Reading Disability (RD)
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A research-based overview of reading disabilities, including how they are defined, traits of students with RD, challenges for students, and strategies for improving education of students with RD.
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Reading Disability (RD)
- 2. Topics 0 Early RTI measures and criteria as predictors of reading disability in the beginning of third grade (Beach & O’Connor, 2013) 0 Evaluating the effectiveness of a phonologically based reading intervention for struggling readers with varying language profiles (Duff, Hayiou-Thomas, and Hulme, 2012) 0 Reading motivational differences among groups: Reading disability (RD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), RD + ADHD, and typical comparison (Lee & Zentall, 2012) 0 Examining agreement and longitudinal stability among traditional and RTI-based definitions of reading disability using the affected- status agreement statistic (Waesche, et. al, 2011) 0 Comorbidity between reading disability and math disability: concurrent psychopathology, functional impairment, and neuropsychological functioning (Wilcutt, et. al, 2013)
- 3. Methods 0 Predictors of RD (Beach & O’Connor, 2013) 0 Standardized assessments for word-reading fluency (WR-F) and comprehension vocabulary (C-V); Scores were used to pose responder status against RD classification to identify predictor of RD at the beginning of third grade. 0 Phonologically Based RI (Duff, et. al, 2012) 0 A 10-week RI for a group of 29 children (ages 5-6 years); alongside a control group of 30 peers, they were assessed prior to, immediately after, and 6 months after the intervention. 0 Reading Motivational Differences (Lee & Zentall, 2012) 0 133 fifth grade students (RD, ADHD, RD + ADHD, ND) were given the Motivation for Reading Questionnaire (MRQ) and Reading Activity Inventory (RAI).
- 4. Methods (cont.) 0 Definitions of RD (Waesche, et. al, 2011) 0 Affected-status agreement statistic was used to compare 4 definitions of RD: unexpected low achievement (ULA), low achievement (LA), low growth (LG), and dual discrepancy (DD); assessment data from 288,114 first-through third-grade students in the state of Florida was used. 0 Comorbidity between RD & MD (Wilcutt, et. al, 2013) 0 Two-hundred-and-forty-one students with RD only; 183 students with MD only; 188 students with RD + MD; and 419 students without RD or MD were tested for general cognitive ability, reading and math achievement, processing speed, and component reading and language skills.
- 5. What is a Reading Disability?
- 6. What is a Reading Disability? 0 Several Competing Definitions (Waesche, et. al, 2011): 0 Unexpected low achievement (ULA)– traditional 0 Low achievement (LA) – RtI-based 0 Low growth (LG) – RtI-based 0 Dual Discrepancy (DD) – RtI-based Do these models find similar results?
- 7. “Agreement between the traditional unexpected LA and the three RTI-based definitions of LG, LA, and DD was poor, though at greater than chance levels of agreement.” -- Waesche, et. al, 2011
- 8. Who has a Reading Disability? 0 Predictors (Beach & O’Connor, 2013) 0 Word Identification Fluency (WIF) – 1st Grade 0 Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) – 2nd Grade 0 Woodcock Reading Mastery Test (WRMT) – 2nd Grade
- 9. What are other traits of students with RD? (Lee & Zentall, 2012) 0 Lower Intrinsic Motivation 0 Lower Extrinsic Motivation 0 Lower Self-efficacy 0 Higher Work avoidance
- 10. Motivational Terms 0 Intrinsic Motivation – An internal drive to engage and persist on an activity (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008) 0 Extrinsic Motivation – Task persistence in response to potential outcomes (Schunk, et. al., 2008; Wingfield et al., 2004) 0 Self-Efficacy – “Students’ perceptions of competence” & “beliefs about individual capabilites to learn” (Guthrie, Coddington, & Wingfield, 2009) 0 Work Avoidance – Failing to complete academic tasks and investing minimal time and effort (Zentall & Beike, 2012)
- 11. How can we help students with RD? 0 Response to Intervention (RtI) 0 Reading Skills (Duff, et. al, 2012) 0Early word reading 0Phonetic spelling (letter sounds) 0Phoneme awareness (understanding that words are made up of sounds) 0 Motivation Skills (Lee & Zentall, 2012) 0Extrinsic motivation 0Social reading activities
- 12. Beyond RD… 0 Comorbidity 0 RD + ADHD (Lee & Zentall, 2012) 0Social motivation 0Social reading activities 0 RD + Math Disabilities (MD) (Wilcutt, et. al, 2013) 0Competing explanations 0Co-occurrence: weaknesses in verbal comprehension, processing speed, and working memory
- 13. References Beach, K.D., & O’Connor, R.E. (2013). Early response-to-intervention measures and criteria as predictors of reading disability in the beginning of third grade. Journal of Learning Disabilities. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1177/0022219413495451 Duff, F.J., Hayiou-Thomas, M.E., & Hulme, C. (2012). Evaluating the effectiveness of a phonologically based reading intervention for struggling readers with varying language profiles. Reading and Writing, 25, 621-640. doi: 10.1007/s11145-010-9291-6 Lee, J., Zentall, S.S. (2012). Reading motivational differences among groups: Reading disability (RD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), RD + ADHD, and typical comparison. Learning and Individual Differences, 22, 778-785. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com.proxy.library.vcu.edu/science/art icle/pii/S1041608012000660 Waesche, J.S., Schatschneider, C., Maner, J.K., Ahmed, Y., Wagner, R.K. (2011). Examining agreement and longitudinal stability among traditional and RTI-based definitions of reading disability using the affected-status agreement statistic. Journal of Learning Disabilities. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1177/0022219410392048 Willcutt, E.G., Petrill, S.A., Wu, S., Boada, R., DeFries, J.C., Olson, R.K., & Pennington, B.F. (2013). Comorbidity between reading disability and math disability: concurrent psychopathology, functional impairment, and neuropsychological functioning. Journal of Learning Disabilities. Advance online publication. doi:.1177/0022219413477476
Editor's Notes
- Imagine that…You’re in a 1st grade Language Arts classroom where all the children look and act about the same. One student is making the other students laugh and it’s disrupting your lesson plan. He’s not making progress and he’s effecting the progress of others. Now imagine that…He leaves the classroom for some added assistance from a Special Education teacher. The classroom he ends up in includes 3 kindergarten students and a first grade student – have of these students have autism. Once he’s there…He is assigned to a teaching assistant to work on his reading. The teaching assistant does not have a great understanding of disabilities. She see’s that he tries to impress those around him – he is funny and even tries hard during group activities – but she cannot get him to focus on reading, and she gets frustrated with his inattention. How do you think he feels? This student was in my special education classroom. I chose this topic to become better informed for myself and the educators around me.
- To determine eligibility for first graders to receive intervention, researchers used criteria based on DIBELS early literacy subtests; for second graders, they used the Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) subtest criteria. In first and second grade, eligible Tier II intervention students received small group (two or three students) instruction for 25 to 40 minutes, four times per week, from experienced teachers who maintained high fidelity ratings. Instruction-type fluctuated between the researcher-created curriculum and Sound Partners. For instruction, native English speakers (NES) were grouped with ELs. (Students who identified as Hispanic accounted for 68.1% and 71.8% of the school districts’ student bodies, respectively.) Students were assessed monthly and regrouped as needed, including fluidity between Tier II and one-on-one intervention, and Tier I instruction. Results suggested that when analyzing WR-F test scores against RD classifications, below average Word Identification Fluency (WIF) spring scores prove to be a significant predictor of RD for first grade students; below average ORF spring scores and WRMT PC fall scores proved to be significant predictors for second grade students.
- Whether or not your sure, how you would define a reading disability?Right – So we know it’s someone who has difficulty reading, but if we all learn at different rates, how can we define exactly who has a “disability” and needs additional supports? Any ideas?
- There are several competing definitions of what a Reading Disability is and this lack of professional agreement about how to define it is part of the challenge. The traditional model is unexpected low achievement which defines a Reading Disability as a “severe discrepancy” between ability (an individual’s IQ score) and achievement (an individual’s reading scores)Response-to-intervention models:Identify students who do not appear to be responsive to reading instruction in his or her regular classroom. Intervention is provided. If students don’t respond adequately to this intervention, they have a “learning disability.” Low Achievement: several forms of this, which evaluates students based on test scores. Low Growth: which evaluates students who respond poorly to intervention. Dual Discrepancy: combines assessment and growth modelsDo these models find similar results?
- The answer is “no”In a study comparing the four definitions, agreement waspoor!Longitudinal stability was minor for all definitions – Students classified as RD in one grade were not likely (less than 50%) to retain that label in another grade. You can see how this might cause confusion between researchers, teachers, and students….
- Even though there is disagreement about what defines a reading disability and low longitudinal stability…A study was done in Southern California to determine the best predictors of reading disabled readers at the beginning of the third grade. Researchers analyzed standardized test data and a curriculum for intervention. Significant predictors…Below average WIF spring scores (1st grade)Below average ORF spring scores (2nd grade)Below average WRMT spring scores (2nd grade)
- In addition reading growth rates and assessment scores, there are some commonalities between students with RD….Across grade levels, students with RD reported lower intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, and greater work avoidance than students without disabilities.Also, students with RD and students with RD + ADHD reported equivalent social motivation through fourth grade. (prefer social reading activities)Self – efficacy
- If you have any questions about what any of these traits are, you can read more about them here. I’ve also put some questions on the handout that you can ask yourself if you have students with RD in your classrooms.
- It’s clear to see how a RtI needs to include both reading skills and reading motivation. Reading skills that RD students typically need support with to become fluent readers include:Early word readingPhonetic spellingPhoneme awarenessTo avoid students reaching frustration levels and “tuning out”, students with RD can also benefit from interventions that include:Extrinsic motivational interventionsSocial reading activities
- Sometimes other disabilities are present with RD (but not always):If you are working with a student with RD + ADHD, this group responds well to social motivation (social reading activities) just like students with only RD.If you are working with a student who also has a Math Disability (MD), common traits include:Weaknesses in verbal comprehensionWeaknesses in processing speedWeaknesses in working memoryWhat might be an appropriate accommodation for a student with RD + MD in a math class?