Approaches in teaching reading to children with intellectual disability by Anthony Okoye

1
Chapter 1
THE PROBLEM AND RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction
In recent years, there has been growing recognition that literacy is a civil
right. The national rhetoric suggests that all children have the right to
scientifically-based reading instruction and that it is not acceptable for any child
to leave school with low literacy skills (No Child Left Behind, 2002). However,
within the rhetoric about all children, references to students with intellectual
disabilities (ID), or mental retardation, are typically vague or absent. One might
question how one set of children could be overlooked in discussions about all
children. Based on experience, the answer appears to be that all has really
referred to all children who are believed to be capable of learning to read
(Katims, 2000). Reading is defined as the ability to process individual words in
connected text resulting in understanding the author’s intended meaning. With
this definition in mind, many educators assume that children with ID are not
capable of learning to read (Katims, 2000). The expectation has been that, at
best, students with ID, particularly those with moderate ID, could learn to identify
a specific list of words memorized by sight. The result is that typically little effort
is made to teach these students to become fully literate and only 1 in 5 children
with mild or moderate ID achieves even minimal literacy skills (Katims, 2001).
Although much progress has been made in recent years regarding the
education of students with ID, to date, very little reading research has been
conducted with these students. What research has been done has focused
primarily on students with mild ID (Browder, Wakeman, Spooner, Ahlgrim-Delzell,
& Algozzine, 2006) and has focused only on isolated sub skills of reading, rather
than on comprehensive reading interventions that integrate all essential
components of reading (defined below). Currently, no research has been
conducted to determine whether students with ID could learn to read by fully

2
processing the print and meaning of connected text, as is consistent with current
theories of reading development (Browder & Xin, 1998; Browder et al., 2006;
Conners, 2003; Joseph & Seery, 2004).
In spite of the paucity of research, this research is promising, suggesting
that students with ID are capable of learning various aspects of reading. Sight
word recognition, for example, has received the greatest attention from
researchers and the preponderance of evidence demonstrates that students with
even moderate and severe levels of ID could learn to automatically recognize a
fairly large corpus of words with systematic instruction (Browder et al., 2006).
Even so, these students have little ability to generalize their learning beyond the
specific words included in instruction, and thus, are far from achieving even basic
literacy (Browder et al., 2006). Research on the effectiveness of phonics
instruction is primarily limited to students with mild ID, but that research is also
promising. Conners (1992) and Joseph and Seery (2004) found 14 studies that
examined phonics instruction for students with ID, and these studies lent
preliminary support to the effectiveness of phonics interventions. Unfortunately,
these studies were all relatively brief, providing at most a few months of
instruction, and they focused on isolated sub skills of phonics, rather than a
comprehensive, systematic approach that may result in skilled decoding. Further,
none of these studies focused specifically on phonemic awareness (PA). In 1996,
O’Connor, Notari-Syverson, and Vadasy, described the progress of several
students with mild ID who participated in a PA intervention study. Of the nine
students with ID who participated in the six months PA intervention, three made
substantial progress. In a recent study, students with ID receiving instruction for
approximately 10 weeks made significantly more progress on sounding out
activities than a similar control group (Conners, Rosenquist, Sligh, Atwell, &
Kiser, 2006).
Studies on vocabulary and comprehension are even more limited, only
including demonstrations of very basic skills, such as using a sight word in the

3
context of a functional activity or matching a word to a picture (Browder et al.,
2006). Taken in its totality, the research based on teaching students with ID to
read is sparse and inadequate. At the present time, there are no studies that
have examined the effectiveness of a comprehensive reading intervention
delivered over a sustained period of time.
Over the past 30 years numerous studies focused on the prevention and
correction of reading problems with students who struggle to learn to read who
do not have ID. A primary finding from this research is that intervention provided
to small groups of children in the primary grades could be highly effective in
preventing reading problems for most children and greatly reducing the depth of
reading problems for those who continue to experience difficulty, (e.g., Foorman
& Torgesen, 2001; Mathes et al., 2005; Mathes & Denton, 2002; Denton &
Mathes, 2003; National Reading Panel, 2000; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998).
Likewise, there is a need to understand the critical content students must acquire
if they are to become competent readers. Effective interventions in early reading
target multiple components of the reading process in an integrated and
comprehensive manner, including concepts of print, oral language, phonological
and phonemic awareness (PA), letter knowledge, word recognition, fluency, and
comprehension (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; National Reading Panel, 2000;
Pressley, 1998; Rayner, Foorman, Perfetti, Pesetsky, & Seidenberg, 2001; Snow
et al., 1998). Many experimental studies demonstrate that teaching PA results in
improved reading and spelling outcomes (Ehri et al., 2001). Letter knowledge,
including letter naming and letter sound recognition, is also an important
predictor of reading achievement (Share, Jorm, Maclean, & Matthews, 1984;
Adams, 1990), and these skills influence other key early literacy skills, such as
PA and phonemic decoding (Blaiklock, 2004; Evans, Bell, Shaw, Moretti, & Page,
2006; Foy & Mann, 2006; Roberts, 2003; Treiman, Tincoff, & Richmond-Welty,
1996; Treiman, Tincoff, Rodriguez, Mouzaki, & Francis, 1998).

4
Many children who have difficulty learning to read also struggle with the
development of good oral language skills (Perfetti et al., 2005). One method
demonstrated to be effective for students with language delays is interactive
storybook reading (Arnold & Whitehurst, 1994; Dickinson & Smith, 1994; Karweit
& Wasik, 1996; Valdez-Menchaca & Whitehurst, 1992). Explicit instruction in
basic comprehension strategies is also a critical component of successful early
reading interventions (Mathes et al., 2005).
In considering an approach to develop an intervention program for
children with moderate ID, it is important that instruction is provided that not only
teaches the critical content of reading, but also synthesizes what is known to be
effective in teaching students with ID. For these students, a behavioral approach
appears to be most appropriate (Adams & Engelmann, 1996; Browder et al.,
2006; Joseph & Seery, 2004). The role of the teacher in a behaviorist model is to
explicitly teach content and model skills, providing systematic review of skills and
reinforcement for mastery.
The findings of this study were hoped to aid teachers who are dealing with
ID in their classrooms every day. Teachers may gain better understanding of the
background of their students, and how they could seek the support of the
parents, school and the community as a whole. The lack of funds or supplies
could hamper teachers to give their best to the students with ID. Thus, the
findings of this study may equip them with skills necessary in a successful
learning environment.
Review of Related Literature
Discussed in this section are the definition of children with intellectual
disability, terminologies in intellectual disability, causes of intellectual disability,
neurobiological differences, genetic factors, classification of intellectual disability,
types of disability, deinstitutionalization, and children with special needs.

5
Intellectual Disability Defined
Intellectual disability. Gaining a consistent and mutually acceptable
definition has been fraught with difficulties and delays, due to the multiple
professional disciplines involved with this group of people. For example the
medical profession, one of the earliest professions to define people with
intellectual disability, did so according to physical and organic defects of the
person (Meyen & Skrtic, 1995). Later, the use of psychological measurement
resulted in definitions of intellectual disability in terms of Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
(a standard score that reflects the ratio of mental to chronological age).
As noted by Brown (2007), the American Association on Mental
Retardation (AAMR) definition of mental retardation is a widely accepted
definition and classification system, and has had the most international impact.
The American Association on Mental Retardation (2002) defines mental
retardation as a disability characterized by significant limitations in both,
intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual,
social and practical adaptive skills. This disability originates before the age of 18
(Schalock et al., 2010, p. 1). Underpinning this definition are five assumptions
that are considered to be essential for its application. These are 1) limitations in
present functioning must be considered within the context of community
environments that are typically experienced by the individual with disabilities,
their peers and culture; 2) For any assessment to be valid, it must consider both
linguistic and cultural diversity as well as differences in communication, sensory,
motor and behavioral factors; 3) For any individual, it is recognized that
limitations co-exist with strengths; 4) The sole function of developing a profile of
limitations is to provide access to needed supports; and 5) Appropriate level of
personalized support over a sustained period, will ensure that the person with
intellectual disability life functioning will improve (Schalock, et al., 2010, p. 1).
More recently, Schalock et al. (2007) outlined a change of terminology to
the American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR) definition of mental

6
retardation with a substitution of the term intellectual disability in place of mental
retardation. This change in terminology related to people with intellectual
disability has also resulted in a change of name for the AAMR, which is now
known as the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental
Disabilities (AAIDD).
There are numerous other definitions of intellectual disability, such as by
the American Psychiatric Association (APA) DSM-IV, or the World Health
Organization (WHO) International Classification of Impairments, Disability and
Handicaps (ICIDH). However, the AAIDD 2002 definition is the preferred
definition as it represents the most current concept of disability, with its functional
orientation and socio-ecological perspective. This definition has a multi-
dimensional approach to intellectual disability that takes into account the
intellectual functioning, adaptive behavior, participation in social roles and
activities, the health and importantly the cultural context of the person.
Additionally, the AAIDD definition of intellectual disability is underpinned
by a support paradigm that recognizes the vital role that systems of support have
in the enhancement of an individual‘s functional capabilities. That is, within the
AAIDD definitional framework Schalock et al. (2010) proposed a support model
which depicts the relationship between the mismatch between the competencies
of the person with intellectual disability and environmental demands and how the
provision of support (i.e., resources and strategies that promote the
development, education, interests, personal wellbeing and enhance individual
functioning), lead to improved personal outcomes. Schalock et al. (2010; 2007)
argues that the support paradigm links to concepts of quality of life, subjective
wellbeing and personal outcomes, which in turn are related to independence,
relationships, contributions, school and community participation and personal
wellbeing.
Furthermore, these aspects of the AAIDD definition provide a coherent
framework making it highly applicable for service providers to implement quality

7
of life (QOL), subjective well-being (SWB) and personal outcomes. The
definitions used by the APA-DSM-IV and ICIDH tend to have this focus to a
lesser extent, and therefore do not provide a definition of disability that is as
holistic or coherent as the AAIDD, which may account for its widespread
acceptance and use (Schalock, et al., 2010).
Locally, the Department of Education or DepEd in the Philippines on its
Handbook for Special Education defined ID as a disability characterized by
cognitive impairment, limited adapted behaviors need for support and initial
occurrence before 18.
The terms intellectual disability or people with intellectual disability are the
preferred terms widely used by government, professionals and academic
agencies within New Zealand and Australia to describe the group of people with
cognitive impairments or developmental delays; while developmental disability,
mental retardation and learning disabilities are the preferred terms for use in
Canada, United States, and United Kingdom respectively (Bray, 1999; I. Brown,
2007). At times, these terms are used synonymously and interchangeably, while
other times they refer to slightly different groups of people. However, they do not
represent an exhaustive list of terms used to describe people with cognitive
impairments or developmental delays. Rather they are the more commonly used
terms. Frequently used disability terminology reflects the socio-political focus of
the time and as such is consistently changing. This is particularly so when their
connotations become derogatory to the point of being unacceptable for everyday
use. For example, terms such as cretin, moron, idiot, imbecile, and feeble-
minded, are all terms that were once used but now, are no longer deemed
acceptable terms to describe this group of people (Bray, 1999).
The continued use of disability terms is important and serves a number of
useful purposes. First, terms such as intellectual disability and developmental
disability help identify those individuals in society who have special needs and
require additional support for learning and carrying out activities associated with

8
daily living. Second, classification is often required in order to obtain funding for
such support. Third, terminology that identifies marginalized people in society is
frequently used for their legal protection and care. Fourth, the use of disability
terms allows for the development of precise classification systems for various
categories of disabilities. Fifth, this in turn allows for a better understanding and
knowledge through research and practice, about the services and treatments that
are required for people with intellectual or developmental disability to live quality
lives. Finally, the use of disability terms allows for the specific focus and
development of a field that clearly identifies the area of interest and focuses
attention (specifically research and advocacy) to specific sets of issues that set it
apart from other fields of interest (Brown, 2007).
Causes of Intellectual Disability
Available literature identifies several possible contributing factors. These
include neurobiological differences, genetic factors, and other risk factors.
Neurobiological Differences. Through neuro-imaging techniques it has
been determined that there are subtle structural and functional brain differences
in individuals with learning disabilities (Kibby & Hynd, 2001). Brain imaging
techniques have identified neural pathways involved in reading. The parieto-
temporal system and Bocca’s area are located on the left side and the front of
the brain respectively. These areas are linked to analyzing words and linking
sounds to letters. Beginning readers and people with a reading disability show
most activity in these areas. As readers become fluent they show most activity in
the occipitotemporal system located at the back of the brain. This area is a hub of
activity, receiving information about how a word looks, how it sounds, and what it
means. It allows readers to decode automatically, which is necessary for fluency.
Those with reading disabilities demonstrate a pattern of under activity in this area
of the brain. This is true for people with reading disabilities of all languages and
all ages (Shaywitz, 2003).

9
Genetic Factors. Developmental differences of the brain associated with
learning disabilities are thought to be influenced by genetic factors. Genetic
markers for reading disabilities have been identified on chromosomes 6 and 15
(Kibby & Hynd, 2001).
Other Risk Factors. Other possible contributing factors include problems
during pregnancy caused by the use of tobacco, alcohol, and/or other drugs.
Mothers who smoke may be more likely to have low birth weight babies who may
be at risk for a variety of problems. Alcohol and drugs consumed by a mother
during pregnancy transfer directly to the fetus.
Traditionally, a discrepancy model has been used to make the diagnosis
of intellectual disability. The discrepancy is based on results from intelligence and
academic achievement tests. An analysis is made of the discrepancy between
the student’s obtained scores on the intelligence and achievement tests. The
essence of the discrepancy model is that academic achievement performance
falls well below expectations based on intelligence. If a significant discrepancy is
found, then a diagnosis of intellectual disability is made. According to many
researchers (Feifer & De Fina, 2000; Lyon et al., 2001; National Association of
School Psychologists, 2003; Siegel, 2003), there are numerous concerns
regarding the discrepancy formula.
It is unclear which IQ score should be used with the achievement test to
establish a discrepancy (i.e., the verbal, performance, or full scale IQ score).
There is no universal agreement as to what the discrepancy should be (e.g., 1,
1.5, or 2 standard deviation[s]). The discrepancy formula has been inconsistently
interpreted and/or misinterpreted.
A discrepancy formula precludes early identification due to the inherent
problems associated with standardized tests. For example, a 6-year-old child
could get only two correct answers on a standardized reading test and still obtain
a standard score within the average range. Thus, even though a child’s skills

10
may be clearly delayed, the obtained score on the standardized test may not
indicate there is a problem. A discrepancy model promotes a “wait and fail” policy
that delays interventions. If a teacher is waiting for a diagnosis before
interventions are put in place, valuable learning and teaching time is lost.
Research has shown that intelligence test scores may decrease over time
with children who are not reading (Stanovich, 2000). As a result of recent
research, there is a movement away from the ability-achievement discrepancy
model and a move toward the diagnostic criteria of significant underachievement
and insufficient response to intervention (National Association of School
Psychologists [NASP], 2003). The purpose of assessment should be early
identification of students who are at risk for having difficulties learning to read.
The ultimate goal should be prevention of reading problems and the provision of
early intervention for students who are experiencing difficulties (Lyon, et al.,
2001). Many psychologists have already made a move toward a change in the
diagnostic process. The educational team members (e.g., Speech Language
Pathologist, Psychologist, and Learning Assistance Teacher) use a variety of
tests to assess intelligence, academic achievement, visual perception, memory,
and language processing. The data from the formal and informal assessment
tools is analyzed in addition to information from the student’s history. This
included the following: student’s family and school history; attendance records;
type of instruction received; duration of intervention; environmental factors; and
other aspects that may have an impact on the child (e.g., trauma, other disorders
such as ADHD, FASD, anxiety disorder, depression, and medical conditions).
The diagnostic process is complex. Psychologists use the assessment
information, diagnostic criteria, and their best professional judgment to make the
decision whether an individual has a reading disability.
The AAMR also proposes a new classification system, replacing the more
restrictive traditional classification based on IQ score ranges (i.e., mild, IQ 50–70;
moderate, IQ 35–49; severe, IQ 20–34; and profound, IQ under 25), along with

11
the traditionally held educability expectations or judgments on the basis of
medical origins. This system proposes that people with intellectual disability are
classified according to the type and extent of support required. Supports in this
context are defined as resources and strategies that aim to promote the
development, education, interest, and personal wellbeing of a person and that
enhance individual functioning (American Association on Mental Retardation,
2002, p. 151). Clearly, this approach to classification is linked to the assumption
number (5) that underpins the application of the AAMR definition of mental
retardation.
In a departure from previous traditional classification systems, this system
does not relate to intelligent quotient score ranges. Rather, support intensities
are based on four levels of classification ranging from the least intrusive to highly
intrusive. These are 1) intermittent support, on an as-needed episodic base and
is provided intermittently with either high or low intensity; 2) limited support is
characterized by consistency over time, but is not intermittent and is often
provided at a low level of intensity; 3) Extensive support with regular involvement
in one or more areas of the individual‘s life (e.g., home or work) and is not time
limited; and 4) Pervasive support of high intensity and constancy across all
environments and is potentially life sustaining. This level of support has the
highest level of intrusiveness, typically involves more staff and has higher
support costs (American Association on Mental Retardation, 2002).
This classification system has recently been updated by the latest
publication from AAIDD (Schalock, et al., 2010). The latest approach to
classification differs from the 2002 approach, in that the focus of classification of
intellectual disability is multidimensional and includes all the dimensions and
features that affect human functioning, such as intellectual abilities, adaptive
behavior, health, participation, context and individualized supports. As noted by
Schalock et al. (2010), such an approach to classification is in line with the

12
movement of the field of intellectual disability towards an ecological focus and a
support paradigm.
Deinstitutionalization. While people with disabilities have always existed
within society, they have not always been full participating or valued members of
their society. The degree to which they have been included or excluded has
varied according to predominant cultural perceptions (Yazbeck, McVilly, &
Parmenter, 2004). For example, Wolfensberger (1972) reports that early
historical recordings of the treatment of people labeled as intellectually disabled,
indicate they have almost universally been associated with multiple negative
stereotypes and images. They were frequently viewed as being sick, subhuman,
deviant, and objects of pity, menace or dread and eternal children. Such
perceptions frequently determined the models of service provision that was
provided to them, if any.
The people who do not know that intellectual disability as sick what led to
service provision within a medical model, where the focus was on amelioration,
treatment and cure of the disability rather than one of supporting the individual
(Wolfensberger, 1972). The existence of large institutions, where people with
disabilities were kept behind locked doors in barren rooms, nurtured the
perceptions commonly held, that people with disabilities were subhuman, a
menace and threat to society. This further perpetuated the belief that services for
people with disabilities should be segregated from mainstream society.
According to Gardner and Chapman (1985), when people with disabilities
were perceived as eternal children, they were pitied, overprotected and
considered not responsible for their actions. Diagnosis and evaluation reports
emphasized behavior and skill levels in age-equivalent terms. This frequently
resulted in service provision with an emphasis on training opportunities and the
provision of experiences that would allow the person to grow and develop into
adulthood and attain adult roles (Gardner & Chapman, 1985). Many of these
views and perceptions of people with intellectual disability are still prevalent in

13
society, resulting in the continued segregation and disabling of people with
intellectual disability (O'Brien, Thesing, Tuck & Capie, 2001).
Nevertheless, service provision for people with intellectual disability in
Western culture has undergone substantial change over the last 40 years, with a
number of factors considered to be responsible for these changes. A major factor
linked to changes in service provision has been related to deinstitutionalization,
that is, the replacement of institutional care with community-based services and
community living. Deinstitutionalization, argues Ericsson and Mansell (1996), is
one of the most important developments responsible for changes to the way
services for people with disabilities are organized and delivered.
The ideology of normalization theory is one of the contributory factors
responsible for the advent of deinstitutionalization. The concept of normalization,
as it is currently understood today, was first espoused by Bank-Mikkelsen (1969),
who asserted that the mentally retarded of Denmark should obtain an existence
as close to normal as possible. The principle of normalization was elaborated on
by Nirje (1969) who developed the first systematic treatise on the topic, in which
the environment was seen as a key feature for the development of the individual
with a disability, as well as society‘s perception of such people. Thus, in order to
reform the restricting constructs applied to people with disabilities, Nirjie argued
that their environment must be altered. Accordingly, changes to people‘s
environment could be achieved through the principles of normalization which has
as its major goal to ―make available to the mentally retarded patterns and
conditions of everyday life which are as close as possible to the norms and
patterns of the mainstream of society (Nirje, 1969, p. 181).
Normalization was later popularized by Wolfensberger (1972) who was
responsible for its implementation in North America, UK, Australia and New
Zealand. However, unlike Bank-Mikkelsen (1969) and Nirje (1969),
Wolfensberger argued that normalization applies to all devalued persons in
society and not just those with intellectual impairments. Later Wolfensberger

14
(1983) reconceptualized normalization as Social Role Valorization (SRV), with a
focus on creating and supporting socially valued roles for devalued people in
their society.
The adoption of normalization and SRV theory by service providers had a
substantial impact on the development of community-based services. By the mid
1970s the practice of housing people with disabilities residing in large congregate
institutions, shut away from mainstream society was considered no longer
acceptable. This resulted in the move toward the closure of institutions and the
development of community-based services across North America, Europe, and
Australasia (Mansell, 2006). Within the New Zealand context, change in
government policy supporting deinstitutionalization and community living
occurred from the late 1980s onwards (O'Brien et al., 2001), with the last
remaining institution (The Kimberley Centre) for people with intellectual disability
in its final stage of closure.
In the United States, during the early years of deinstitutionalization the
people mostly likely to be relocated to community-based services, were people
with mild to moderate impairments. The people left behind were those with
severe impairments or those who posed a serious threat due to challenging
behavior. It took action from The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps
(TASH) to change this view. TASH (1979) called for the termination of services,
activities and environments, which isolated people with severe or profound
disabilities and called for integrated community-based services that reflected the
full range of choices available to persons without disabilities. TASH proposed
that these choices should minimally include: 1) the right to live in normalized,
community-based homes, living with parents or self-selected roommates or
peers; 2) the right to attend the school of one's choice or to receive
individualized, appropriate educational services; 3) the right of access to a variety
of vocational training opportunities; and 4) the right to participate in recreational
and leisure experiences enjoyed by peers (TASH, 1979, p. 4). Thus, by the

15
1980s deinstitutionalization at least in principle, was seen as being appropriate
for all persons with disabilities residing in institutions and not just those with mild
to moderate impairments. Nevertheless, individuals with severe or profound
disabilities were likely to be among the last to move to community-based services
or in some instances are still be residing in institutions (Mansell, 2006; Schalock
& Verdugo, 2002).
Special Needs Education. The term “special educational needs” is defined in
the Education for Persons with Special Educational Needs Act 2004 as, “a
restriction in the capacity of the person to participate in and benefit from
education on account of an enduring physical, sensory, mental health or learning
disability or any other condition which results in a person learning differently from
a person without that condition.” It refers to any educational provision which is
designed to cater for students with special educational needs, and is additional to
or different from the provision which is generally made in ordinary classes for
pupils of the same age (Department of Education and Science, 1993, p.18).
Early identification and intervention are pivotal to the prognosis of the child
with special needs. Many professionals believe that the first seven years of a
child’s life are critical windows for his development intellectually, socially and
emotionally. Findings support the commonly-held view that early services to
young children with special needs will enhance their abilities to develop to their
maximum potential, reduce later education costs to society, and improve their
chances of both economic and living independence.
From the historical system of exclusion of special needs students in
special segregated schools and institutions which merely catered for the obvious
needs (palliative care) of the intellectually disabled, there is an emergence of a
modern system which is more focused on integration and inclusion of these
students in mainstream society. In Australia, Carrington (1999), Graham (2006),
Snelgrove (2005) and Slee (2005) argue that the historical construction of beliefs
about success and failure, and disability as individual deficits have influenced the

16
development of school systems. They argue that educational reform for the 21st
century needs to attend closely to understanding the cultural and social
institutional settings of schools; to increasing the participation of students within
school cultures in ways that value diversity; and to decreasing exclusionary
pressures such as labeling and differential treatment of students based on
gender, ethnicity, (dis)ability, behavioral and socio-economic factors. Inclusive
education reform in schools cannot be achieved without challenging “institutional
predispositions consonant with the normalizing project of traditional forms of
special education” (Slee, 2006, p. 109).
The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special needs
Education (UNESCO, 1994) defines inclusion as a reform that supports and
welcomes diversity among all learners, with an aim to eliminate social exclusion
that is a consequence of responses to diversity in race, social class, ethnicity,
religion, gender and ability. The Salamanca Statement agreed at a UNESCO
World Conference on Special-Needs Education held in Salamanca in June 1994,
called for inclusion to be the norm (UNESCO, 1994) and was subscribed to by 92
countries and 25 international organizations.
The Statement begins with a commitment to education for all. The
necessity and urgency of providing education for all students, young people and
adults within the regular education system is recognized. It is stated that students
with special educational needs must have access to regular schools and adds
that regular schools with this inclusive orientation are the most effective means of
combating discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming communities, building an
inclusive society and achieving education for all (UNESCO, 1994, section 2). The
fundamental principle of the inclusive school, as proposed in the Salamanca
Statement, is that all students should learn together, where possible, and that
ordinary schools must recognize and respond to the diverse needs of their
students while also having a continuum of support and services to match those
needs. In addition, the Salamanca Conference adopted a new Framework for

17
Action. The guiding principle of the Framework for Action is that ordinary schools
should accommodate all students, regardless of their physical, intellectual, social,
emotional, linguistic or other conditions. The framework states that all
educational policies should stipulate that disabled students should attend the
local school that would be attended if the child did not have a disability.
The movement towards the integration of children with special needs in
mainstream schools has continued throughout the 1990s. The passing of the
Education Act (1998) concerning children with special needs confirmed official
policy to promote and support the integration of pupils with special needs in
mainstream schools. The philosophy of inclusion/integration is that children with
disabilities/special educational needs are entitled to the same range of
educational opportunities and experiences as their peers and should, therefore,
be educated in the same physical location. However, children with special needs
in mainstream schools will need additional support if they are to benefit from
placement in a mainstream school.
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires that before
a student can receive special education and related services for the first time, a
full and comprehensive evaluation must be conducted. Students are evaluated to
determine if they have a disability and whether because of that disability they
need specially designed services to address their educational needs. Information
that is gathered during the evaluation helps to determine the educational needs
of the student and to guide the development of an appropriate educational
program for the students.
Under the heading “Education”, Article 24 of the United Nations
International Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (December
2006) places a strong obligation on governments to provide inclusive education
for all learners. It is stated in Article 24 that with a view to realizing the right of
persons with disabilities to education without discrimination and on the basis of

18
equal opportunity, states shall ensure an inclusive, education system at all levels
and lifelong learning.
United Nations (2006) calls for a strong support on the following:
a. Persons with disabilities are not excluded from the
general education system on the basis of disability, and
that children with disabilities are not excluded from free
and compulsory primary education, or from secondary
education on the basis of disability;
b. Persons with disabilities can access an inclusive, quality,
free primary education and secondary education on an
equal basis with others in the communities in which they
live;
c. Reasonable accommodation of the individual’s
requirements is provided;
d. Persons with disabilities receive the support required,
within the general education system, to facilitate their
effective education;
e. Effective individualized support measures are provided
in environments that maximize academic and social
development, consistent with the goal of full inclusion.
Measures on Intellectual Disability
The following measures comprised the comprehensive battery:
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III (PPVT-III; Dunn & Dunn, 1997). This
refers to PPVT-III measures receptive vocabulary. The technical manual reports
reliability coefficients ranging from .91 to .98 and adequate content, criterion, and
construct validity.
The Expressive Vocabulary Test (EVT; Williams, 1997). The EVT
measures expressive vocabulary. The technical manual reports internal reliability
alphas ranging from .90 to .98 with a median of .95 and test-retest reliability
coefficients range from .77 to .90. Data on content, criterion, clinical and
construct validity are reported in the technical manual.
The Woodcock Language Proficiency Battery- Revised. (WLPB-R;
Woodcock, 1991). Memory for sentences and listening comprehension from the
language composite were included. Letter-word identification (real word reading),
word attack (nonsense word reading), and passage comprehension from the
reading composite were likewise considered. The WLPB-R has good reliability
(internal consistency ranged from .81–.92; test-retest ranged from .75 to .95).

19
Adequate content, concurrent, predictive, and construct validity data are also
reported in its technical manual.
The Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP; Wagner,
Torgesen, & Rashotte, 1999). Five subtests of the CTOPP were used: Blending
Words, Blending Non-words, Segmenting Words, Sound Matching (first sound
and last sound), and Rapid Letter Naming. The CTOPP has good reliability
(internal consistency ranged from .83 to .95; test-retest ranged from .70 to .92).
Adequate content, concurrent, predictive, and construct validity data are also
reported in its technical manual.
Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE: Torgesen, Wagner, &
Rashotte, 1999). Both subtests were administered: phonemic decoding efficiency
and sight word efficiency. Reliability coefficients are .95 and .96, respectively.
Data on content-description, concurrent, construct identification, and item validity
are reported in its technical manual.
Reading for Students with Intellectual Disabilities
Reading is defined as using skills to decode, encode and comprehend
written symbols and texts (Tarcey & Mandel, 2006). In addressing students who
question the need to learn to read, listed many valid reasons that reading is
important; these include getting a license and driving a car, going on a trip,
ordering food at a restaurant, buying something on time, getting a job, going to a
doctor, and reading instructions on medicine bottles (Mackay, 2007). Adults who
cannot read have trouble living independently and successfully. Nationally, about
14 percent of adults have below basic literacy skills; for example, they are unable
to perform simple, daily tasks that may require reading (National Center for
Education Statistics, 2013).
While not specifically referring to students with intellectual difficulties,
Calkins and Tolan (2010) noted that the demands of current technologies require
all students to develop greater literacy skills than previously. A lack of reading
limits one’s quality of life and yet only 1 in 5 students with intellectual disabilities

20
reaches minimal literacy levels. Slow development of reading skills may affect
more than just one academic subject but may also delay language acquisition,
general knowledge, vocabulary, and even social acceptance (Bradford et al.,
2006).
The development of literacy skills in elementary school can also have
long-term effects. Thus, successful early readers usually succeed academically
while those who fail to learn to read in elementary school frequently have lifelong
difficulties in learning new information (Katims, 2001).
Educators working with students with intellectual disabilities have many
reasons to include literacy instruction in their classrooms. Reading and literacy
skills are the key to accessing knowledge, gaining independence, and making
choices. With the existence of law requiring all students to have access to the
general education curriculum, reading has been part of that curriculum and it
should also be part of the curriculum for students with mild to moderate
intellectual disabilities (Houston & Torgeson, 2004).
Additionally, law requires that all students, including those with disabilities,
achieve adequate yearly progress (AYP) in grade level standards. Although
progress in meeting standards may be determined through alternative
assessments, reading is required for all students (Erickson et al., 2009). Indeed,
reading is an essential component of success in most academic subjects, and
functional literacy is needed for students with intellectual disabilities to achieve
independence (Polloway et al., 2013).
It was even questioned whether what most persons consider a functional
curriculum for students with intellectual disabilities actually helps them read with
comprehension and understanding. However, a survey of teachers of students
with intellectual disabilities and visual impairments found that although most
teachers were interested in learning more about literacy, fewer than half of the
teachers felt that reading or literacy instruction was important for all students
(Mims, Browder, Baker, Lee, & Spooner, 2009). Mims et al. (2009) suggested

21
that all students should have the opportunities to learn through literacy or
reading, even if they do not all.
Historical Approaches to Reading Instruction
for Students with Intellectual Disabilities
A review of reading studies focusing on students with intellectual
disabilities noted that although reading itself requires mastery of several related
skills, most reading instruction with intellectually disabled students focused on
sub skills of reading (Allor, Champlin, Gifford, & Mathes, 2010). Historically the
sub skill taught to students with intellectual disabilities has been sight words with
emphasis on functional words used in the home, community, or at work such as
danger, poison, men, women, stop, and walk. Reading instruction was
sometimes divided into two parts, with one focus on literacy skills and one on
sight words, presumably as a safe-guard in case the student did not learn to read
(Erickson et al., 2009).
Reading Instruction Methods in Special Education Classrooms
Studies have been important in showing that individuals with ID can grow
in isolated skills, recent studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of
instructionally comprehensive programs for individuals with below average IQs .It
was reported on the outcome of a study that evaluated the effect of an early
literacy curriculum for students who were either nonverbal or had limited
language and cognitive skills. (Allor et al., 2008).
In the introduction of curriculum progressively more difficult reading skills
and gave multiple opportunities to practice those skills before advancing to more
difficult activities and lessons. Moreover, the curriculum used direct instruction
strategies to teach phonemic blending and segmenting, abilities essential for
decoding and fully processing print, which leads to the ability to connect print with
meaning. Both the experimental group and the contrast group also participated in
literacy experiences targeting concepts of print.

22
On progress monitoring measures, statistically significant differences
between the treatment and control groups were also found for phonemic
awareness, phonemic decoding (word attack and Nonsense Word Fluency), and
oral reading fluency. Effect sizes were moderate to high for word recognition,
vocabulary, and listening comprehension as well. No differences were found in
reading comprehension. Even though student performance in these studies was
highly variable, strong conclusions can be drawn. Specifically, after its third year
of implementation, evidence supported the effectiveness of a reading program
that is comprehensive in scope, including multiple dimensions of reading
development; instruction that is intensive, repetitive and long-term; and teaching
that is explicit in nature. Understanding ways in which these conclusions
translate to classroom practices is critical for student success.
Further, students with ID require practice that is carefully designed to meet
their specific ability levels. Educators must assess frequently and provide
targeted practice. Another challenge in providing intensive practice is that
students with ID often have difficulty practicing independently, particularly in the
early stages of reading development. Support from an experienced teacher is
often needed to provide meaningful practice that targets the specific needs of
students. The purpose of this article is to describe the various strategies used in
research to intensify early literacy instruction for students with ID, including
methods for providing practice outside of teacher-led instruction. Specifically, the
following were described: (a) key factors in planning intensive instruction, (b)
general strategies for increasing intensity during teacher-led lessons, and (c)
methods for selecting and designing specific activities to increase intensity.
Comprehensive Literacy Instruction for
Students with Intellectual Disabilities
Most students with intellectual disabilities are able to read simple
connected text with meaning which was reported significant increases in several
sub skills of literacy, although not in reading comprehension measures, during
their multi-year study of primary students with moderate ID, using a

23
comprehensive approach. Oral language activities and modified teaching
techniques were added. In the sample of 28 students, students received about
40-50 minutes daily of direct instruction, trying to target big ideas in reading and
key strategies. Strands presented were concepts of print, phonological and
phonemic awareness, letter knowledge and sounds, word recognition, fluency
reading, reading comprehension, and read aloud for vocabulary and language
development. Though improvement in phonemic awareness must attended to,
but they also found improved alphabetic decoding, word recognition, oral
language skills and comprehension equally significant. Generally the students
with intellectual disabilities took twice as long to complete the lessons as other
struggling readers (Allor et al., 2010).
Legal Bases of Special Education
The foundation of today’s special education law was passed in 1975 and
enacted in 1977. This was public law 94–142, the Education for all Handicapped
Children Act of 1975 (EHA). This law introduced the concept of free appropriate
public education for children 3 to 21 years old; protecting the rights of children
with disabilities and their parents including due process rights; individualized
education program; least restricted environment; and assisting states and
localities to provide for the education of all children with disabilities through
federal funding. Furthermore, in 1986, public law 99–457 was enacted, the
‘education of the handicapped act’ amendment of 1986. This amendment saw
the need for early intervention and mandated services from birth. The
amendment required the development of a comprehensive system of early
intervention for infants.
In addition, in 1990 public law 101–476 was enacted which renamed EHA
to ‘the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act’. This law expanded the
eligibility categories to include autism and traumatic brain injuries as well as
defining assistive technology devices and services. Moreover, in 1997, public law
105–17 was enacted, the individuals with disabilities education act amendments

24
of 1997. This reauthorization of IDEA saw the initiative of transition services. It
required a transition plan to be part of Individual Education Plan (IEP) no later
than the child’s 16th birthday. Finally, the law which is followed today is the public
law 108–446 which was reauthorized in 2004, the individuals with disabilities
education improvement act of 2004 (SPED 201 Introduction to special education,
Jalotjot et al., 2011).
The first legal basis of the care and protection of children with disabilities
was enacted in 1935. Articles 356 and 259 of the Commonwealth Act no. 3203
asserted the right of every child to live in an atmosphere conducive to his
physical, moral, and intellectual development, and the concomitant duty of the
government is to promote full growth of the faculties of the every child. In
addition, Educational Act of 1982 was an act which defines the special education
of a person who are physically, mentally, emotionally and culturally different from
normal individuals, requiring modification of school practices and services to
provide the maximum of their potentialities preparing them for integration or
mainstreaming into the society and to be able to live a better life (SPED 201
introduction to special education, Jalotjot et al., 2011).
All individual including the handicapped have the inalienable right as
human beings to an education that will enable them to maximize their potential.
The Declaration of the Right of the Child adopted by the United Nations General
Assembly embodies principles affecting the handicapped.
The child shall enjoy special protection and shall be given opportunities
and facilities by law and other means to enable him to develop physically,
mentally, morally, spiritually and socially in a healthy and normal manner and in a
condition of freedom and dignity. The interest of the child shall be the paramount
consideration. The child who is physically, mentally, morally, socially
handicapped shall be given the special education and care required by his
particular condition. The child is entitled to receive education which shall be free
and compulsory at least in the elementary stage (Handbook on Special
Education Philippines, 2000).

25
On the effective instruction in all aspects of reading, materials are
expected to provide explicit and systematic instruction support in concepts of
print, phonological awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, syntax, and
fluency. These are the central components of an effective, comprehensive
reading program designed to help and develop the capacity of the learning
disability and to comprehend texts across a range of types and disciplines
(Evaluation of Instructional Materials Adopted Tool, 2008).
Inclusive education is based on the rights of all learners to a quality
education that meets basic learning needs and enriches lives. Focusing
particularly on vulnerable and marginalized groups which seek to develop the full
potential of every individual, its ultimate goal is to end all forms of discrimination
and foster social cohesion (UNESCO, 2011). On the other hand, DECS 2009,
described inclusion as the process by which a school attempts to respond to all
pupils as individuals by reconsidering its curricular organization and provision.
Through this process, the school builds capacity to accept all pupils from the
local community who wish to attend, and in so doing, reduces the need to
exclude pupils. Inclusive was further described as the inclusion of children with
disabilities such as children who have difficulties of seeing or hearing who cannot
walk, or who are slower to learn (UNESCO 2004).
Approaches in Inclusive Education
The following approaches include all practices inside the school to
promote and implement inclusive educational settings.
Main Approach or Whole School Approach refers to the regular school
that becomes self-sufficient responding to children with disabilities, the whole
school approach. The whole school approach is based on the regular school
becoming self-sufficient in responding to children with impairments. This means
the regular schools have specific materials, curriculum, specialized teachers etc,
not depending on Government, NGO’s, specials schools, and social workers.
Methods of intervention/are part of the main approach. They are divided in

26
three levels: a) management level, b) teacher level, and c) child level.
Management level refers to the Head Teacher, senior teachers, a social worker
and the individual child’s parent from the team. This model is an initiative of the
Botswana Ministry of Education. This method of intervention is a collaboration
and a good management between the different stakeholders (teachers, social
workers, parents) to assist the teacher in his work and make the information on
inclusive education more accessible. This is adaptable in a situation where there
already exists collaboration between the different stakeholders and positive
attitudes towards this.
On the other hand, the teacher level is using the spiral Capacity Building
Model/in-service programs. This method of intervention/model is multi-faceted,
involving decentralized planning which is highly flexible and contextual. It is about
short-term inside trainings for teachers at regular schools and aims to build
capacity over time, with ample opportunity for practice and feedback at the
district level. In this way, teachers are not away from their schools for long
periods and do not disrupt the regular functioning of schools. There is continuous
feedback and problem solving. Focus of this method of intervention/ model is
thus the inside school teacher trainings. This is adaptable in a situation where the
school preference is ‘training on the job’ and in a situation where there exists
high pressures for the teachers. Child level uses a child-to-child
approach/participatory learning. This means involving the children in lesson
planning and changing the role of a teacher as a facilitator of children’s learning.
This model is based on the principles that children learn better by doing (active
learning); they learn better from each other; and they can influence adults. The
six-step approach of child-to-child involves: identifying a problem; researching it;
planning for action; implementing the plan; sharing and evaluating the
experience; and doing it better. Children are encouraged to take responsibility for
including all children in classroom settings and in their communities.
This model must take in mind the differences in cultural contexts. A right
based model: Child Friendly Schools (CFS). UNICEF uses the right based model

27
of Child Friendly Schools. This method of intervention/ model has two
characteristics: 1) It is a child-seeking school. It actively identifies excluded
children to get them enrolled in school and included in learning, treating children
as subjects with rights and State as duty-bearers with obligations to fulfill these
rights, and demonstrating, promoting, and helping to monitor the rights and well -
being of all children in the community; 2) It is a child-centered school. It concerns
acting in the best interests of the child, leading to the realization of the child’s full
potential, and concerned both about the "whole" child (including her health,
nutritional status, and well-being) and about what happens to children, in their
families and communities, before they enter school and after they leave from
there.
Over the past 30 years numerous studies focused on the prevention and
correction of reading problems with students who struggle to learn to read who
do not have ID. A primary finding from this research is that intervention provided
to small groups of children in the primary grades can be highly effective in
preventing reading problems for most children and greatly reducing the depth of
reading problems for those who continue to experience difficulty, (e.g., Foorman
& Torgesen, 2001; Mathes et al., 2005; Mathes & Denton, 2002; Denton &
Mathes, 2003; National Reading Panel, 2000; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998).
Likewise, the critical content must be understood if students are to become
competent readers. Effective interventions in early reading target multiple
components of the reading process in an integrated and comprehensive manner,
including concepts of print, oral language, phonological and phonemic
awareness (PA), letter knowledge, word recognition, fluency, and comprehension
(see Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; National Reading Panel, 2000; Pressley, 1998;
Rayner, Foorman, Perfetti, Pesetsky, & Seidenberg, 2001; Snow et al., 1998).
Many children have difficulty learning to read also struggle with the development
of good oral language skills (Perfetti et al., 2005).

28
Letter knowledge and phonological processing skills as an emergent
literacy knowledge plays a crucial role in reading and writing development
(Muter, Hulmer Snowling & Stevenson, 2004; Siegel, 1993; Snow, Burns &
Griffin, 1998). One method demonstrated to be effective for students with
language delays is interactive storybook reading (Arnold & Whitehurst, 1994;
Dickinson & Smith, 1994; Karweit & Wasik, 1996; Valdez-Menchaca &
Whitehurst, 1992). Explicit instruction in basic comprehension strategies is also a
critical component of successful early reading interventions (Mathes et al., 2005).
Word recognition. According to LINCS word recognition is “the ability of a
reader to recognize written words properly and virtually effortlessly”. It is
sometimes referred to as isolated word recognition because it involves a reader’s
ability to recognize words individually from a list that is, without needed similar
words for contextual help. With little effort word recognition is the main
component of fluent reading and it can be improved by practicing with flush
cards, lists and word grids. Word recognition is important because it helps
individual to read fluently and be able to recognize word easily. For example, a
teacher may use flash cards when executing his/her lesson in order for the
students to effortlessly become familiar with them. Word recognition is also
imperative because in order for a child to develop his/her vocabulary, the child
must be able to recognize words thus enabling them to use words confidently.
(The path way to teaching and studying.)
Fluency. It is a child’s ability to read a book or other text correctly quickly,
and with expression. A fluent reader doesn’t have to stop and “decode “each
word. Rather most of the words can be read automatically. This means the
reader can focus his attention on what the story or text means. Fluency is the
bridge between decoding words and understanding what has been read.

29
Comprehension. Comprehension is one of the five key components of
essential reading instruction identified by the Natural Reading Panel (2000) that
identifies the strategies good readers use to understand (comprehend) what they
read. Comprehension involves constructing meaning from reading traditional text
in particular form (book, papers, magazine).
In intervening children with moderate ID, it is important that instruction is
provided which not only teaches the critical content of reading, but also
synthesizes what is known to be effective in teaching students with ID. For these
students, a behavioral approach appears to be most appropriate (Adams &
Engelmann, 1996; Browder et al., 2006; Joseph & Seery, 2004). The role of the
teacher in a behaviorist model is to explicitly teach content and model skills,
providing systematic review of skills and reinforcement for mastery.
Theoretical Framework
This study is mainly based on accommodation approach designed by
Richard Beach (Sternberg, 2010), who emphasized that a systematic teacher-led
instruction for students with ID requires extensive practice on critical skills to
make meaningful literacy gains. Educators must be creative and persistent as
they plan instruction and reading practice that is intense, motivating, and
meaningful. Further, educators must use on-going progress monitoring data to
ensure that Instruction and practice matches the current stage of reading
development. Such theory emphasized the mental codes that accommodate the
responses to approach that are prevalent with children with intellectual
disabilities.
The study was also supported by the strategic instruction model: how to
teach-how to learn. This model was developed for students who already have
basic decoding and recognition skills (Horowitz, 2003). The effectiveness of this
model is based on the assumptions that most adolescents (even older students
who are low achievers) can learn to function successfully and independently in
mainstream settings. The role of the strategic instructional model (SIM) will serve

30
as instrument for training teacher how to teach low achieving adolescents
strategies that will enable them to be independent learners. It is further
elaborated that the rule of the classroom content teacher is to encourage
strategic behavior and to deliver subject matter information in ways that are
understood and remembered by the students.
Moreover, this study is supported by Alternative theory, a propositional
theory of Anderson and n Brower (2003) that described images from a visual
material as mental representations which are stored rather than as images.
Conceptual Framework
Figure 1 shows the input-process-output model that significantly links the
effects of instructions and production of instructional materials for phonological
awareness and letter knowledge to the teaching models like best practices,
instructions and production. Instruction and production of instructional materials
refers to how the teachers impart knowledge and information through
instructional materials unto children with intellectual disability. Phonological
awareness refers to method in which the teachers used sounds that make up
words in spoken language to teach intellectual disabled students. Letter
knowledge refers to strategies in which teachers’ uses letters that look differently
and have names that are related to sounds to teach intellectual disabled
students.
Furthermore, best practices refer to the approaches used by the SPED
teachers in teaching reading to the intellectual disabled children. Instruction
refers to how approaches in teaching reading were being utilized by the SPED
teachers to the intellectually disabled children. Production refers to how the
teachers produce instructional materials that suit children with intellectual
disability.
The input is the process of identification of pupils and implementation of
reading program. Identification refers to the process or procedure the teachers
used to identify the students and what kind of instructional materials are needed

31
to produce to be used by the SPED teachers in teaching the intellectually
disabled children. Implementation of reading program refers to how the SPED
teachers utilized the instructional materials for phonological and letter knowledge
in teaching reading to intellectually disabled learners. The moderating variables
of the study were age and experience.
Input Process Output
Litera
Moderating Variable
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the Study
Statement of the Problem
1. What is the profile of the teachers handling pupils with ID in terms of:
a. Experiences handling pupils with ID; and
b. Age?
2. What are the practices of the teachers in teaching functional literacy to
pupils with ID in terms of:
a. Phonological awareness; and
b. Letter knowledge?
3. How do the teachers identify pupils with ID?
4. How do the teachers implement the reading program for pupils with
ID?
5. What are the issues and challenges encountered by the teacher of
pupils with ID in teaching functional literacy?
Functional Literacy
a. Phonological
awareness
b. Letter
knowledge
Identification of
pupils
Implementation
of reading
program
Best practices
 Instruction
 Production
Profile of teacher
a) Experiences handling
children with ID
b) Age

32
6. How do the best practices of the teachers handling pupils with ID in
teaching functional literacy reflect in the following:
a. Instruction; and
b. Production of instructional materials?

33
CHAPTER 2
METHOD
This chapter comprises the research design, participants, instruments,
data gathering procedure and the data analysis are discussed; and the validity
and reliability of instruments being used.
Research Design
This study made use of an evaluation of a practice or issue for better
understanding of the phenomenon to facilitate informed decision-making
(McMillan & Schumacher, 2006). This is called case study, which includes the
exploration and description of a ‘bounded system’ (Creswell, 2007). Also, this
study utilized the mixed method research design to project a more complete
picture of human behavior and experience. Bryman (2006), Miller & Gatta (2006),
and Leech & Onwuegbuzie (2009) state that mixed methods have particular
value when a researcher is trying to solve a problem in a complex context.
Purposeful sampling was used in the study to select information from
participants for the study. Careful consideration was given to each individual
teacher’s intellectual abilities, teaching technique, and geographical locale as
possible participants for the study before a selection was made in this study.
Participants
The target population consisted of three female teachers from three
different schools in Region XI using purposeful sampling in order to obtain
information-rich cases for in-depth study. The three teachers were SPED
teachers of public schools. The school purposefully chosen in the conduct
because the school has SPED center. As possible participants for the study each
individual teacher and their qualifications and teaching experiences were
considered carefully before a selection was made.

34
Instruments
Individual educational plan, observation guide, interviews, questionnaires,
phone recorder, and digital cameras were tools and instrument used in the
research.
Data Gathering Procedure
The following ethical measures were adhered to and obtained approval
(from the Department of Education and principals of the said schools) for
conducting the research using the selected teachers as respondents of the study.
The interview data were recorded with a tape recorder and later transcribed.
(See Appendix ___)
Data were collected by means of in-depth interviews held with the
teachers, individualized education program (IEP) interviews, field observations,
and a review of the K to 12 curriculum. Qualitatively, two rounds of interviews
were conducted with the sample of population. The goal of the first round of
interviews was to establish the participants’ feelings, knowledge and needs in
connection with their students with special needs. Open-ended questions were
asked for this purpose.
The second round of interviews consisted of the IEP interviews with the
goal of identifying teachers’ individual goals in terms of drawing up plans that
would support teaching reading to their students as they strive to achieve their
dreams. For these interviews one-hour written appointments were made with the
participants. (See Appendix ___ for the guide questions)

35
Chapter 3
RESUTLS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter presents the results of the study and the elements of the
discussion of the findings.
Profile of the Teachers Handling
Pupils with ID
Teacher
Background and Experience in
Handling Children with ID
Gender Age
Teacher A
 5 years in handling children with ID
 Master of Education in SPED
 BS in Elementary Education
graduate
 Trained in Reading Assessments
 Awardee of DepEd, Resource for
the Blind, and Cristoffel Blinden
Mission
 Outstanding SPED Teacher in
2013
Female
45 years
old
Teacher B
 2 years experience in handling
children with ID
 BS in Elementary Education
graduate
 Master of Education in SPED
holder
 SPED Coordinator
Female
31 years
old
Teacher C
 2 years experience in handling
students with ID
 BS in Secondary Education
graduate
 36 earned units in Master of
Education in SPED major in
Exceptional Children
 MetroBank Best Teacher Nominee
 DepEd Scholar
Female
29 years
old
Teacher A is a Bachelor of Science in Elementary Education degree
holder with 36 units earned in Master of Education in Special Education Program.
She has 18 pupils all in all, of which 13 of them are ID.
She is well-trained in Reading Assessments and has already a 5-year
experience in handling students with intellectual disability and other disabilities
which comprise of learning disability, visual impairment, autism, and ADHD in
Davao del Norte. Her quest for more knowledge and education made her to

36
always attend seminars and trainings that are relevant to her profession and
classes she handles.
She is a scholar of Department of Education (DepEd) and has received
award and certificate of recognition from DepEd, Resource for the Blind, and
Cristoffel Blinden Mission. Also, she was given an award by DepEd in Iloilo as an
outstanding SPED teacher in 2013.
Her school is situated near the city which is well known for its SPED
programs. It is considered as the SPED center in the city where many
universities and colleges send their students for practicum. Her classroom is
close to the Principal’s office. The classroom is very attractive and its setting. Her
table is situated at the entrance of the classroom with a wardrobe or cupboard for
instructional materials and books for each subject. There is also a television set
and a video player for students’ lesson. She has a seating arrangement for the
students and these students know where to sit even if they are late to the class.
The classroom is well-ventilated and air-conditioned which is very
conducive for learning. Her classroom is very neat and well-organized. She is
very respectful and hospitable. The teacher’s attitude, approach, and outlook in
the learning process of children with and without special needs in the general
education classroom play a very significant role in shaping, honing, and
determining the child’s future (Lamar-Dukes & Dukes, 2005). See Appendix
_____ for Teacher A’s Profile.
Teacher B is single, 31 years in age, and a graduate of Bachelor of
Science in Elementary Education and a Master of Education in Special Education
holder. She lives with her parents. She is the SPED Program Coordinator in one
of the elementary schools in Davao City.
She is presently handling 15 students in a class. Ten (10) of them are
boys and five (5) of them are girls. There are 10 pupils with ID. The class is
composed of two (2) ADHDs, one boy and one girl; one (1) visually impaired and
the rest are with intellectual disability. Her love for her pupils has no-bound may
be that is why her school was known as one of the best SPED Centers in the

37
region. It is known for its quality education and friendly environment for students
with special needs.
Her classroom is so unique and outstanding with pots of flower being
placed in strategic positions. Her class is divided into three areas: the first area is
where the students sit; the second area is where the parents/guardians wait; and
the third area is where she places her books and instructional materials. She is
very religious and prays before the class starts and encourages the students to
do the same at home. She is very jovial and accommodating. She inculcates the
ethical values of the Filipino culture to her students.
She is so friendly with the students. Pairing students for various tasks,
seating arrangement, and buddy system were some of the strategies employed
by the teacher in the class. She knows how to get the students’ attention and
involves repetition in her teaching method.
In the classroom, she has a special place for parents and guardians while
waiting for their children to finish class. She makes it as a part of her duty to ask
the parents or guardians about the activities of her students at home. She
encourages the parents or guardians to assist the student in doing assignments
at home. This affirms what Wiggins and Damore (2006) asserted that in order to
meet every need, strengthen every weaknesses and maximize what is left
professional collaborations should be part of the schools journey. Teacher B is
highly aware of this point, thus she has effectively managed her class.
Teacher C is single; 29 years old; and a graduate of Bachelor of Science
in Secondary Education. She has earned 36 units in Master of Education in
Special Education major Exceptional Children. She is currently teaching in one of
elementary schools–Special Education Program in Davao del Sur.
She is well-groomed and admired by other teachers. She was a nominee
for MetroBank Best Teacher Award and a DepEd scholar in their region. The
school which she is affiliated is the center in SPED Program.
Teacher C’s classroom is well-ventilated and air-conditioned and is
equipped with a television set and a CD player. Her classroom layout is very

38
conducive for learning. In general, teacher’s capacity to learn and become
accustomed to innovations can lead to students’ learning and acquaintance with
the innovations in the classrooms. In this regard, Teacher C has seen both the
means and ends of reforms movements inside her own classroom (Cohen & Hill,
2001).
Teacher C’s class is composed of 17 students: ten (10) students with
intellectual disability; one (1) student with visual impairment; two (2) students with
hearing impairment; and five (5) students with ADHD.
Tracing the background, Teacher C’s school has won many awards in the
region and in the national level. In recent SPED competition held in Sto. Tomas,
the school topped the competition.
School plays a variety of important social, custodial, and organizational
roles in communities. Also, teachers have primary obligation to help students
learn how to recognize and solve problems, comprehend new phenomena, and
construct mental models of those phenomena. On the other hand, parents must
gauge the competency of teachers based on the academic performance of their
children (Meier & Rishel, 1998).
Practices in Teaching Functional Literacy
(Phonological Awareness and Letter Knowledge)
Teacher A
Teacher A taught functional literacy in various ways. In terms of
phonological awareness, she highlighted in the interview that she uses sounds
associated with pictures and manipulative materials like educational toys. For
example, she represents an apple with apples and allows her students to listen to
a voice tape recorder with actual production of sounds produced by the teacher.
This practice concurs with phonological processing skill which form part of oral
language skills which critically lead to successful reading. It is the skill which
makes mental connection of sounds and letters (Phoneme-Grapheme
Correspondences) in a word. lt is an understanding of the phonological structure
of words consist of syllables, rhymes, and sounds (August & Shandian, 2006;

39
Carrol & Snowling, 2004). According to Teacher A, employing this practice will
enable the students to know what an apple in real-life setting is, and how to
pronounce it correctly so that when they see it in real life they will be able to
identify it. This practice is aligned with objectives of Special Education which is to
make the children independent not eternal dependent and prepare them to
develop their fullest potential.
In terms of Letter Knowledge, Teacher A uses creativity as her approach
to her students. Inside the classroom, varied instructional materials are evident
(See Photos in Appendix ____). In her actual teaching, she expressed that she
needs to be patient in teaching her students on how to identify letters and read
simple words. She is quoted as follows.
Teacher A asserted that the strategy she used is effective because it
helps the students understand better and faster, although she admitted that it
takes them a period to learn. However, Teacher A did not hold herself from
confessing during the interview a major issue and a challenge she encountered
in teaching phonological awareness and letter knowledge to her students with
disability; that is the lack of memory retention and short retention of the lesson by
the students.
A lack of reading limits one’s quality of life and yet only 1 in 5 students
with intellectual disabilities reaches minimal literacy level. Slow development of
reading skills may affect more than just one academic subject, but may also
I use the technique of showing the letters first to my students
and introduce how to write the letter. I also demonstrate to
them the easiest letter to write alphabetically in a
vertically written form. For example, letter I, L, N. And finally I
will allow the students to write in imitation on
air demonstration and execute the correct stroke on air and
as well write on paper and pencil."
They lack retention memory and they always forget the last
lesson taught in previously and this actually affects the
curriculum, school calendar, and my lesson plan.

40
delay language acquisition, general knowledge, vocabulary, and even social
acceptance (Bradford et al., 2006).
Given the opportunity to modify strategy, Teacher A expressed her
insights on how students with intellectual disability should be taught.
Teacher A’s assertion is in line with the method of stick letters. Adults who
cannot read have trouble living independently and successfully. Nationally, about
14 percent of adults have below basic skills, unable to perform simple task that
may require reading (National Center for Education Statistics, 2013).
ln terms of the production of reading materials, Teacher A expressed her
belief below:
This belief of Teacher A shows the importance of Assessment and
Individual Educational Plan for students with disabilities. This will guide the
teacher in producing the suitable instructional materials that will address the
needs of the students with disabilities.
Teacher B
Teacher B taught functional literacy in terms of phonological awareness.
She expressed in the interview that she “introduces the sound of the letters
adopted by DISTAR.”
Teacher B’s belief is in line with Ehri’s Stage Model of Reading Theory
which is based on alphabetical and phonological knowledge that requires letter
knowledge and phonological processing skills to detect phonological patterns of
words (Ehri, 1999).
Students with intellectual disability should be exposed more
on words they commonly read and see in their daily
activities. Example the signage found in the jeepney, their
home addresses and name etc. It is more of words they are
familiar to their personal activities.
I produce my own instructional material because I am the
only one who knows what my students’ wants and needs
are and what to learn and what are their weaknesses as
written from their Assessment and Individual Educational
Plan.

41
In teaching functional literacy to students with intellectual disabilities in
terms of letter knowledge, Teacher B said that “she uses flash cards and allow
the students to listen to the CD played." (See Appendix for photos)
This technique is in consistent with Creative Curriculum Method of Mighty
Minute’s Method which can be used during "in-between time of the day”. Mighty
minutes include song, chants, rhymes and games that emphasize letter
knowledge in playful and purposeful ways.
Teacher B asserted that this technique is effective because the intellectual
functionality of the students with intellectual disabilities is not automatic like
others. Thus, they need to play and sing the words and use them in stories to
develop retention and memory.
Dealing with the issues and challenges she encountered in teaching
phonological awareness and letter knowledge, she expressed that lack of
concentration and retention memory are the most evident problems. This only
shows that repetition is indeed an essential component of success in most
academic subject. Also, functional literacy is needed for students with intellectual
disabilities to achieve independence (Polloway et al., 2013).
Given the opportunity to modify strategy, Teacher B expressed her
insights on how students with intellectual disability should be taught:
Educators working with students with intellectual disabilities have many
reasons to include literacy instruction in their classrooms. Reading and literacy
skills are the key to accessing knowledge, gaining independence, and making
choices. With the existence of law requiring all students to have access to the
general education curriculum, reading has been part of that curriculum and it
should also be part of the curriculum for students with mild to moderate
intellectual disabilities (Houston & Torgeson, 2004).
I think the student has to be taught in feeding technique and
training technique using hierarchy process from intrusive to
non- intrusive approach.

42
In terms of production of instructional materials, Teacher B acknowledged
that she produced her own instructional materials.
Teacher B based on interview and observation has effectively used
assessment to ensure that the needs of her students are addressed and are
properly attended to.
Teacher C
Teacher C taught functional literacy in terms of phonological
awareness through “songs, letter sound by playing a CD and let them listen and
flashing of the alphabets." She based this method on the notion of phoneme
awareness skill which is phoneme/sound blending where learners can state what
a word is offered and pronounce its segmented sound.
For example, /s/ /a/ /t/ is the segmentation of the word sat.
Dealing with the practices in functional literacy instruction and production
of instruction materials in terms of letter knowledge, Teacher C expressed:
Teacher C’s expression corresponds with creative curriculum method that
encourages the sensory exploration because children often understand concepts
more easily when learning experiences involving multiple sense. For Teacher C,
this technique is effective because it attracts students to the topic and becomes a
memory help for them since their memory loss is associated with their disability.
In terms of problems and issues she encountered in teaching phonological
awareness and letter knowledge, she affirmed that students are easily distracted
and lack concentration.
Given the opportunity to modify strategy, Teacher C expressed her
insights on how students with intellectual disability should be taught:
l produce my own instructional materials according to the
needs of the students such as flash cards and multi-media.
I use flash cards and allow the students to listen to the music
play and letter names.
The need for picture exchange because the picture captures
their attention and last long in their memory and once they see
the picture their mind sparks to recognize that and understand
what you are saying immediately.

43
This is in line with the views of some scholars that sub-skills taught to
students with intellectual disability have sight words with emphasis on functional
words used in the home, community, or at work such as danger, poison, men,
women, stop, and walk.
Reading instruction is sometimes divided into two parts: one focusing on
literacy skills and the other on the sight words, presumably as a safeguard in
case the student did not learn to read (Erickson et al., 2009).
In terms of production of instructional materials, Teacher C explained in
the interview that she produces her own instructional materials. In her own word
she highlighted that she uses her own initiative.
This approach is supported by curriculum-based assessment that links
instruction with assessment.
The need for picture exchange because the picture
captures their attention and last long in their memory and
once they see the picture their mind sparks to recognize
that and understand what you are saying immediately.
I research in the internet, print photocopy from books color it then
cover it with plastic cellophane. Because only me know what
student want and problems.

44
Issues and Challenges Encountered by Teachers
on Students with Intellectual Disabilities
Teacher Issues and Challenges Theme
Teacher A
 Not all materials needed are provided
by the school.
Example: Headphones that will help
the ID student to produce the sound of
the letters correctly and aid them to
use the device for the phonemes
improvement are not provided.
Lack of administrative
support
 Funds are not enough to buy or
procure materials.
Lack of finance
 Parents cannot afford to buy materials
needed for their assignment.
 Absenteeism of the students affects
the production of the instructional
materials because their absences will
result to waste of materials prepared
and affect the curriculum.
Absenteeism
 Students with special needs are
susceptible to sickness; some
materials for instructional materials are
not good for their health.
Health Problem
Teacher B
 Not all materials are provided by the
school authority
Lack of administrative
support
 Inconsistency and lack of attendance
because it affects the school calendar
Absenteeism
 The student always forgets the last
lesson due to his/her disability.
Health Problem
Teacher C  There is no special fund for making of
instructional materials.
Lack of
administrative
support
Based on the tabular presentation of issues and challenges met by
Teachers in dealing with students with ID, the following observations are made:
that the most common issue or challenge they face is the lack of administrative
support, followed by health problem, absenteeism, and lastly lack of financial
support.
Special Education Act of 2008 is an act by Sen. Miriam Santiago which
stipulates the establishment of at least one (1) special education center for each
School division and at least three (3) special education centers in big school
divisions for children with special needs, guidelines for government financial
assistance and other incentives and support. This act is inconsistent to what has
been found out in this study. The study shows that teachers could not fully
implement activities or programs that will benefit the students with special needs

45
due to the apparent absence of administrative support. One reason that could
cited is the process or protocol observed by the school. On the other hand, the
government is exerting efforts gearing towards the intensification of measures to
ensure quality special education. The present time is characterized by enormous
development of information technology that somehow affects special education in
the country.
Health problem is also an issue to the teacher of students with ID. The
terms intellectual disability (ID) or people with intellectual disability are the
preferred terms widely used by government, professionals and academic
agencies to describe the group of people with cognitive impairments or
developmental delays. This resonates the health issue identified by the
respondents of this study. Students with ID due to their mental cognition
limitation could not perform or compete with the regular students in the
classroom. Thus, the teachers, though found health issue as a challenge, are
doing their best to bridge the gap that their absence in class may cause in their
academic performance, especially in the functional literacy aspect of learning.
Absenteeism and lack of financial support are among the issues that the
teachers found challenging. Absenteeism is linked to poor academic
performance. This indicates why the absence of students with ID poses a
challenge. Students with ID do not cope with lessons quickly as fast as regular
students do in the classroom. Thus, the teachers would see absenteeism as a
hindrance to developing lifelong skills such as of that under functional literacy,
the sound production awareness and letter recognition.
In general, the teachers as subjects of this study are doing a
commendable job, especially on how they deal with issues and challenges that
transpire in their respective classrooms. The teachers as respondents of this
study are teaching in different regions in Davao Region. Teacher A is teaching in
Davao del Norte; Teacher B is coping with how to keep abreast with the fast-
paced changes in Davao City; and Teacher C is teaching is Davao del Sur.

46
Best Practices of Teachers Handling Students with
Intellectual Disabilities in terms of (a) Instruction
and (b) Production of Instructional Materials
Teacher Best Practices in Handling Students with ID
Teacher A
 One-on-one coaching
 Peer tutoring
 One hour session of individual reading every day
 Using multi-sensory approach to teaching reading
and writing by Rachel Red Ampan
 Fry’s basic sight words
Teacher B
 Adoption of some approaches from DISTAR by
introducing the sound of the letters if the alphabet
on the baseline in teaching reading for students
with ID
 Constant and continuous collaborative working
with parents to follow-up from the parents with
regard to their children situation at school
Teacher C
 One hour one–on-one session introducing the
basic sight words
 1 hour 3 times a week reading
 Encouraging the Parents for follow-up at home
 Memory game
 Identifying objects
 Flashcards of pictures, letters, and basic sight
words
This study found out the best practices observed by the teachers of
students with ID. Based on the conducted interviews, classroom visitations, and
observations, the teachers delegate extra time and efforts to teach the students
with special needs like ones with ID. This is revealed through their reading
program set in the school. For example, Teacher A observes one-on-one reading
through pictures that complement the story or selection read by the students.
Through this, the students can easily understand the study through pictures. This
proves that teachers go extra mile to provide their students effective instruction.
As for the instructional materials, the teachers prepare their own IMs.
Teacher A uses Fry’s basic sight words in teaching vocabulary. She customized
the materials to address the specific learning needs in reading of students with
ID.
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires school in
the US to provide accessible versions of instructional materials to students who
are blind or otherwise unable to use printed materials. Students with disabilities

47
should receive materials in accessible formats at the same time as their peers
receive their textbooks. Accessible instructional materials afford the flexibility to
meet the needs of a broad range of students, even those without disabilities. As
for the text in electronic devices for example, all text is digital and can be read
with text-to-speech, modified with regard to font size, and navigated by unit,
chapter, section and page number (or other appropriate segments). Using multi-
sensory approach to teaching reading and writing by Rachel Red Ampan is one
of the best practices as well performed by the teachers of students with ID.
Another point made in the study is the importance of collaborative
activities between teachers, school, parents and the community as a whole.
Ebol (2012) recognized the essential role of home-based and community-
based early intervention of service delivery for students with disabilities. She
highlighted that parent-teacher consultative groups could be an ideal way to
assist schools in responding to individual educational needs of students with
disabilities.
Teacher B conducts this program in her class which has contributed to
the successful delivery of instruction. Teacher B constantly and continuously
collaborates with parents to follow-up from them their children situation at
school. This practice not just improves the quality of instruction given to the
students, but this could influence the production of instructional materials
tailored to the needs of each student with or without disability.
In conclusion, the challenges and issues that the teachers experience
and will experience in the future do not translate to incompetent classroom
management and learning facilitation. As gleaned in the findings of this
investigation, the teachers of students with ID are not afraid to innovate
means of improving the quality of education that they could deliver to their
students.
It is therefore hoped that teachers who are undergoing or facing similar
challenges like the respondents of this study do, they could still live up to their

48
commitment, that is to give their best as provider of meaningful and realistic
learnings to their students.

49
Chapter 4
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter presents the summary of findings, the derived conclusions
from the findings of the study, and the suggested recommendations.
Summary of Findings
This section presents the summary of findings. The study provided
answers to the following: The profile of the teachers handling pupils with ID in
terms of experiences handling pupils with ID and age; the practices of the
teachers in teaching functional literacy to pupils with ID in terms of phonological
awareness and letter knowledge; the identification of pupils with ID; the
implementation of the reading program for pupils with ID; the issues and
challenges encountered by the teacher of pupils with ID in teaching functional
literacy; and the best practices of the teachers handling pupils with ID in teaching
functional literacy reflect in the instruction and production of instructional
materials.
The study found out the following findings:
1. The teachers of students with ID are teaching special education for than 5
years already, earned a degree in masteral program with concentration in
special education, attended trainings/seminars relevant to special
education, and awardees of various awarding body which recognized
contributions in the field of expertise
2. Teacher A taught functional literacy in terms of phonological awareness,
by using sounds associated with pictures and manipulative materials like
educational toys, while teaches letter knowledge through the use of
creativity as her approach to her students; Teacher B teaches functional
literacy to students with intellectual disabilities in terms phonological
awareness and letter knowledge through the use of flash cards and allow
the students to listen to the CD played; Teacher C taught functional

50
literacy in terms of phonological awareness and letter knowledge through
songs and playing a CD and let them listen and flashing of the alphabets.
3. Teachers identify students with ID through assessments which include
observation, participation of the behavior in the class or during learning
activity, and developmental pediatrician reports, and individual educational
plan.
4. Teachers hold one-one-one tutorial in reading, hold an hour reading
tutorial every week, and use pictures that complement the idea of the
story.
5. Teachers found the following issues and challenges inside their
classroom: not all materials needed are provided by the school; funds are
not enough to buy or procure materials; parents cannot afford to buy
materials needed for their assignment, absenteeism of the students
affects the production of the instructional materials because their
absences will result to waste of materials prepared and affect the
curriculum; students with special needs are susceptible to sickness; some
materials for instructional materials are not good for their health;
inconsistency and lack of attendance because it affects the school
calendar; the student always forgets the last lesson due to his/her
disability; and there is no special fund for making of instructional materials.
6. Teachers do the following best practices in teaching functional literacy in
their students with ID: one-on-one coaching; peer tutoring; one hour
session of individual reading every day; using multi-sensory approach to
teaching reading and writing by Rachel Red Ampan; Fry's basic sight
words; adoption of some approaches from DISTAR by introducing the
sound of the letters if the alphabet on the baseline in teaching reading for
students with ID; constant and continuous collaborative working with
parents to follow-up from the parents with regard to their children situation
at school; 1 hour 3 times a week reading; and encouraging the parents for
follow-up at home.

51
Conclusions
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn:
1. Teachers of students with ID are teaching special education for more than
three years, have acquired relevant degree and training on teaching
special education.
2. Teachers of students with ID use integral approach in teaching functional
literacy.
3. Teachers identify students with ID through assessment and professional
evaluation.
4. Teachers of students with ID implement remedial reading sessions to
supplement the functional literacy needs of students.
5. Lack of administrative support, health problems, and lack of finance are
the common issues and challenges encountered by the teachers of
students with ID.
6. Teachers of students with ID showcase best practices in teaching
functional literacy as reflected in instruction and instructional materials
production such as one-on-one approach in teaching reading.
Recommendations
In the light of the aforementioned findings and conclusions, the
following recommendations were offered:
1. Administrators should encourage their teachers with ID students to attend
seminars/trainings that would equip them with the latest trend in special
education essential in preparing the students with special needs on the
real world.
2. Teachers of students with special needs should innovate more interesting
strategies or techniques in teaching students with disabilities for them to
participate and enjoy learning.
3. Teachers should collaborate with their guidance officer or concern local
agencies officials to update their assessment or evaluation tools in
identifying intellectual disabilities among students. Through this, the

52
school and teachers alike could customize the lesson to fit to the needs of
the students.
4. School administrators should look into the reading programs implemented
especially programs intended for the students with special needs.
5. Teachers should acknowledge and support the aid provided by various
stakeholders to promote the academic and social welfare of students with
ID.
6. Future researchers could explore studies on approaches in teaching
reading in a wider scope that may likewise contribute to the study of
special education.

Approaches in teaching reading to children with intellectual disability by Anthony Okoye

Approaches in teaching reading to children with intellectual disability by Anthony Okoye

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Similar to Approaches in teaching reading to children with intellectual disability by Anthony Okoye

Similar to Approaches in teaching reading to children with intellectual disability by Anthony Okoye (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Approaches in teaching reading to children with intellectual disability by Anthony Okoye