Refrigeration Refrigeration involves the cooling of bodies and fluids to levels that are below those of the surroundings. Refrigeration involves two processes, one is the absorption of heat at lower temperature, and the other is the rejection of heat to higher temperatures. When the refrigeration was invented, the sole purpose of this phenomenon then was to produce ice, which would then be used for mainly preserving food, cooling beverages, and refrigerated transport. Today, refrigeration has found many other uses that it is now an essential feature of life. Without refrigeration, the basic fabric of life would be significantly affected. Indeed, in the modern life refrigeration plays an indispensible role. Because of the refrigerator’s contribution, the expiration time of foods can be carried forward; it is now possible to keep fresh foods beyond their typical expiration dates (Hundy, et al 16). Suffice it to say that the refrigeration is one of the most valuable processes in homes today. These magical equipments are craftily made to turn on after every five minutes to keep everything therein cold. Without refrigeration, there would be huge chunks of food that would be going to waste every day. There are four major application of refrigeration. The four areas are equally important. These are: food processing and preservation; chemical and process industries and special applications. Food processing and preservation feature of refrigeration also involves distribution. This application integrates the storage of vegetables and raw fruits. Some bacteria cause degradation of food, while enzymatic processing effect on vegetables and fruits case them to ripen more. The refrigerators’ create a law temperature that reduces the growth of these bacteria and enzymatic processes reducing spoilage while improving the food’s shelf life. The other application of refrigeration involves chemical and process industries. Industries such as petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries and paper pulp industries require extremely large cooling capacities (Chhandra 365). The main application of refrigeration in these key industries involves several fundamental categories. These are separation of gases, condensation of gases, and solidification of solute and dehumidification of air. The other application of refrigeration involves special application. Apart from the chemical uses, this category looks at other broader applications such as construction units, manufacturing processes and applications in medicine among others. Others in this special category of refrigeration uses include cold treatment of metals, ice skating links, ice manufacture and desolation of water. The ideal Carnot cycle is a refrigeration cycle that frequently employs constant temperatures external heat source as well as heat sinks. The Carnot cycle is a process where a substance, which in this case is the refrigerant, circulates through four devices. The objective here ...

1. Refrigeration
Refrigeration involves the cooling of bodies and fluids to levels
that are below those of the surroundings. Refrigeration involves
two processes, one is the absorption of heat at lower
temperature, and the other is the rejection of heat to higher
temperatures.
When the refrigeration was invented, the sole purpose of this
phenomenon then was to produce ice, which would then be used
for mainly preserving food, cooling beverages, and refrigerated
transport. Today, refrigeration has found many other uses that it
is now an essential feature of life. Without refrigeration, the
basic fabric of life would be significantly affected. Indeed, in
the modern life refrigeration plays an indispensible role.
Because of the refrigerator’s contribution, the expiration time of
foods can be carried forward; it is now possible to keep fresh
foods beyond their typical expiration dates (Hundy, et al 16).
Suffice it to say that the refrigeration is one of the most
valuable processes in homes today. These magical equipments
are craftily made to turn on after every five minutes to keep
everything therein cold. Without refrigeration, there would be
huge chunks of food that would be going to waste every day.
There are four major application of refrigeration. The four
areas are equally important. These are: food processing and
preservation; chemical and process industries and special
applications.
Food processing and preservation feature of refrigeration
also involves distribution. This application integrates the
storage of vegetables and raw fruits. Some bacteria cause
degradation of food, while enzymatic processing effect on
vegetables and fruits case them to ripen more. The refrigerators’

2. create a law temperature that reduces the growth of these
bacteria and enzymatic processes reducing spoilage while
improving the food’s shelf life.
The other application of refrigeration involves chemical and
process industries. Industries such as petrochemical plants,
petroleum refineries and paper pulp industries require extremely
large cooling capacities (Chhandra 365). The main application
of refrigeration in these key industries involves several
fundamental categories. These are separation of gases,
condensation of gases, and solidification of solute and
dehumidification of air.
The other application of refrigeration involves special
application. Apart from the chemical uses, this category looks at
other broader applications such as construction units,
manufacturing processes and applications in medicine among
others. Others in this special category of refrigeration uses
include cold treatment of metals, ice skating links, ice
manufacture and desolation of water.
The ideal Carnot cycle is a refrigeration cycle that frequently
employs constant temperatures external heat source as well as
heat sinks. The Carnot cycle is a process where a substance,
which in this case is the refrigerant, circulates through four
devices. The objective here is to transport heat out of the
refrigerator and dumping it into the kitchen. A schematic of the
ideal Carnot cycle is illustrated below. In this process, the
refrigerant can be an ideal gas which has a constant specific
heat; this could for instance be helium (“The Reversal Ideal.”).
Figure 1: Schematic of the Carnot refrigeration cycle
Source: “The Reversal Ideal.” N.d. 2 March, 2014.
http://www.eng.fsu.edu/~dommelen/quantum/style_a/qsrev.html

3. Stability of the refrigerant is very critical because of a
number of reasons. The use of an impure refrigerant causes
some interrelated changes that collectively compromise the
operation, performance, longevity as well as the safety of the
system. As such, chemical and thermal stability of the
refrigerant is an important consideration in selecting the
refrigerant in the refrigeration system.
The trend of using flammable refrigerants seems to be on the
rise. There is need to follow for strict procedures and standards
when using flammable refrigerants. These refrigerants include
hydrocarbons that are being used in both small integrated
systems and larger ones as well.
Refrigerant used in food preservation and air conditioning
must be non-toxic and non-corrosive in nature. This factor
should be considered because these will come into contact with
the lives dependent on the system. Refrigerants would
negatively affect human health is they were corrosive and toxic
in nature.
These two characteristics introduce the issue of
environmental considerations of choosing a refrigerant. The two
deal with the effect that the refrigerant on the ozone layer and
the contribution it has on global warming.
Ammonia remains the most commonly used refrigerant. It is
also the most trusted. Ammonia offers some key advantages
when used as refrigerant. It is environmentally compatible, has
better thermodynamic qualities and has a recognizable odor
which makes it its most critical asset. Other industrial
refrigerants do not have an odor meaning that if there was a
leak it would go undetected.
These refrigerants have proved to be safe and effective
becoming the most used refrigerants today. The completely
halogenated hydrocarbons are referred to as chlorofluorocarbons

4. (CFCs). In CFC, all hydrogen atoms are substituted with
chlorine and fluorine atoms(Chhandra 366).Halogenated
hydrocarbons have no negative effect on the atmosphere.
Cost
Availability
Environmental impact
Performance
Safety
Stability
Toxicity and corrosiveness
Flammability
Ammonia
Low
Highly available
Environmentally compatible
High performance
Safe to use but toxic
Offers stability
Toxic
Not flammable
hydrocarbons
Low
Harmless to ozone layer
Offers great performance
Not harmful
Non corrosive
Highly flammable
CO2
Low
Readily available

5. Harmless to ozone
Low efficiency
Very safe
excellent stability
Non toxic and non corrosive
Non flammable
The refrigerant that would be best for automobile must combine
a number of factors. It must be non flammable, non toxic and
have limited impact on the ozone layer and environment in
general. The possibility that bets guaranteed this is carbon
dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a safe, non-flammable and non-toxic
alternative to ammonia and Halogenated hydrocarbons. The
reason why CFC would not be appropriate is its serious threat to
the environment. When studies on the substance found out that
CFC released into the atmosphere tends to accumulate in the
stratosphere. This had a depleting effect on the ozone layer.
However, CFC is both non corrosive and non toxic. Ammonia is
environmentally compatible but it is a toxic gas. As such, the
most appropriate refrigeration for an automotive air-
conditioning system would be carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide
provided a sustainable solution to automotive air-conditioning
system. Indeed, many next generation advances in this area are
increasingly experimenting with CO2 in the automotive air
conditioning. Sustainability comes with the consideration that
this process will involve recycling waste CO2 and using it as a
natural refrigerant, therefore turning the problem of CO2 into a
workable solution.
Works Cited
Hundy, G.H, Trott, A.R., and Welch, T.C. Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning. 4th Edition. Oxford, UK: Elsevier
Chhabra, Raj P. CRC Handbook of Thermal Engineers. New
York, CRC Press.
“The Reversal Ideal.” N.d. 2 March, 2014.
http://www.eng.fsu.edu/~dommelen/quantum/style_a/qsrev.html

6. 4
Alotair 3
Did Gandhi Influence on Martin Luther King, Jr. principles of
non violent agitation for basic human rights?
Liqaa Alotair
Facilitator
26th March 2015
Michale J. Nojeim Gandhi and King: "The Power of Nonviolent
Resistance." Greenwood Publishing Group 331 pages Jan 1
2004.
Michale J. Nojeim in this book looks at the various similarities
shared by both Mohandas Koromchand Gandhi and Martin
Luther King Junior as regards their stand on use of non violent
means in seeking equality for their various communities. He
presents the individual lives of both men starting with Gandhi’s
and then Kings Life, and compares how both men used
nonviolence as a strategy for communicating the various
grievances of their people

7. .Michael J, Nojeim is a distinguished authority in political
science and teaches Gandhi and King he also specialises in non
violence making his book a good addition to this research.
Burrow Rufus. “Martin Luther King, Jr. for Armchair
Theologians”. Westminster John Knox Press, 2009 - Religion -
194 pages.
Burrows in this text looks at the life of Martin Luther King
Junior. He investigates the way King thought as well as his life.
The book looks at how King adopted various Gandhian
principles into the struggle of the South and how he modeled
them to the troubles in the South. It chronologies the conversion
into using nonviolence strategies. Over the last two decades
Rufus Burrow has authored many texts on Martin Luther King;
this therefore makes his voice a good
Addition to this research process as it helps to see what
doctrines of Gandhi that King used in his campaigns and the
journey to his conversion into Gandhism.
Pandiri Ananda M. “A. Comprehensive, Annotated Bibliography
on Mahatma Gandhi: Books and pamphlets about Mahatma
Gandhi”. Volume 2 of A Comprehensive, Annotated
Bibliography on Mahatma Gandhi, Ananda M. Pandiri
Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995.
Ananda M. Pandiris in this book looks at the life and times of
Mohandas Gandhi. He chronologies in a very comprehensive
manner a bibliographical account of Gandhi gotten from
publishers, libraries, from India to Britain the US and South
Africa where Gandhi stated for 21 years. The author of this
book has extensive knowledge of Gandhi and travels the world
teaching and researching on Gandhi. Compared to the book by
Rufus Burrow this book looks at Gandhi while Burrows looks at
Kings Life and legacy and together this books tell the stories of

8. this different men and will help in making comparison more
easily. This text will help in bringing out the details of the
maikingof a civil activist and what made Gandhi the man he
became4
Lakshmi Rama. “Son Marks Martin Luther King's 1959 Visit to
India”. Washington post. Wednesday, February 18, 2009.Web.
15th Feb. 2015.
This news paper article looks at the pilgrimage of Martin Luther
King the third to India where he went to retrace his father’s
footsteps from when he had visited in February of 1959. Martin
Luther King III while in India learnt of the special honor his
father bestowed upon Gandhi during his visit fifty years back
when he and his mother Coretta Scott King had visited, and
learnt of the nonviolent ways used by Gandhi . Gandhi it is said
in the article had immense influence on how Dr. King chose to
run the Civil rights movement in America, and while in India,
King visited many places where Gandhi had lived even sleeping
in a room he had slept in. This resource is going to be a good
contribution to the argument on how Gandhi influenced Dr
King’s philosophy on non violence as it speaks of his
pilgrimage and of his son after that and of how people from
both America and India saw and still see this connections. This
article complements the works of Michale J. Nojeim which
compared the lives of the true great civil rights activists now
this shows as one of the leaders experiences first-hand the
experiences of the other and his son carrying on the torch of
exploration of the values both men held so dearly.5
5 Gandhi in his various interactions with then British
colonialists of India eventually led to the freeing of India after
200 years of British rule.
“Martin Luther King, JR. AND THE GLOBAL FREEDOM
STRUGGLE.(n.d.).Web. Feb 15th 2015.

9. This article looks at the life of Gandhi and how he influenced
the political reforms of both India and America through his
standing up against the British and in his influence of Martin
Luther King. According to this page King's first interaction with
Gandhi’s principles was at the Crozer Theological Seminary. In
one of his classes he is said to have singled out Gandhi as
"Individuals who greatly reveal the working of the spirit of
God" .It adds that King placed Gandhi’s philosophy at the same
level as Christianity and he says that “Christ showed us the way
and Gandhi in India showed it could work. This article is a good
addition to the other mentioned sources in this text as it shows
the beginning of Dr King’s relationship with the ways of Gandhi
thus further strengthening the fact that he was heavily
influenced by Gandhi’s ways6
6 The first time Martin Luther King used strategies of non
violent direct action was during the 1955 to 1956 Montgomery
bus boycotts
� A look into how Martin Luther King Junior was influenced by
the nonviolence doctrines as practiced by Mahatma Gandhi.
� A Child Shall Lead Them: Martin Luther King Jr., Young
People, and the Movement
Extremist for Love: Martin Luther King Jr., Man of Ideas and
Nonviolent Social Action
Their life’s work and their ultimate sacrifice-by an assassin’s
bullet as each tirelessly and steadfastly preached nonviolent
reconciliation-point us in the direction that will leave all people
with more hope for the new millennium.

10. � Some of the books that Rufus Burrows has authored on Dr.
King include “ A Child Shall Lead Them: Martin Luther King
Jr., Young People, and the Movement Also Extremist for Love:
Martin Luther King Jr., Man of Ideas and Nonviolent Social
Action use it: it is economical and flexible.
4 The author of this book has extensive knowledge of Gandhi
and travels the world teaching and researching on Gandhi.
Page 1 of 3
ES 3053 Design Project Spring 2015
Part 1 Due March 2, 2015
Part 2 Due April 6, 2015
Part 1:
Write a 2-3 page essay broadly discussing the choice of
refrigerants for refrigeration systems.
What are important considerations when deciding on a
refrigerant for any type of refrigeration system
(not just automotive applications)? Topics which may be
discussed include desirable physical and
thermodynamic properties, toxicity, cost, corrosion properties,
etc. Use at least three references (none of
these can be from the internet – they should be books, journal
papers, magazine articles, patents, or other

11. similar references) for your essay and be sure to properly cite
all the works you refer to. You can use
any standard reference format you like (e.g., APA, MLA,
Turabian, etc.). Be consistent and use the same
format style for all references. Compare at least 3 different
potential refrigerants on at least 8 different
criteria. You should weight the relative importance of each
characteristic and quantify each as best as
you can. For example, cost may not be as important since
relatively little refrigerant would be needed in
a car A/C system. In some cases you may use qualitative
comparisons such as poor, good, better, best,
etc. The best way to make the comparison of 3 refrigerants on at
least 8 criteria is with a table, so they
can be compared side-by-side. Finally, make a recommendation
on what refrigerant you would chose for
an automobile if you were going to manufacture an air-
conditioning system for automotive use.
Example Outline:
1. Introduction
1.1. Purpose of refrigeration
1.2. Sample applications
1.3. Briefly discuss ideal Carnot refrigeration cycle
2. General Refrigerant Characteristics
2.1. Stability, flammability, toxicity, corrosivity, cost, ozone
depletion potential, global
warming potential, COP, etc.
3. Refrigerant Possibilities
3.1. Ammonia, CFCs, halogenated hydrocarbons,
hydrofluorocarbons, etc.

12. 3.2 Comparison of at least 3 possibilities
4. Conclusions/Selection
5. References
Appendix (include a schematic of a Carnot refrigeration cycle)
Part 2:
Perform the thermodynamic design calculations for an air-
conditioning system for a specific
automobile of your choosing (give the make, model, and year of
the vehicle). DO NOT use a generic
automobile. Your design should include only the
thermodynamic aspects with a flow schematic showing
anticipated temperatures, pressures, entropies, enthalpies, flow
rates, heat loads, and work requirements,
but the mechanical design (piping sizes, compressor parts,
mounting mechanics, etc.) need not be
Page 2 of 3
evaluated. Be sure to use the refrigerant you selected in Part 1
of this project. Include a copy of the
graded Part 1 as an attachment to the final report. Discuss
assumptions that you make, and give reasons
that you made the assumptions. Determine how much cooling
capacity is required to cool a specific car
interior with full occupancy. Assume the highest temperature
location in the U.S. and add another 5°C
for the greenhouse effect when sunlight comes into a closed car
on a hot summer day. Assume the metal,
plastic, fabric, etc. in the car is heated to that temperature.

13. Specify the weight of each component that
will be cooled, how fast the interior should be cooled down and
to what temperature everything should
be cooled down to (except the people who will not be cooled
down much below 98.6°F). Assume the
refrigeration system is an ideal Carnot refrigerator.
You should calculate the following:
Assume simple micp
i
(T2-T1)
calculations for each material i to be cooled down. Assume no
additional heat is added to
those materials during the cooldown.
period
If you choose a refrigerant that is in CATT, you may use it to
calculate the refrigerant properties. Put a
table in the Appendix of your report that includes:
at each point in the cycle.
This project will be a technical report for an engineering

14. project. Part 2 should also include Part 1 with
any recommended changes by the instructor. The final report
should be completely integrated with both
parts and should not have 2 separate parts, nor 2 sections
labeled Part 1 and Part 2. The total maximum
length is 7 pages including all figures and tables, but not
including the cover page, the Table of
Contents, the list of references, or Appendix.
Example Outline:
1. Introduction
Include a statement of the project and the scope of your work.
2. Discussion
Include discussion regarding choice of refrigerant and other
assumptions that you made to solve
the problem.
3. Calculations
Give a synopsis of the important aspects of the calculations.
Don’t include too many details such
as intermediate iterative calculations, but provide enough
details so that your calculations could
be checked for accuracy.
4. Schematic
Page 3 of 3
General Specifications
list them in the References)

15. margins all around
Table 1. Comparison of refrigerants.)
(e.g., Figure 1. Refrigeration schematic.)
report (i.e., you can’t have any figures,
tables or equations that appear in the report but are not
mentioned in the report)
unnumbered; the Table of Contents is numbered as
i
not create
use person pronouns (e.g., I, we) – technical writing
should be in the third person
Appendix
many you will lose points)

16. is too long to fit on 1 page, then the table
headings must be repeated again on every page where the table
appears