Capital budgeting is the process used by businesses to evaluate potential capital expenditures. It involves analyzing projects using techniques like payback period, net present value, internal rate of return, and profitability index to determine which projects to invest in. When starting a new business, entrepreneurs need to estimate capital requirements for initial costs, operational expenses, fixed assets, current assets, and living expenses to determine how much funding is needed. Careful capital budgeting and planning is important for securing necessary financing.

2.  Radio is the perfect medium for mass
communication.
 If we compare it to other mass
media, radio consistently ranks as
the most popular means of
disseminating information, regardless
of the continent.

3.  A combination of a number of
discoveries by technicians and
scientist from different countries
gave rise to the development of
wireless telegraphy and later to
Radio Broadcasting.
 It took ten years for wireless
telegraphy, to become a broadcasting
system.

4.  Broadcasting began in India with the
formation of a Private Radio service
in Madras in 1924.
 In the same year, the British Colonial
Govt. granted a license to a private
company, the Indian Broadcasting
Company, to open Radio stations in
Mumbai & Calcutta.

5.  The company went bankrupt in 1930 & the
colonial govt. took over the two
transmitters and the Department of Labor
& Industries started operating them as
the Indian State Broadcasting
Corporation.
 In 1936, the Corporation was renamed All
India Radio (AIR) & placed under the
Department of Communications.

6.  When India became independent in 1947,
AIR was made a separate Department
under the Ministry of Information &
Broadcasting.
 At independence, the Congress govt. under
the Jawaharlal Nehru had 3 major roles:
to achieve political integration, economic
development & social modernization.

7.  Radio Broadcasting is a govt. of India
monopoly under the Directorate General of
All India Radio- established in 1936 &
since 1957 also known as Akashvani.
 At the time of independence, there were
only 6 stations.

8.  Despite financial and infrastructural
constraints, the reach of the All India Radio
(AIR) is far greater than other private
channels, and it is the world's largest
network.
 AIR FM channels cover 23 per cent of the
area and 31 per cent of the population,
whereas private FM channels cover only 3.3
per cent of the area and 9.3 per cent of the
population

9.  Even after the completion of phase two,
private FM would cover only 9.0 per cent
of the area and 21 per cent of the
population.
 Moreover, private FM channels were city
centric, so the entire rural areas were
deprived of their services, and AIR was
the only radio service reaching them.

10.  At present AIR has 23 stations and 361
transmitters, which is the largest network in
the world, covering 91.42 per cent of the
population.
 There are 5 regional headquarters for AIR :
the North Zone in New Delhi; the North-East
Zone in Guwahati, Assam; the East Zone in
Calcutta; the West Zone in Mumbai & the
South Zone in Madras.

11.  After the advent of the Prasar Bharati, the huge
AIR network was increasingly being constrained in
terms of critical resources and inputs such as
programs, establishments, latest equipment and
maintenance, among others.
 These problems have arisen due to limited budget
grant and acute staff shortage, as there has not
been fresh recruitment for many years.

12.  One constraint has arisen out
of the role of AIR as public
broadcaster as it has kept away
from pure entertainment
programming, which brings hefty
amount as commercial revenue.

13.  However, the growth of radio advertising in
the current year has been projected to
exceed 50 per cent because of two factors –
social marketing and retail marketing, it said.
 AIR, which started its operations in 1927,
broadcasts in 24 languages and 146 dialects.
In External Services, it covers 27 languages
including 16 foreign and 11 Indian languages.

14. • The total number of radio sets at the
time of independence in l947 was a
mere 2,75,00O, but now-a-days Radio
& T.V. is available almost in every
house.

15.  Community radio is a type of radio service
that caters to the interests of a certain area,
broadcasting content that is popular to a local
audience but which may often be overlooked
by commercial or mass-media broadcasters.
 Modern-day community radio stations often
serve their listeners by offering a variety of
content that is not necessarily provided by
the larger commercial radio stations.

16.  Community radio outlets may carry news and
information programming geared toward the
local area, particularly immigrant or minority
groups that are poorly served by other major
media outlets. More specialized musical shows
are also often a feature of many community
radio stations.
 Community stations and pirate stations (where
they are tolerated) can be valuable assets for
a region. Community radio stations typically
avoid content found on commercial outlets.

17.  Communities are complex entities and so
what constitutes "community" in
Community radio is often a contentious and
tricky debate and will vary from country to
country. Community may also often be
replaced by a range of terms like
"alternative", "radical", or "citizen" radio.

18.  In India, the campaign to legitimize community
radio began in the mid 1990s, soon after the
Supreme Court of India ruled in its judgment of
February 1995 that "airwaves are public
property".
 This came as an inspiration to groups across the
country, but to begin with, only educational
(campus) radio stations were allowed, under
somewhat stringent conditions.

19. • Anna FM is India's first campus 'community'
radio, launched on 1 February 2004, which is
run by Education and Multimedia Research
Centre (EM²RC), and all programmes are
produced by the students of Media Sciences
at Anna University.
On 16 November 2006, the government of
India notified new Community Radio
Guidelines which permit NGOs and other civil
society organizations to own and operate
community radio stations.

20.  About 4,000 community radio licenses are on offer
across India, according to government sources.
 By 30 November 2008, the ministry of Information &
broadcasting, government of India, had received 297
applications for community radio licenses, including 141
from NGOs and other civil society organizations, 105
from educational institutions and 51 for 'farm radio'
stations to be run by agricultural universities and
agricultural extension centers ('Krishi Vigyan
Kendras').

21.  Commercial FM radio stations number in the
thousands and still are a main source of
entertainment, news, and information for
millions of listeners every week.
 Sometimes called traditional or terrestrial
radio, FM still has much to offer even with
the competition from Internet Radio,
Satellite Radio, Cell Phone Radio, and MP3
players.

22.  To provide information, education and
wholesome entertainment, keeping in view the
motto, "Bahujan Hitaya; Bahujan Sukhaya" i.e.
the benefit and happiness of large sections of
the people, and strive to :
 Uphold the unity of the country and the
democrative values enshrined in the
Constitution;

23. Present a fair and balanced
flow of information of national,
regional, local and international
interest, including contrasting
views, without advocating any
opinion or ideology of its own.

24.  Produce and transit varied programs designed
to awaken, inform, enlighten, educate,
entertain and enrich all sections of the
people, with due regard to the fact that the
national broadcast audience consists of a
whole series of public.
 Produce and transmit programs relating to
developmental activities in all their facets
including, extension work in Agriculture,
Education, Health and Family Welfare ,
Science and Technology.

25.  Serve the rural, illiterate and underprivileged
population, keeping in mind the special needs
and interests of the young, social and cultural
minorities, the tribal population, and of those
residing in border regions, backward or
remote areas.
 Promote social justice and combat
exploitation, inequality, and such evils as
untouchability and parochial loyalties.

26.  Promote the interests and concerns of the
entire nation, being mindful of the need for
harmony and understanding within the country
and ensuring that the programmes reflect the
varied elements which make up the composite
culture of India.
 Promote national integration.

30.  The goal of human resource management is to
help an organization to meet strategic goals
by attracting, and maintaining employees and
also to manage them effectively. The key
word here perhaps is "fit", i.e. a HRM
approach seeks to ensure a fit between the
management of an organization's employees,
and the overall strategic direction of the
company.

31.  Human resources management
comprises several processes. These
processes can be performed in an HR
department

32.  Workforce planning
 Recruitment (sometimes separated
into attraction and selection)
 Induction, Orientation and
Onboarding
 Skills management
 Training and development
 Personnel administration

33.  Compensation in wage or salary
 Time management
 Travel management (sometimes
assigned to accounting rather than
HRM)
 Employee benefits administration
 Personnel cost planning
 Performance appraisal

34.  Responsible for the interpretation and
application of the Staff Rules, regulations and
procedures ensuring uniform application in
accordance with guidelines from
Headquarters.
 Provides advice to staff members on specific
entitlements, taking action locally as
appropriate.
 Ascertains human resource requirements for
the office ensuring the timely advertisement
and filling of vacancies.

35.  Participates in the selection of internal
candidates and submits appropriate
recommendations; Interviews and tests new
candidates, verifying educational
qualifications and previous employment
record.
 Manages the advertisement and filling of
local vacancies, advising applicants on the
nature of the responsibilities to be
performed as well as entitlements and career
prospects.

36.  Briefs newly arrived staff on related
administrative formalities and ensures all
arrangements made for onward travel, if
applicable.
 Supervises the prompt and efficient
processing of documentation for the
arrival and departure of international
staff.

37.  Controls the maintenance of the
personnel records in the office;
Monitors the follow-up of
correspondence between each
sub/field-office and Headquarters,
ensuring that outstanding queries
receive a timely response, after due
analysis. Maintains and monitors leave
records and requests for overtime.

38.  Provides support, guidance and training to
personnel staff as required; Participates in
the review of training needs of staff making
appropriate proposals to meet identified
needs; Participates in local salary surveys.
 Represents the office individually or as part
of a team in meetings concerning personnel
issues.

39.  Negotiates staff complaints and maintains
harmonious relations with local Staff
Council.
 Performs other duties as required.
 Negotiates staff complaints and maintains
harmonious relations with local Staff
Council;
 Performs other duties as required.

41.  Capital Budgeting is a project selection
exercise performed by the business
enterprise.
 Capital budgeting uses the concept of present
value to select the projects.
 Capital budgeting uses tools such as pay back
period, net present value, internal rate of
return, profitability index to select projects.

42.  Payback Period
 Accounting Rate of Return
 Net Present Value
 Internal Rate of Return
 Profitability Index

43.  Payback period is the time duration
required to recoup the investment
committed to a project. Business
enterprises following payback period
use "stipulated payback period",
which acts as a standard for
screening the project.

44.  Accounting rate of return is the rate
arrived at by expressing the average
annual net profit (after tax) as given in
the income statement as a percentage of
the total investment or average
investment.
 The accounting rate of return is based on
accounting profits. Accounting rate of
return does find a place in business
decision making when the returns
expected are accounting profits.

45.  Net present value of an
investment/project is the difference
between present value of cash
inflows and cash outflows.
 The present values of cash flows are
obtained at a discount rate
equivalent to the cost of capital.

46.  The internal rate of return method is
also known as the yield method. The IRR
of a project/investment is defined as the
rate of discount at which the present
value of cash inflows and present value of
cash outflows are equal.
 IRR can be restated as the rate of
discount, at which the present value of
cash flow (inflows and outflows)
associated with a project equal zero.

47.  Profitability index (PI) is the ratio of
present value of cash inflows to the
present value of cash outflows.
 The present values of cash flows are
obtained at a discount rate
equivalent to the cost of capital.

49. How much money do you need for your
start-up?
 Anyone setting up a company needs to start by
investing money in the project. You can find out
how much you need to invest by planning your
capital requirement. A capital requirement plan is
a key part of every business plan.
 Entrepreneurs who have a low capital requirement
and who can therefore launch the firm without
outside capital often believe that no precise
planning is necessary, since the amounts involved
are small and can be financed from their savings.

50.  The upshot is often that there is not
enough money, and outside funding needs
to be found at short notice. But by then it
is too late for government loans to new
start-ups, which can only be applied for
before the company is founded.
 A thorough planning of the capital
requirements is therefore one of the basic
elements of every envisaged new firm. You
need to find out how much capital you
require.

51. Capital requirements prior to
start-up
 Begin with the costs which accrue during
your preparations for the launch. These
include aspects like consultancy costs,
notaries’ fees, fees for registrations and
permits. Speak to your start-up adviser
and work out together what the start-up
costs will be.

52. Capital requirements for the
initial operational phase
 How much money do you need to spend
to get your company up and running?
Make a distinction between fixed
assets, such as licences, real estate,
buildings, machinery, vehicles and office
equipment, on the one hand, and current
assets on the other.

53.  The latter are the ongoing
operational expenses for goods,
administration, distribution, staff,
etc., the cost of which you will
subsequently cover from your income.
 Since in the initial phase you will have
no or little money coming in, you will
need to provide the funding for this
initial phase in advance. Calculate a
period of four to six months for this.

54. Capital requirements to cover living
expenses
 Do not forget, if you wish to set up a
community radio station, to include in your
plans your personal expenses and your
remuneration.
 This includes all the monthly spending you
require for your private life. Calculate this
generously and take account of unforeseen
events like illness and accidents, but also
repairs to house and car.

55.  In an incorporated firm, you as the
employed director would draw a
salary. Therefore these costs should
be included as staff costs.
Establishing the level of your
personal spending thus serves as a
basis for the level of your monthly
“salary” and for safeguarding your
lifestyle.

56. Financing the capital requirement
 How much capital will your company earn to
cover the costs, and how much additional
capital will you initially have to invest in
your company?
 In order to establish this, you need to
ascertain the liquidity, i.e. the solvency of
your company. Before the launch, you must
initially estimate how high your revenues
will be in the first few months.

57. • After the launch, you then produce your
monthly liquidity plan on the basis of actual
figures. You will need your liquidity plan to
work out how much money you will be
taking in in order to finance all your costs,
including your personal expenses.
• If your costs are higher than the
revenues, you will have a shortfall and will
need to inject extra capital from outside,
i.e. either from your personal savings or
from third parties.

58. Third-party financing of capital
requirements
 If you find that you need to finance
your project not just from your own
financial assets, but also using
government assistance loans and/or
bank loans, you should work out how
high the monthly interest payments and
repayments of principal will be.

59.  In the case of government
assistance loans, the repayment of
the principal is usually delayed.
 You need to include the repayments
of interest and principal in your
planning of capital requirements.
 After all, these too are costs which
(possibly with the exception of the
repayments of principal) will be borne
by your company from day one.

60.  A business feasibility study format
can be as simple or complex as you
desire. Simply, it is an examination of
your business model. You are
checking that it is possible to make a
profit from your intended business.

61.  When considering how to write a
business feasibility study, it is
important to consider three main
areas of the business:
• market environment
• technical and operational
requirements
• financial projections

62. • The main difference between a feasibility
report and a business plan is purpose.
 Business plans are written to explain
business concepts and to show (by
producing references to relevant
research) that the concept is not only
feasible, but profitable.
 Research is produced to support claims
made in the business plan regarding a
single pre-selected business model and
concept.

63.  Feasibility Reports outline the
business concept/s (in the same way
as a scientific experiment might pose
a hypothesis), and then examines
research to determine whether in
fact there is sufficient support for
the concept or not.

64.  The report will conclude by either
accepting that the concept is
sufficiently profitable, making
recommendations for refinements in
concept in order to achieve
profitability, or concluding that the
concept is not viable, and should be
dropped.

65.  One challenge of working in account
management is that most people won't
recognize what you do from your job
title.
 Most will either make a vague comment
about how that line of work ''must be
very interesting,'' or they will completely
misunderstand what it is that you do.

66.  Some people even confuse account
managers with accountants or have the
impression that an account manger
works at a bank.
 In fact, an account manager is actually a
sort of go-between. In this position, you
are the all-important bridge between a
company's clients and its creative team.

67.  That means you'll be spending a lot
of time playing both sides of the
proverbial fence. It also means that
you are a critical component to the
success of every business
relationship that you manage.
 As a result, you'll have plenty of
responsibilities that will keep the job
from ever getting dull.

68.  For one, you would be handling much of the
business development for the company. Because
you would be a direct contact for clients, your
relationships with those clients would be a
deciding factor in whether they remain clients or
not.
 You may also be charged with searching for new
customers, including qualifying them to make sure
that they would be a good fit for the company.
 You may also have to make presentations, do
follow-ups, and handle other parts of the sales
process in order to secure relationships with new
customers.

69.  You must also be part of the project management
process. That means you will need to decide what
should be done, who will be on the teams that will
get it done, and how what needs to be done will be
paid for.
 To do this effectively, you will need to meet with
clients, determine their specific needs, and
determine a plan for how your company may be able
to help them.
 Then you must meet with your company's creative
team to find out whether or not the plan is feasible,
as well to hash out any details about deadlines and
budgets which need to be passed onto the given
client.

70.  Account Mangers work with sales,
customer services and account executives
to make sure everyone is happy and that
everything is running smoothly.
 Account Managers work with the
company's clients to ensure that the
clients' business needs are met on time
and in a satisfactory manner.

71.  This involves analyzing the client's business
operations and determining goals and the best
way to meet them. They create budgets,
forecasts and schedules to make sure that
product(s) or project(s) are ready on time.
 They may be responsible for obtaining quotes
for materials or sub-contractors. They must
manage existing clients in a manner that
grows the business.

72.  Like all managers, Account Managers
must have good leadership and
management skills. They need to be
organized and efficient.
 They must have the aptitude to build
and sustain strong relationships with
customers. However, they also need
other abilities.

73.  An Account Manager needs to be:
• Good communicator
• Detail-oriented
• Responsible
• Self-motivated
• Computer savvy
• Independent
• Professional
• Trustworthy and reliable

74.  Employees’ State Insurance Act, 1948
 Employees’ Provident Fund & Miscellaneous
Provisions Act, 1952
 Employees’ Pension Scheme, 1995
 Dangerous Operations Under Maharashtra
Factories Rule 114,Framed under Section 87
of The F.A. 1948

75.  Bombay Shops & Establishment Act, 1948
 The Mumbai Labour Welfare Fund Act, 1953
 Payment of Bonus Act, 1965
 Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972
 Workmen's Compensation Act, 1923
 Payment of Wages Act, 1936
 Liabilities of Directors and officers of
Companies 24

76.  Broadcast engineering is the field of electrical
engineering, and now to some extent computer
engineering and information technology, which
deals with radio and television broadcasting.
 Audio engineering and is also essential part of
broadcast engineering, being their own subsets
of electrical engineering.
 Broadcast engineering involves both the studio
end and the transmitter end (the entire
airchain), as well as remote broadcasts.

77.  Every station has a broadcast
engineer, though one may now serve
an entire station group in a city, or
be a contract engineer who
essentially freelances his services to
several stations (often in small media
markets) as needed.