This document outlines the quantitative research process in 8 stages: 1) selecting a topic, 2) reviewing literature, 3) developing theoretical frameworks, 4) clarifying research questions, 5) designing the study, 6) collecting data, 7) analyzing data, and 8) drawing conclusions. It describes key aspects of each stage and different quantitative approaches including experimental, correlational, survey, ex post facto, and single-case designs. The objective of quantitative research is to develop mathematical models of natural phenomena by measuring relationships between data and observations.

1. Quantitative Research
Design
Prepared by
Sarah Sinks
Imam Wahyudi

2. Quantitative Research
Systematic scientific investigation of data
and their relationships.

3. Overview of Quantitative
research
• The objective of quantitative research is to
develop and employ mathematical
models, theories and hypotheses
pertaining to natural phenomena.
• Measuring is key in quantitative research
because it shows the relationship between
data and observation.

4. THE RESEARCH PROCESS
• 1. Selection of topic
• 
• 2. Reviewing the literature
• 
• 3. Development of theoretical and conceptual frameworks
• 
• 4. Clarification of research question/hypothesis
• 
• 5. Research design
• 
• 6. Data collection
• 
• 7. Data analysis
• 
• 8. Drawing conclusions

5. STAGE 1
SELECTION OF TOPIC
1.A crucial stage, as an inappropriate topic or
question will often lead to irretrievable
difficulties later in the research.
2.It is unlikely that you will develop a final
question and set of objectives at this stage
of the research process, and stages 2 and
3 are important in developing and
assessing your question more fully.

6. STAGE 2
REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
• A literature review essentially consists of
critically reading, evaluating and
organising existing literature on the topic
to assess the state of knowledge in the
area.
• During this stage you should aim to
become an ‘expert’ in your field of
research.

7. STAGE 3
DEVELOPMENT OF THEORETICAL AND
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS
• As you read the literature, you should be continually
developing and refining your theoretical and conceptual
frameworks.
• Your theoretical framework refers to the underlying
theoretical approach that you adopt to underpin your study.
• The conceptual framework defines and organises the
concepts important within your study.

8. STAGE 4
CLARIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH
QUESTION
Initial research questions are chosen, investigated and
often rejected for a number of reasons, for example:
• The question lacks sufficient focus.
• The conceptual framework has identified problems in
either defining and/or measuring the appropriate concepts.
• There are too many moderating or intervening variables.
• The project is unfeasible in terms of complexity, access,
facilities or resources.

9. STAGE 5
RESEARCH DESIGN
• What data do I need to collect to answer this question?
• What is the best way to collect this data?
• What overall research design should I use? For example,
a cross-sectional, experimental or longitudinal design?
• Will I need to collect primary or secondary data?
• What methods, for example interviews, questionnaire
surveys and so on, will be best to collect the primary data?

10. STAGE 6
DATA COLLECTION
You have to consider
• which methodology to choose, and
• which methods to utilise.
•Who should participate in the research?
•How will I gain access to them?
•What are the exact procedures that I should adopt in my
data collection to ensure reliability and validity?
•Are there any ethical issues associated with the research?

11. STAGE 7
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF
THE FINDINGS
1. The data you collect in stage 6 needs to be analysed to
provide answers to your research question.
2. In your discussion of the results, reference should also
be made back to the literature reviewed in stage 2, for
example
How do the findings add to this literature?
Do they support the literature?
If not, what are the possible reasons why?

12. STAGE 8
DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
• Conclusions should relate back to the
focused research question.
• You can evaluate how successful you
have been in achieving your research
objectives, and highlight the strengths and
weaknesses of the research.
• You may also want to make
recommendations for further research.

13. TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH

14. 1. Experimental Research Approach 
Intervention research that explaining
whether an intervention influences an
outcome for one group as opposed to
another group. This is called between
subject approach
2. Correlational approach  Associating
or relating variables in a predictable
pattern for one group of individuals
3. Survey Approach  Describing trends
for the population of people

15. Survey Research Approach
1. Cross sectional survey
Observational surveys conducted in situations where
the researcher intends to collect data from a sample
of the target population at a given point in time.
Disadvantage of cross-sectional surveys is that the
cause-effect relationship of variables cannot be
established as it usually evaluates variables at a
particular time and not across a continuous time
frame.

16. Survey Research Approach
2. Longitudinal survey
Unlike cross-sectional surveys, surveys are
conducted across various time durations to observe
a change in respondent behavior and thought-
processes.
When there are research subjects that need to be
thoroughly inspected before concluding, they rely on
longitudinal surveys.
It is usually used in medicine and applied sciences

17. Correlational Research
Approach
• To find if the data has an observable
relationship that can be further specified
in terms of magnitude and/or an increase
or decrease.

18. Characteristics of Correlational
Research
• Correlation indicates the strength and
direction of a linear relationship between
variables.

19. Correlation and Significance
• Is there a relationship
between two
variables/data?
• What is the direction
of the relationship?
• What is the
magnitude?
• These relationships
may show any
tendency for the
variables to vary
consistently.
• Pearson’s product
moment coefficient
correlation: -1.0 to
+1.0

20. Ex Post Facto
‘from what is done afterwards’

21. What is Ex Post Facto
• Studies that investigate possible cause
and effect relationships by observing an
existing condition or state of affairs and
searching back in time for plausible causal
factors.

22. Characteristics of Ex Post
Facto
• Researcher takes the effect/dependent
variable and examines it retrospectively
• Establishes causes, relationships or
associations and their meanings.
• Researcher has little to or no control over
independent variables.
• Flexible by nature.

23. When to use this?
• You can use this when:
1. more powerful experimental designs are
not possible;
2.when you are unable to select, control and
manipulate the factors necessary to study
cause and effect relationships directly, or
when control variables except a single
independent variable may be unrealistic
and artificial.

24. Ex post facto advantages and
disadvantages
Advantages
• Show a correlation where
more rigorous
experimentation is not
possible
• Exploratory tool
• Useful to avoid articiality
in the research.
• Shows cause and effect
relationships
Disadvantages
• Lack of control for
independent variable and
randomizing subjects.
• Never certain if causative
factor has been included
or identified
• Relationship between two
factors does not establish
cause and effect.
• May be regarded as too
flexible.

25. Experimental Research
• Research in which the investigator
deliberately controls and manipulates the
independent variable to observe the effect
of that change on another the dependent
variable.

26. How and when to use
Experimental Research
• Most commonly used in physical sciences
and educational research
• You vary the independent variable and
look for the effect it has on the dependent
variable.

27. How and When to use Quasi-
experimental research
• Used when you have control over the
“when and the whom of measurement”,
but lack control over the “when and to
whom of exposure.”
• Common in management accounting
research.

28. How and when to use Single
Case research
• Process of continuous assessment of
some aspect of human behavior over a
period of time.
• Involves “intervention effects”, that are
replicated in the same subject(s) over
time.
• Used in many fields including psychology,
nursing studies, education and social
work.

29. Useful Terms
• Correlation- Indicates the strength and direction
of a linear relationship between two random
variables.
• Ex post facto- from the Latin for "from
something done afterward"
• Quasi- the prefix 'quasi' denotes methods that
are "almost" or "socially approximate"
• Variable- a measurable factor, characteristic, or
attribute of an individual or a system

30. References
• Research Methods in Education 5th
Edition, Louis Cohen, Lawrence, Manion
and Keith Morrison 2004, New York
• Creswell, J.W. Research Design. 2009