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Relationship between prematurity and executive function
- 1. Relationship between Prematurity and ExecutiveFunction ozella.brundidge@gmail.com 9/6/2017 (Weaver, n.d.)
- 2. fMRI Studies haveRevealed Alterations in Neural Networks and Activation Patterns in Preterm Children’s Brains (Lubsen, et al., 2011; Nosarti, Sukhwinder, Shergill, et al , 2009 in 2011; Narberhaus, Lawrence, Allin, et al., 2009 in 2011; Gimenez, Junque, Vendrell, et al., 2005 in 2011; Curtis, Zhuang, Townsend, et al., 2006 in 2011) 2 Arichi, et al., 2012 fMRI data revealed the engagement of auxiliary circuits for memory, attention, and executive function in the preterm brain even when gender, gestational age, and early interventions were taken into account. ozella.brundidge@gmail.com 9/6/2017
- 3. Preterm Adolescents showDifferences in Intrinsic Connectivity while Performing Executive Function Tasks Full-Term Control GroupPreterm Adolescent Group • Increased connectivity is significantly correlated with better performance (yellow) in the right temporal, right hippocampal regions and basal ganglia • Increased connectivity is significantly correlated with better performance (yellow) in the left temporal region and worse performance (blue) in the frontal regions (Lubsen, Vohr, Myers, Hampson, Lacadie, Schneider, Katz, et al., 2011) • 3ozella.brundidge@gmail.com 9/6/2017
- 4. Preterms Experience CognitiveImpairments that are Linked to Lower Academic Attainment and Poorer Educational Outcomes 4 (Johnson, Wolke, Hennessy, & Marlow, 2011 in Park, et al., 2014; Parlakian, 2003 in Park, et al., 2014; Cserjesi, et al., 2012) Phonological Processing Attention Executive Function The affected domains are (Pixabay, 2017) (Sensational Achievements.com, 2012) (SLTinfo, 2017) ozella.brundidge@gmail.com 9/6/2017
- 5. Weak Executive Functionand Poor Reading Ability in High-Risk Preterm Children are Related to Tissue Integrity along the Perisylvian Language System Researchers suggest that there is poor connectivity between the Frontal Cortical areas responsible for Executive Control, and other regions of the brain along the inferior frontal gyrus, posterior superior temporal lobe, and the inferior parietal lobule. (Frye, Malmberg, de Souza, & Landry, 2009) 5 Guenon BA 9 Prefrontal Cortex Supramarginal gyrus BA 40 Inferior Parietal Lobule Inferior Frontal Gyrus Wernicke’s area BA 22 Posterior Superior Temporal Gyrus Broca’s area BA 45 Perisylvian Language Areas ozella.brundidge@gmail.com 9/6/2017
- 6. Poor Executive Functionwas Associated with Moderate Preterm (MPT) Delivery 6 Baron and colleagues (2009) revealed Poorer Executive Function skills in children Born MPT at 4 years of age. However, there were no General Conceptual Ability Differences between MPT and Full-Term control groups. Baron, Erickson, Ahronovich, Coulehan, Baker, & Litman, 2009 in Cserjesi, et al., 2009) MPT 32-36 weeks’ Gestation ozella.brundidge@gmail.com 9/6/2017
- 7. Preterm Children’s ExecutiveFunction (EF) Skills have been Associated with Organization Skills and Reading Deficits (Loe, Lee, Luna, & Feldman, 2011) Poorer EF Performance on Complex Planning & Organization Tasks Preterms did not increase planning time as task difficulty increased EF was mediated by IQ; Spatial memory capacity was not different Gestational age contributed to EF skills EF did not add to the variance in reading when IQ was considered EF contributed to the variance in reading skills Compared to Full Term Controls, Preterm Children 7 exhibited ozella.brundidge@gmail.com 9/6/2017
- 8. High-Risk Preterm ChildrenPerformed Poorly on Reading and Executive Function Tasks (Frye, Malmberg, deSouza, Swank, Smith, & Landry, 2009) 8 Frye and colleagues (2009) examined cortical reorganization in relation to prematurity. The children performed real word and non-word reading-based rhyme tasks during a magnetoencephalography (MEG) procedure to examine the functions of the lexical and sublexical reading pathways. ozella.brundidge@gmail.com 9/6/2017
- 9. 9 • Visuospatial • Visuomotor •Motor • Executive function • Early language development • Non-verbal learning disabilities independent of IQ (Sansavini, et al., 2007; Bayless & Stevenson, 2007; Stolt, 2007; Baron, et al., 2009; Waber & McCormick, 1995; Anderson & Doyle, 2004; Aylward, 2002; Bayless & Stevenson, 2007; Fazzi, et al., 2009; Feng, et al., 2011; Kirkeguard, et al., 2006; Short, et al., 2003; Wolke & Meyer, 1999) Preterm Children Present with a Unique Pattern of Cognitive Deficits Including: ozella.brundidge@gmail.com 9/6/2017
- 10. Preschool Age Late-Preterm(34-36 GA) Children born with complications had Significantly Poorer Verbal Fluency (a measure of Executive Function) than Full-Term comparison group (≥37 GA) peers on the Differential Ability Scales-II (DAS-II*) Preschool Age Late-Preterm (34-36 GA) Children born with Complications had Significantly Poorer Verbal Fluency scores than the Full-Term Comparison group (≥37 weeks GA) on the Differential Ability Scales-II (DAS-II) DAS-II is a measure that predicts performance on verbal, nonverbal reasoning, visuospatial, attention/working memory, motor and visuomotor skills, and executive function. Verbal Fluency was used to measure Executive Function. 10 (Baron, Erickson, Ahronovich, Baker, & Litman, 2011) ozella.brundidge@gmail.com 9/6/2017
- 11. Moderately preterm (32–36weeks’ Gestation) birth is associated with poorer performance in intelligence, attention, visuospatial reasoning, and executive functioning 11 • Moderate preterm (MPT) birth is associated with poorer performance on intelligence, attention, visuospatial reasoning, and executive functioning measures. • Using data from gender-specific norms, Cserjesi’s (2012) found that MPT boys catch up to full-term boys. However, MPT girls continue to lagged behind full-term girls at 7 years of age. (Cserjesi, Van Braeckel, Butcher, Kerstjens, Reijneveld, Bouma, Geuze, Bos, 2012, p. e844) Moderate Preterm Girls Seem to be More Vulnerable than Peers MPT 32-36 weeks’ Gestation ozella.brundidge@gmail.com 9/6/2017
- 12. Preschool Age LatePreterm (34-36 𝟔 𝟕 weeks) Children Born with Complications Presented with deficits in Did Not Have Problems with Visuospatial (p=.005) Executive Function Visuomotor (p=.012) Noun Fluency (p=.018) Action-Verb Fluency (p=.026) Measured by • Attention/Working Memory • Nonverbal Reasoning (Baron, Erickson, Ahronovich, Coulehan, Baker, & Litman, 2009; Feng, Xu, Wang, Guo, & Yang, 2011) 12 (Children’s mean age: 3.92±0.14 years) ozella.brundidge@gmail.com 9/6/2017
- 13. Preschool Age PretermChildren Performed Significantly Poorer than Full-Term Peers on Standardized Measures of General Intelligence 13 Preterms scored low on: • Verbal Fluency • Executive Function Their Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities were Independent of IQ (Anderson & Reidy, 2012; Loe, Lee, Luna, & Feldman, 2011; Baron, et al., 2009; Bayless & Stevenson, 2007; Fazzi, Bova, Giovenzana, Signorini, et al. 2009; Feng, Xu, Wang, Guo, & Yang, 2011) ozella.brundidge@gmail.com 9/6/2017
- 14. (Lee, Yeatman, Luna,& Feldman, 2010, p. 1) The Language and Reading Domains where Prematurity had a Direct Effect can be Classified as Fluid Functions Rather than Crystallized Functions. School-Age Children and Adolescents Born Premature Should be carefully Monitored for Fluid Intelligence deficits. Prematurity Affects Fluid Intelligence (g) 14 ozella.brundidge@gmail.com 9/6/2017
- 15. At Preschool AgeEarly Preterms had Abnormal Scores on the ASQ in the Problem Solving Domain Compared with Full-Term Children • The ASQ problem solving domain can be used as a first estimate of executive function and IQ in young children. • Early preterm children had significant difficulties with problem solving. • Moderate preterm children did not have a greater prevalence in problem solving. 15 Lollypop Study Figure 2. Parents of 927 moderate preterm infants (32-35 +6 GA), 512 early preterm infants (<32 GA) and 544 full-term infants (38-41 +6 GA) completed the ASQ when the child was aged 43-49 months. The Ages & Stages Questionnaire (ASQ) covers 5 developmental domains: communication, fine motor function, gross motor function, personal-social functioning, and problem solving (Kerstjens, de Winter, Bocca-Tjeertes, ten Vergert, Reijneveld, & Bos, 2011) ozella.brundidge@gmail.com 9/6/2017
- 16. IQ and ExecutiveFunction Skills are Predictors of Attention and Mathematics Difficulties IQ and Executive Function Assessments can be used to Predict Attention and Mathematics Difficulties Mathematics Tasks Attention Problems had more (Aarnoudse-Moens, Weisglas-Kuperus, Duivenvoorden, van Goudoever, & Oosterlaan, 2013) Performed Poorer on Teacher & Parent Rated than term controls in Preschool and in Elementary School IQ 16 Very Preterm Children VPT≤30 weeks Mean age 8.3 ± 2.3 years than term controls ozella.brundidge@gmail.com 9/6/2017
- 17. Executive Function Evaluationscan also be Useful in Predicting Attention and Mathematics Skills (Aarnoudse-Moens, Weisglas-Kuperus, Duivenvoorden, van Goudoever, & Oosterlaan, 2013) i.e. Digit Spani.e. Naming objects quickly i.e. Spatial span i.e. Interactive Problem Solving Preterm and Low Birthweight Children aged 4 to 12 years 17ozella.brundidge@gmail.com 9/6/2017
- 18. End of Relationship between Prematurityand Executive Function (Weaver, n.d.) ozella.brundidge@gmail.com 9/6/2017
Editor's Notes
- #2 Researchers have found relationships between prematurity and executive function (EF). Weaver, H. (n.d.). Frontal Lobe and Language. Slideplayer.com. http://slideplayer.com/6338239/22/images/18/Wisconsin+Card+Sorting+Task.jpg
- #3 Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies revealed alterations neural networks in preterm children. Arichi T, Fagiolo G, Varela M, Melendez-Calderon A, Allievi A, Merchant N, Tusor N, Counsell SJ, Burdet E, Beckmann CF, and Edwards AD (2012). Development of BOLD signal Hemodynamic Responses in the Human Brain. NeuroImage. http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/neuroskeptic/2012/07/15/bold-blobs-brighten-baby-brains/#.WamUUsiGM2w Activation was observed in the same part of the brain in all three groups, showing that the BOLD blood oxygenation response measured by fMRI is present even early in life. However, in the pre-term infants, it was delayed: while in adults and typical infants it peaked about 6 seconds after stimulation, in the preterms it was more like 12 seconds. Recent preterm fMRI studies have revealed neural network alterations in circuits for memory, attention, and executive function.
- #4 Preterm born adolescents had better executive function performance than full-terms in the left temporal region, and worse performance in the frontal regions. The full-term children had better executive function performance in the right temporal, right hippocampal regions, and in the basal ganglia.
- #5 Preterm children experience cognitive impairments linked to lower academic attainment, and poorer educational outcomes. The affected domains are phonological processing, attention, and executive function. SLTinfo (2017). Phonological Processing. https://www.sltinfo.com/phonological-disorder/ Sensational Achievements.com (2012). Scoop on Praxis and Executive Function. http://www.sensational-achievements.com/praxis-executive-function/ Pixabay (2017). Attention symbol. https://pixabay.com/en/attention-warning-exclamation-mark-98529/ The first few years of life are crucial for any child, and it is vitally important that children reach each developmental milestone to prepare them for success in their school-age and adult occupations (2014) Multidisciplinary team members, such as occupational and physical therapy practitioners, nurses, and physicians, deliver early intervention services and education to infants and children born LBW or preterm, and the families are very much involved in the process (Feldman, Eidelman, Sirota, & Weller, 2002; Gardner, Walker, Powell, & Grantham-McGregor, 2003; Johnson, Ring, Anderson, & Marlow, 2005; Nordhov et al., 2010; Sajaniemi et al., 2001).
- #6 Weak EF and poor reading ability in high-risk preterm children is possibly related to connective tissue integrity within the Perisylvian Language system.
- #7 Previous studies have revealed poorer executive functioning in children born moderately preterm at 4 years of age.15 Baron IS, Erickson K, Ahronovich MD, Coulehan K, Baker R, Litman FR. Visuospatial and verbal fluency relative deficits in ‘complicated’ late-preterm preschool children. Early Hum Dev. 2009;85(12):751–754
- #8 Preterm children’s poor executive function skills have been associated with reading deficits.
- #9 High-risk preterm born children with poor reading ability performed poorly on reading and EF tasks. To identify patterns of functional reorganization we recorded neuromagnetic activity, using magnetoencephalograph (MEG), during a real-word and non-word reading-based rhyme task, in order to examine the function of the lexical and sublexical reading pathways individually. This is essential for several reasons. First, since phonological awareness is believed to be the basis of reading disability it is important to examine sublexical decoding, a processes that is highly dependent on phonological awareness. Second, previous studies have hypothesized that children born prematurely engage regions associated with semantic processing during phonological tasks (Ment et al., 2006). Contrasting brain activation during real-word and nonword tasks allows us to control for activation of brain areas related to semantic processing since non-words do not have meaning. Woodcock-Johnson-III Word Attack [F(2,22)=9.47,p=.001] and Letter-Word Identification [F (2,22)=6.04,p<.01] and Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing Phoneme Reversal [F(2,22)=9.42,p=.001] scores were different across reading groups. Poor readers demonstrated lower Word Attack, Phoneme Reversal and Letter-Word Identification scores than good readers and lower Word Attack and Phoneme Reversal scores than average readers Continuous Performance Task Inattention scores were influenced a birth by reading group interaction [F(4,22)=4.02,p=.01] due to the fact that poor reader demonstrated higher Inattention scores than average and good readers for the high-risk [F(2,7)=25.79,p<. 001] but not low-risk or full-term birth groups. Real Word Rhyme Task Sensitivity was not significantly different across birth or reading groups. The number of dipoles (NOD) in left Broca's and prefrontal areas combined (B/PFA) differed across birth [χ2(2)=7.11,p<.05] and reading [χ2(2)=6.02,p<.05] groups. NOD was greater for the high-risk group as compared to the other birth groups [χ2(1)=7.11,p<.01] but the term and low-risk groups did not differ from each other (Fig 1A). only poor readers born prematurely at high-risk, as compared to good and average readers born prematurely at high-risk, demonstrated specific deficits in executive function, as measured by inattention on a continuous performance task during childhood. we found an atypical pattern of cortical activation for adolescents born prematurely at high-risk that was consistent across both language tasks. In both language tasks, adolescents born prematurely at high-risk demonstrate a particularly high NOD in the left B/ PFA as compared to the other birth groups, with this effect seen primarily in the average and good readers for the non-word task. The greater left B/PFA activation for the adolescents born prematurely at high-risk was limited to average and good readers, not poor readers, during the non-word rhyme task, thereby paralleling performance. This suggests that the pattern of frontal overactivation in average and good readers born prematurely at high-risk may represent a compensatory mechanism similar to that seen in full-term individuals with reading disability (Pugh et al., 2000; Shaywitz et al., 2003). This is evidence that poor-readers born prematurely at high-risk may fail to engage frontal brain areas to compensate for weak phonological processes. Significant differences in NOD across reading groups were found primarily for the real-word rhyme task. Poor readers appear to have a lower NOD in typical left hemisphere language pathways, specifically in the left B/PFA, as compared to other readers and a greater NOD in homologous cortical regions in the right hemisphere, as compared to average readers. This is consistent with research that shows reduced activation of the left hemisphere language network in children with reading disabilities and a compensatory use of homologous right hemisphere areas (Simos et al., 2000; Simos et al., 2007). These data are consistent with neuroanatomical imaging on individuals with reading disability that demonstrate selective disturbance in left temporoparietal white matter oriented along the superior longitudinal fasciculus, the key tract connecting anterior and posterior language areas (Klingberg et al., 2000). Interestingly, like poor readers, good readers demonstrated greater NOD in the right B/PFA as compared to average readers during word reading, suggesting that, like poor readers, good readers may also utilize right hemisphere pathways to process words. This might suggest that good readers developed better reading skills compare to average readers as children because they recruited more cortical areas when reading. Given the evidence of abnormal microstructure in white matter pathways connecting frontal areas with posterior brain regions (Cheong et al., 2009; Constable et al., 2008; Skranes et al., 2007) and fMRI evidence of decreased modulation of frontal areas during a language task in children born prematurely (Ment et al., 2006), one might have expected decreased activation of frontal regions during our reading tasks. However, in the present study, adolescents born prematurely at high-risk demonstrated a greater NOD as compared to low-risk and term adolescents in the left B/PFA for all readers during the real-word task and for the average and good readers during the non-word task. Since our dependent variable is a temporal measure of maximal activation, these data suggested that B/FPA activity is ongoing for a longer period of time in individuals born premature at high-risk The disparity between these MEG results and the previously reported fMRI results are unclear, but others have shown a disassociation between MEG and fMRI activation during equivalent language tasks in the past with normal adults, although with fMRI demonstrating greater frontal activation (Billingsley-Marshall et al., 2007). Differences in neuroplasticity of the frontal lobe (as discussed below) or in the neurovascular coupling between full-term and premature children could change the underlying assumptions of imaging methods Both animal models and human studies suggest white matter injury, whether severe or subtle, is the most common brain injury of prematurity (Khwaja and Volpe, 2008; Mewes et al., 2006). Many studies have confirmed that premyelinating oligodendrocytes loss underlies this white matter injury (Back et al., 2007; Khwaja and Volpe, 2008). Oligodendrocytes loss could result in temporal dispersion of the neural impulse which would desynchronize the neural transmission to the frontal lobes and spread out the activation over time. Although this might decrease the total number of neurons firing synchronously, resulting in the release of neurotransmitters at fewer synapses at any particular time, upregulation of post-synaptic receptors could compensate for this phenomenon. In addition, a mouse model of white matter damage in prematurity suggests that decreased levels of the oligodendrocyte regulatory protein Nogo-A is associated with axonal outgrowth (Weiss et al., 2004). Either one of these latter mechanisms of neuroplasticity could increase the number of connections from afferent axons to the frontal lobes. The survival of premature neonates has increased over the last two decades and improvements in perinatal care have reduced the severity of periventricular white matter injury, resulting in more children with subtle white matter injury (Back and Rivkees, 2004; Fanaroff et al., 2003). Thus, it is important to understand the underlying neuropathology and mechanisms of reorganization associated with prematurity in order to better target remedial and medical therapies. In addition, identifying the neuroimaging signature associated with cognitive function and dysfunction in children born prematurely may provide a biomarker for identifying premature children at risk for cognitive difficulties. An MEG signature of cognitive dysfunction may be especially helpful in adolescents born prematurely as MRI findings of white matter abnormalities may be limited in the ability to predict cognitive dysfunction (Rushe et al., 2001).
- #10 Preterm children present with a unique pattern of nonverbal and early language development deficiencies.
- #11 Preschool age late preterm born children born with complications had significantly poorer verbal fluency scores than their full-term peers. The verbal fluency assessment is used to measure early executive function skills. Differential Ability Scales-2nd Ed. (DAS-II) is a multi-part (Neuro)psychological predictors of general conceptual ability (GCA) that provides verbal, nonverbal reasoning and visuospatial summary and subtest scores; and neuropsychological measures of attention/working memory, motor and visuomotor skill, and executive function (noun fluency, Differential Ability Scales-II Edition is a (Neuro)psychological predictors of math performance for typical children and Children with math disabilities. Differential Ability Scales-II (DAS-II)
- #12 Moderate preterm girls’ intelligence, attention, visuospatial reasoning, and executive function skills seem to be more vulnerable at age 7 (Cserjesi, 2012), while moderate preterm boys catch up to their male peers at the age of seven.
- #13 Late preterm born preschool age children who were born with complications presented with visuospatial and visuomotor nonverbal deficits, in addition to executive function difficulties. However, they did not have problems with attention/working memory or nonverbal reasoning skills. LPT birth was associated with visuospatial (p=.005), visuomotor (p=.012), and executive function (noun [p=.018] and action-verb [p=.026] fluency) relative deficits, but not attention/working memory, receptive or expressive language, nonverbal reasoning, or manual coordination/dexterity deficit. (Baron, Erickson, Ahronovich, Coulehan, Baker, & Litman, 2009)
- #14 Preschool age preterm children perform significantly poorer than full-term peers on standardized measures of general intelligence.
- #15 School-age children and adolescents born premature with language and reading difficulties should be tested for fluid intelligence deficits.
- #16 Early preterm children exhibited significant difficulties with problem solving on the Ages and Stages Questionnaire developmental assessment.
- #17 Mathematical skills of children who were in preschool were assessed with the Numerical Reasoning test[Van Kuyk JJ (2001] which measures classifying, sorting, comparing, and counting of numbers or objects. Mathematical skills of children who were in primary school were assessed with the Mathematics test,[Janssen J, Kraemer JM (2002] measuring the ability to solve written computational problems of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, the notion of time, and use of money. Inattention in preschool children was rated by parents and teachers using the Attention Problems scale of the Child Behavior Checklist-Preschool [CBCL/1-5),[Achenbach TM, Rescorla LA (2000] and the Teacher Report Form-Preschool (TRF/1-5),[Achenbach TM, Rescorla LA (2000] respectively. Inattention in primary school children was rated by parents and teachers using the Attention Problems scale of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL/6-18),[Achenbach TM, Rescorla LA (2000] and the Teacher Report Form (TRF/6-18),[Achenbach TM, Rescorla LA (2000] respectively, as well as the Inattention subscale of the Disruptive Behavior Disorders parent and teacher rating scales (DBD/6-12).[Oosterlaan J, Scheres A, Antrop I, Roeyers H, Sergeant JA. (2000), Pelham WE, Jr, Gnagy EM, Greenslade KE, Milich R (1992)] Assessment of Executive Function, Processing Speed, and IQ Executive Function’s that were measured included: 1) Verbal Fluency, measured in a test that required children to name as many examples of two specific categories: ‘‘animals’’ and ‘‘things you can eat or drink’’ within a 40-second time frame.[Welsh, et al., 1991] The dependent measure was the total number of correct responses. 2) Verbal Working Memory, assessed using the backwards condition of the Digit Span subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-III (WISC-III). [Wechsler, 2005.] Series of digits that were read by the examiner (one digit per second) were to be repeated in the reverse order. The dependent measure was the total number of correctly repeated series. 3) Visuospatial span was assessed with the Spatial Span subtest of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Testing Automated Battery (CANTAB).[Luciana M (2003), Luciana M, Nelson CA (2002)] Children viewed a lighted sequence of squares and were required to reproduce the sequence by touching items on a touchscreen in the same order as originally illuminated. The dependent measure was the maximum span reached successfully. 4) Planning, assessed with the CANTAB subtest Stockings of Cambridge,[2002,2003] which required children to solve problems by moving colored circles between three locations in a prescribed number of moves. The dependent measure was the number of problems solved. 5) Impulse control was measured with the Stop signal test [Logan GD, Cowan WB, Davis KA (1984)] that required a child to respond as quickly and accurately as possible to a go-stimulus and to inhibit the response if a stop-stimulus was presented. The dependent measure was the number of commission errors that reflects the inability to inhibit an inappropriate response.[Schachar R, Mota VL, Logan GD, Tannock R, Klim P (2000] Speed and inconsistency in speed were assessed using the correctly executed go-trials of the Stop Signal test,[1983, Scheres A, Oosterlaan J, Swanson J, Morein-Zamir S, Meiran N, et al. (2003] of which mean reaction time (MRT) and standard deviation of reaction times divided by MRT (SD of RT/MRT),[Scheres A, Oosterlaan J, Swanson J, Morein-Zamir S, Meiran N, et al. (2003, de Zeeuw P, Aarnoudse-Moens C, Bijlhout J, Konig C, Post Uiterweer A, et al. (2008] were calculated. IQ was measured with the subtests Vocabulary and Block Design [Test measures visuospatial reasoning (Cserjesi, et al., 2012)] of the WISC-III [Wechsler D., 2005], or Wechsler Primary and Preschool Scale Intelligence-Revised (WPPSI-R)[Wechsler D, 1997] (depending on the child’s age). Subtest scores were used to calculate an estimated IQ, which correlates highly (.9 range) with full-scale IQ.[Sattler JM (1992]
- #18 Executive function assessments can be useful in predicting attention and mathematics skills. Executive Function’s that were measured included: 1) Verbal Fluency, measured in a test that required children to name as many examples of two specific categories: ‘‘animals’’ and ‘‘things you can eat or drink’’ within a 40-second time frame.[Welsh, et al., 1991] The dependent measure was the total number of correct responses. 2) Verbal Working Memory, assessed using the backwards condition of the Digit Span subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-III (WISC-III). [Wechsler, 2005.] Series of digits that were read by the examiner (one digit per second) were to be repeated in the reverse order. The dependent measure was the total number of correctly repeated series. 3) Visuospatial span was assessed with the Spatial Span subtest of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Testing Automated Battery (CANTAB).[Luciana M (2003), Luciana M, Nelson CA (2002)] Children viewed a lighted sequence of squares and were required to reproduce the sequence by touching items on a touchscreen in the same order as originally illuminated. The dependent measure was the maximum span reached successfully. 4) Planning, assessed with the CANTAB subtest Stockings of Cambridge,[2002,2003] which required children to solve problems by moving colored circles between three locations in a prescribed number of moves. The dependent measure was the number of problems solved. 5) Impulse control was measured with the Stop signal test [Logan GD, Cowan WB, Davis KA (1984)] that required a child to respond as quickly and accurately as possible to a go-stimulus and to inhibit the response if a stop-stimulus was presented. The dependent measure was the number of commission errors that reflects the inability to inhibit an inappropriate response.[Schachar R, Mota VL, Logan GD, Tannock R, Klim P (2000]
- #19 Weaver, H. (n.d.). Frontal Lobe and Language. Slideplayer.com. http://slideplayer.com/6338239/22/images/18/Wisconsin+Card+Sorting+Task.jpg