proposals for funded research this may need to be
described in great detail
• Every proposal is different in its description of
methods,
• One common feature is likely to be a review of the
literature relevant to the research topic
109

Methodology - Outline of Methods
• The explanation will outline which methods you will
use for what, and why
• You will probably need to refer to books, codes that
describe the methods in detail
• You may have to indicate how you will be able to
access certain types of information if these are
obscure, in remote locations or only available to
certain people
• Access to materials or equipment may also be
discussed
110

Timetable Of The Project And Description
Of Any Resources Required
• There is always a time limit to research projects,
particularly strict if it is a piece of university or college
degree requirement
• Essential in order to allocate time limits to the
sequence of tasks that you need to accomplish in order
to hand the finished report or thesis in on time
• Resources that are essential to the project, such as
equipment, transport, skills, software etc. should be
listed and availability assured
111

112

113

List of References
• The location of the cited work of others must be
meticulously recorded in this list
• Not only does this ensure that you cannot be accused of
plagiarism but also demonstrates that you are aware of
the latest thinking in the subject
• However, keep the references relevant - it is not a
bibliographic list of all the literature surrounding the
subject
114

• For your master research project, it is important to
keep conferring with your supervisor as you refine the
structure drafts of the proposal
• Comments from other members of staff and/or
colleagues can be useful too as they might see things
from a different perspective
• However, that it is you who must decide what you
want to do in the research
115

Reasons for Rejection of Proposal
• There is no need for the research
• The scale of the proposed research is too big so an
adequate conclusion cannot be reached
• The aims and objectives are vague or impractical or
do not match
• The research problem is not clearly defined so the
research work has no adequate focus
• The procedures are confused with the objectives
116

Reasons for Rejection of Proposal
• The project is formulated on an emotional or a political
agenda rather than a factual or a theoretical basis
• Not enough information is provided about the details of
the project
• Access to information, equipment or other resources
are uncertain or impossible
117

Proposal Writing: General Advice
• Establish a writing schedule
• Begin by free-writing
• Keep a small notebook with you to write down relevant thoughts
• Compose different parts in different computer files
• Start with more “clear cut” sections first
• Understand that the proposal will be negotiated--be prepared to
revise!
118

• Think of the proposal as an introduction to your thesis
• Remember that your proposal is not meant to limit ideas,
but to help you think practically
• Ask classmates to form a writing group
• Talk to your Supervisor!
119
Proposal Writing: General Advice

• Find the gaps in the research - Literature Review
• Decide the type of research you are doing -
Quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods
• Plan out your proposal - Create writing plan
• Meet with your advisor - Utilize your meeting time
with advisor
• Form a writing group with other students
120
Tips To Get Started

122
What is a Literature Review?
A Literature Review Is Not:
• just a summary of sources
• a grouping of broad, unrelated sources
• a compilation of everything that has been written on a
particular topic

123
What is a Literature Review?
So, what is it then?
• A literature review is an integrated of scholarly
writings that are related directly to your research
question.
• That is, it represents the literature that provides
background information on your topic and shows a
correspondence between those writings and your
research question.

124
Literature Review
• A literature review is a document that presents a
comprehensive understanding of the current state of
knowledge about a topic of study.
• The case establishes a convincing thesis to answer the
questions of the study.

125
Literature Review
• The most important reason for doing research is to
produce new knowledge and understanding, and to
disseminate it to make it available to everyone.
• It is essential to know what the current state of
knowledge is in your chosen subject as it is obviously a
waste of time to spend months producing knowledge
that is already freely available.
• Therefore, one of the first steps in planning a research
project is to do a literature review.

126
Literature Review
• Literature Review is to trawl through all the available
information sources in order to track down the latest
knowledge, and to assess it for relevance, quality,
controversy and gaps
• The last two will indicate where additional research is
required – to try to resolve a controversy or to fill a gap.

Structure of Review Article
• Must contain at least three basic elements: an introduction or background
information section; the body of the review containing the discussion of
sources; and, finally, a conclusion and/or recommendations section to end
the paper.
• Introduction: Gives a quick idea of the topic of the literature
review, such as the central theme or organizational pattern.
• Body: Contains your discussion of sources and is organized
either chronologically, thematically, or methodologically.
• Conclusions/Recommendations: Discuss what you have
drawn from reviewing literature so far. Where might the
discussion proceed?

Organization of Literature Review
128
• A general organization looks like a funnel
– Broader topics
– Subtopics
– Studies like yours

How to organize studies
129
• Chronological
– By publication date
– By trend
• Thematic
– A structure which considers different themes
• Methodological
– Focuses on the methods of the researcher, e.g.,
qualitative versus quantitative approaches

Summary table
130
• It is useful to prepare
• Such a table provides a quick overview that allows
the reviewer to make sense of a large mass of
information.
• The tables could include columns with headings
such as
– Author
– type of study
– Sample
– Design
– data collection approach
– key findings

131
Citation Sample Environment Method Conclusions
Colour
Bellizzi, Crowley and
Hasty (1983)
125 Adults Furniture store Laboratory
experiment
Photographic
slide simulations
Warm and cool colours created different emotional
responses. Customers view red retail environments as more
negative and unpleasant than blue.
Bellizzi, & Hite (1992) 70 Adult women
107 Students
Televisions
shown with
different colour
backgrounds
Furniture stores
Laboratory
experiments
Photographic
slide simulations
Study based on PAD affect measures and approach-
avoidance behaviours.
More positive retail outcomes occurred in blue environments
than red.
Music
Smith and Curnow
(1966)
1100 Supermarket
shoppers
Retail store Field
experiment
Time in store reduced with loud music but level of sales did
not.
Milliman (1982) 216 Shoppers Supermarket Field experiment The tempo of background music influenced the pace at which
customers shopped. Slow tempo music slowed customers
down but resulted in increased volume of sales.
Hui, Dubé and Chebat
(1997)
116 Students Bank branch
- waiting for
service.
Laboratory
experiment
Video
simulation
The positive impact of music on approach behaviours is
mediated by an emotional evaluation of the environment and
the emotional response to waiting. Pleasurable music
produced longer perceived waiting times.
Lighting
Areni and Kim (1994) 171 Shoppers Wine store Field experiment The investigation found that brighter in-store lighting
influenced shoppers to examine and handle more of the
merchandise in the store
Summers and Hebert
(2001)
2367 Customers Hardware store
Apparel store
Field experiment Confirmed Areni and Kims (1994) results. Increased levels
of lighting will produce arousal and pleasure and increase the
approach behaviours of customers.
Summary
table
of
literature
Atmospherics
in
service
environments

132
Research Writing
Skills-Techniques

Making links between studies
133
Agreements
• Similarly, author B points to…
• Likewise, author C makes the case that…
• Author D also makes this point…
• Again, it is possible to see how author E agrees with author D…
Disagreements
• However, author B points to…
• On the other hand, author C makes the case that…
• Conversely, Author D argues…
• Nevertheless, what author E suggests…

Active or passive voice
134
• You should use, where appropriate, both
active and passive voice
• As a general rule, use active voice unless there
is good reason not to

Reporting verbs
• Argue
• Assert
• Assume
• Challenge
• Claim
• Contend
• Contradict
• Describe
• Dispute
• Emphasize
• Establish
• Examine
• Find
• Maintain
• Note
• Object
• Observe
• Persuade
• Propose
• Prove
• Purport
• Recommend
• Refute
• Reject
• Remark
• Suggest
• Support

Verb tenses – Present
136
• A statement about what the thesis, chapter or section does
Examples:
– This thesis presents a report of an investigation into …….
– This chapter thus provides a basis for the next.
– In this section, the results from the first set of experiments are reported.
• A statement of a generally accepted scientific fact
Examples:
– There are three factors that control the concentration of aluminum in
seawater.
– The finite rate coefficients have an effect on heat transfer through a
horizontal porous layer.

Verb tenses – Present
137
• A review of current research work, or research work of
immediate relevance to your study.
Example:
– Schulze (2019) concludes that hydraulic rate has a significant effect on
future performance.
• Comments, explanations and evaluative statements made
by you when you are reviewing previous studies.
Examples:
– Therefore, this sequential approach is impractical in the real world
where projects are typically large and the activities from one stage
may be carried out in parallel with the activities of another stage.
– The reason for this anomalous result is that the tests were done at low
hydraulic rates at which the plastic packing was not completely wetted.

Verb tenses – Past
138
• Report the contents, findings or conclusions
of past research
Examples:
– Haberfield (1998) showed that the velocity of many enzyme
reactions was slowed down if the end product had an
increased paramagnetism.
– Allington (1999) found that the temperatures varied
significantly over time.

Verb tenses – Present perfect
139
• In citations where the focus is on the research area of
several authors
Examples:
– Several studies have provided support for the suggestion that the amount
of phonological recoding that is carried out depends on orthographic
depth (Frost, 1994; Smart et al, 1997; Katz & Feldman, 2001, 2002).
– Joint roughness has been characterized by a number of authors (Renger,
1990; Feker & Rengers, 1997; Wu & Ali, 2000).
• To generalize about the extent of the previous research
Examples:
– Many studies have been conducted in this field.
– Few researchers have examined this technique.
– There has been extensive research into.........

The Writing Process
140
• Rough Draft
• Final Draft
• Edit
• Edit Again

Show others
141
Have someone else to look at your literature review for;
• Clarity
– Can they understand what you’re trying to say?
• Flow
– Does the organization make sense?
• Completeness
– Are there areas left out?
– Questions left unanswered?
– Statements without citations?

A Good Literature Review is:
142
• Focused - The topic should be narrow. You should only present ideas and
only report on studies that are closely related to topic.
• Concise - Ideas should be presented economically. Don’t take any more
space than you need to present your ideas.
• Logical - The flow within and among paragraphs should be a smooth,
logical progression from one idea to the next
• Developed - Don’t leave the story half told.
• Integrative - Your paper should stress how the ideas in the studies are
related. Focus on the big picture. What commonality do all the studies
share? How are some studies different than others? Your paper should
stress how all the studies reviewed contribute to your topic.
• Current - Your review should focus on work being done on the cutting
edge of your topic.

Pitfalls
• Vagueness due to too much or inappropriate
generalizations
• Limited range
• Insufficient information
• Irrelevant material
• Omission of contrasting view
• Omission of recent work

Common errors in reviewing
literature
144
 Hurrying through review to get started could mean that you
will miss something that will improve your research.
 Relying too heavily upon secondary sources.
 Concentrating on findings rather than methods.
 Overlooking sources other than academic journals. Don’t
forget newspaper articles, magazines, blogs, etc.
 Searching too broad or too narrow of a topic.
 Inaccuracy in the compiling of bibliographic information.

“Courage doesn’t happen when you have all the
answers. It happens when you are ready to
questions you would rather avoid…”
ask
― Shannon L. Alder

• Table of Content for Research Proposal

Chapter 1 : Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background of Study
1.3 Statement of Problem
1.4 Research Objective
1.5 Research Questions
1.6 Operational Definitions
1.7 Significance of Study
1.8 Limitations

Chapter 2 : Literature Review
Chapter 3 : Methodology
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research Design
3.3 Population and Sampling
3.3.1 Target Population
3.3.2 Sampling Technique
3.4 Instrument
3.4.1 Research Instrument(s)
3.4.2 Validity and Reliability
3.5 Data Collection Procedures
3.6 Data Analysis

Lecture Contents
 What is Citation & Why to Reference?
 How to Cite and What should be Referenced?
 Different Citation & Referencing Styles
150

151
Citation ???
• Broadly, a citation is a reference to a published or unpublished
source.
• More precisely, a citation is an abbreviated alphanumeric
expression embedded in the body of an intellectual work that
denotes an entry in the references section of the work for the
purpose of acknowledging the relevance of the works of others
to the topic of discussion at the spot where the citation appears.
• Generally the combination of both the in-body citation and the
references list constitutes what is commonly thought of as a
citation.

152
Why Citing & Referencing?
Citation has several important purposes:
• Proves that substantial research has been done to
support our analysis.
• Enables others to follow up on our work.
• Gives credit to other people's work.
• Avoids charges of plagiarism.
• Used to indicate the origin of material & sources for
research & further reading.

153
What should be referenced?
• Ideas, information, results, opinions from any source
that you have summarised, paraphrased or directly
quoted
• Definitions of terms
• Illustrations, tables, figures drawn from sources
• Your ideas that are also those of an author you have
read
• Plans, ideas or anything that was stimulated by others

154
Guiding principles
• Respect the
Creation of ideas by others
Concept of intellectual property
• Acknowledge the ideas of others
But,
• Don’t reference “common knowledge”

155
How to Cite?
There are two parts to citation:
1. Brief In-text citations (often in parentheses) within the
body of your essay or paper
2. List of full citations in the References page at the end of
your paper
Note:
 Sources cited in the text must appear in the References page.
 Conversely, each entry in the References page must be cited in
the text.

156
Reference Elements
• Names of authors (family names and at least initials)
• Name of journal article, chapter or conference paper
• Name of journal, book, conference, etc.
• Date of publication
• Volume number (for journals)
• Publisher (for books)
• Place of publication (for books)
• Page numbers (of article or book chapter )

157
Different Referencing Styles
• There are literally hundreds of different referencing
styles from which to choose when you are citing the
sources of your research material.
• Different academic disciplines have differing
priorities of what is important to the subsequent
reader of an academic paper, and different publishing
houses have differing rules about the citation of sources.
• For your proposal and thesis the MLA style is
recommended

158
Different Referencing Styles
For Example;
1. APA Style
2. MLA Style
3. Chicago Style
4. Harvard Style
5. Vancouver Style

159
APA Style
1. APA stands for "American Psychological
Association“ and comes from the association of the
same name. (1929)
 Although originally drawn up for use in psychological
journals, the APA style is now widely used in the
social sciences, in education, in business, and
numerous other disciplines.

160
APA Style – In text Citation
There is much anecdotal evidence from
academic staff, learning support staff and
students that mature age students study
differently compared with younger
students (Jenkins, 2008). Student age
has been found to be a factor in study
success. Comparing older and younger
students, Hong (2007) reported a higher
level of study habits and skills and
motivation amongst older students. In a
similar comparison, Owens (2004)
reported that ….etc..
Note location of brackets
in the:
• first citation, author’s
name NOT part of
sentence hence
brackets surround
BOTH the author’s
name AND the year of
publication;
• second and third
citations, authors’
names ARE part of
sentence hence
brackets surround
ONLY the year of
publication.

161
APA Style – References List
 The alphabetical Reference List at the end provides the necessary
information for readers to locate and retrieve any source cited in the body
of the text.
 It lists alphabetically in this order: the last name of the author followed by
the initials and the year of publication in brackets.
 In the case of a book with one author, the title of the book comes next, in
italics, with just the initial letter of the first words of the title and subtitle
capitalized.
 This is followed by the place of publication, and the name of the
publisher.
 The information in the List of References must be detailed enough to enable
the reader to easily locate the edition or volume or issue number, in the
case of journals, or web page etc.

162
APA Style – References List
Example
 Pinker, S. (1999). Words and rules: The ingredients of language. London:
Phoenix. (Single Author Book)
 Fredlund, D. G., & Rahardjo, H. (1993). Soil mechanics for unsaturated
soils. John Wiley & Sons. (Multiple Authors Book)
 Fredlund, D. G. (2002, March). Use of soil-water characteristic curves in the
implementation of unsaturated soil mechanics. In Proceedings of the 3rd
International Conference on Unsaturated Soils, Recife, Brazil (Vol. 3, pp.
887-902). (Conference Paper)
 Lu, N., & Likos, W. J. (2006). Suction stress characteristic curve for
unsaturated soil. Journal of geotechnical and geoenvironmental
engineering, 132(2), 131-142. (Journal Paper)

163
MLA Style
2. MLA comes from the "Modern Language Association
of America" and is used mainly in English and the
Humanities.

164
MLA Style - Format
 MLA is an author/Page number referencing system common in the arts
and humanities; similar to APA Style, it uses parenthetical in-text citations
keyed to a List of Works cited at the end of the paper.
 The author's last name appears in the text close to the borrowed material
along with a page number rather than the year.
 Literature and language rely more on exactly where in the text the quoted
material can be found, either directly quoted or paraphrased, rather than the
year.
Example
 Pinker notes that memory loss, including memory for words, is an obvious
and early symptom of Alzheimer's disease (281).

165
MLA Style – In text Citation
A few researchers in the linguistics field
have developed training programs
designed to improve native speakers'
ability to understand accented speech
(Derwing et al. 246; Thomas 15). Their
training techniques are based on the
research described above indicating that
comprehension improves with exposure
to non-native speech. Derwing and
others conducted their training with
students preparing to be social workers,
but note that other professionals who
work with non-native speakers could
benefit from a similar program (258).
Note location of brackets
in the:
• first citation, author’s
name NOT part of
sentence hence
brackets surround
BOTH the author’s
name AND the Page
number;
• second citations,
authors’ names ARE
part of sentence hence
brackets surround
ONLY the page number
at the end.

166
MLA Style – References List
 The List of Works Cited at the end of the paper provides the
necessary information for readers to locate and retrieve any
source cited in the body of the text.
 It lists alphabetically in this order: the last name of the author
followed by the first names.
 In the case of a book with one author, the title of the book comes
next, italicized, with the initial letter of each significant word in
the title capitalized.
 This is followed by the place of publication, and the name of the
publisher, the year of publication, and finally the medium.

167
MLA Style – References List
Example
 Pinker, Steven. "Words and rules. The ingredients of language." London:
Phoenix, 2000. (Single Author BOOK)
 Fredlund, Delwyn G., Harianto Rahardjo, and Hendry Rahardjo. “Soil
mechanics for unsaturated soils.” John Wiley & Sons, 1993. (Multiple
Authors BOOK)
 Fredlund, D. G. "Use of soil-water characteristic curves in the
implementation of unsaturated soil mechanics." Proceedings of the 3rd
International Conference on Unsaturated Soils, Recife, Brazil. Vol. 3. 2002.
(Conference Paper)
 Lu, Ning, and William J. Likos. "Suction stress characteristic curve for
unsaturated soil." Journal of geotechnical and geoenvironmental
engineering 132.2 (2006): 131-142. (Journal Article)

168
Chicago Style
3. Chicago is sometimes referred to as Turabian or
Chicago/Turabian.
 It comes from the "Chicago Manual of Style" and the
simplified version of it, "A Manual for Writers of Term
Papers, Theses, and Dissertations", that Kate Turabian
wrote.
 Chicago is used mainly in the social sciences,
including history, political studies, and theology.

169
Vancouver Style
4. Vancouver originally came from The International
Committee of Medical Journal Editors which produced
the "Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted
to Biomedical Journals" following a meeting that was
held in Vancouver in 1978.
 The Vancouver style is used mainly in the medical
sciences.

170
Harvard Style
5. Harvard came originally from "The Bluebook: A
Uniform System of Citation" published by the Harvard
Law Review Association.
 The Harvard style and its many variations are used in
law, natural sciences, social and behavioral sciences,
and medicine.

171
Important details to remember...
Use an ampersand (&) between authors when their
names are within parentheses.
. . . is the most effective treatment (Smith & Jones, 1999)
 Use a regular “and” between authors when their
names are not within parentheses.
. . . is the most effective treatment according to Smith and Jones (1999).
 If our source does not have a date, replace the date in
the citation with n.d., which is the abbreviation for “no
date.”
. . . British Psychological Association (n.d.).

172
References List
 The References list appears at the end of your paper on its
own page.
 Everything you referenced in your text must be listed in your
References list.
 Conversely, everything you list in the References list must be
cited in your essay.
 The References list provides the information needed for a
reader to find and retrieve any source used in your paper.

173

174
Digital Object Identifier (doi)
 A unique alphanumeric sequence, starting with “10,” used to
identify and to locate an item on the Internet.
 Example: doi:10.1000/186.ken888.888lee (no period at the end)
 Also assigned to print sources
 In a database, the doi is sometimes hidden behind a button with
the name of the database on it (e.g., PsychINFO) or the word
“Article.”
 When a doi is present, the URL is not necessary

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