The document discusses different types of pyrometers used to measure temperature through non-contact methods. It describes manually operated pyrometers like disappearing filament pyrometers and two-color pyrometers that use an observer's eye for comparison. It also discusses automatic pyrometers that use optical systems, radiation detectors like thermopiles and photoelectric detectors, and can measure total radiation, two wavelengths, or multiple wavelengths to determine temperature. Automatic pyrometers can measure rapidly changing temperatures and are replacing manually operated pyrometers.
1) The document discusses a student project on the preparation and study of transparent concrete.
2) Transparent concrete is made by replacing aggregates with transparent materials like optical fibers or resins to allow light transmission.
3) The project aims to prepare transparent concrete samples and test their physical and structural properties like compressive strength and transparency.
Nhận viết luận văn đại học, thạc sĩ trọn gói, chất lượng, LH ZALO=>0909232620
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Download luận văn khóa luận tốt nghiệp ngành hóa vô cơ với đề tài: Tổng hợp chất màu nâu trên nền mạng tinh thể spinel, cho các bạn làm luận văn tham khảo
Download luận văn thạc sĩ ngành vật lý học với đề tài: Nghiên cứu chế tạo vật liệu TiO2 có cấu trúc dạng cột nano để sử dụng làm điện cực cho pin mặt trời, cho các bạn làm luận văn tham khảo
This document provides information about pigments, including:
- Pigments are insoluble coloring substances that are used to color materials without chemically bonding to them.
- Organic pigments include azo, polycyclic, and phthalocyanine pigments. Inorganic pigments include titanium dioxide, iron oxides, cadmium and chromium pigments.
- Pigments are used to color fabrics, leather, paper, plastics, paints and other materials. They provide properties like color strength, light fastness and weather resistance.
Nhận viết luận văn Đại học , thạc sĩ - Zalo: 0917.193.864
Tham khảo bảng giá dịch vụ viết bài tại: vietbaocaothuctap.net
Download luận án tóm tắt ngành hóa vô cơ với đề tài: Nghiên cứu tổng hợp vật liệu nano hệ ZnO pha tạp Mn, Ce, C và đánh giá khả năng quang oxi hóa của chúng, cho các bạn làm luận án tham khảo
Cách điện, cách âm tốt và tổng hợp những ưu điểm của cả nhựa và kim loại nên nhựa Composite đang dần thay thế các loại vật liệu khác trong xây dựng và công nghiệp
1) The document discusses a student project on the preparation and study of transparent concrete.
2) Transparent concrete is made by replacing aggregates with transparent materials like optical fibers or resins to allow light transmission.
3) The project aims to prepare transparent concrete samples and test their physical and structural properties like compressive strength and transparency.
Nhận viết luận văn đại học, thạc sĩ trọn gói, chất lượng, LH ZALO=>0909232620
Tham khảo dịch vụ, bảng giá tại: https://vietbaitotnghiep.com/dich-vu-viet-thue-luan-van
Download luận văn khóa luận tốt nghiệp ngành hóa vô cơ với đề tài: Tổng hợp chất màu nâu trên nền mạng tinh thể spinel, cho các bạn làm luận văn tham khảo
Download luận văn thạc sĩ ngành vật lý học với đề tài: Nghiên cứu chế tạo vật liệu TiO2 có cấu trúc dạng cột nano để sử dụng làm điện cực cho pin mặt trời, cho các bạn làm luận văn tham khảo
This document provides information about pigments, including:
- Pigments are insoluble coloring substances that are used to color materials without chemically bonding to them.
- Organic pigments include azo, polycyclic, and phthalocyanine pigments. Inorganic pigments include titanium dioxide, iron oxides, cadmium and chromium pigments.
- Pigments are used to color fabrics, leather, paper, plastics, paints and other materials. They provide properties like color strength, light fastness and weather resistance.
Nhận viết luận văn Đại học , thạc sĩ - Zalo: 0917.193.864
Tham khảo bảng giá dịch vụ viết bài tại: vietbaocaothuctap.net
Download luận án tóm tắt ngành hóa vô cơ với đề tài: Nghiên cứu tổng hợp vật liệu nano hệ ZnO pha tạp Mn, Ce, C và đánh giá khả năng quang oxi hóa của chúng, cho các bạn làm luận án tham khảo
Cách điện, cách âm tốt và tổng hợp những ưu điểm của cả nhựa và kim loại nên nhựa Composite đang dần thay thế các loại vật liệu khác trong xây dựng và công nghiệp
The document discusses different types of dyes used in industry, their environmental impacts, and potential solutions. It outlines various dye categories including natural, synthetic, food, and organic dyes. Dye production and use leads to air and water pollution through emissions and wastewater. Dyes can remain in the environment for a long time and are toxic, carcinogenic, and negatively impact aquatic life. Potential health impacts on dye workers include respiratory issues and cancer. The conclusion suggests developing more efficient dyes that use less water and moving dye production to reduce environmental rule violations.
Nhận viết luận văn Đại học , thạc sĩ - Zalo: 0917.193.864
Tham khảo bảng giá dịch vụ viết bài tại: vietbaocaothuctap.net
Download luận án tiến sĩ ngành kim loại với đề tài: Nghiên cứu chế tạo và đặc trưng tính chất của màng phủ nitrua trên nền hợp kim cứng WC-Co bằng phương pháp phún xạ magnetron
1) Atmospheric CO2 levels have risen from 280 ppm pre-industrially to over 410 ppm currently due to emissions from fossil fuel combustion and respiration. Maximum safe levels are believed to be 450 ppm or less to avoid worst effects of global warming and ocean acidification.
2) The document discusses strategies for converting CO2 into useful products like dimethyl carbonate (DMC), formic acid and methanol. It outlines more sustainable routes for producing these chemicals directly from CO2 rather than traditional methods that rely on other carbon sources.
3) Specifically, it presents a method for continuously producing pure formic acid by hydrogenating supercritical CO2 with an immobilized catalyst and base, avoiding high
Activated carbon is a form of carbon processed to increase its surface area for adsorption. It has micro-pores that adsorb substances via Van der Waals forces. Activated carbon is made from materials like wood and coal. It has a wide range of applications including water treatment, food processing, and gas storage. Carbon nanotubes are also being investigated as catalyst supports due to their strength, conductivity, and adsorption properties.
Download luận văn đồ án tốt nghiệp ngành kĩ thuật môi trường với đề tài: Khảo sát thực trạng môi trường và công nghệ tái chế nhựa thải tại Phường Tràng Minh – Kiến An – Hải Phòng
This lesson highlights the classification of the engineering materials and their processing techniques. The engineering materials can broadly be classified as:
a) Ferrous Metals
b) Non-ferrous Metals (aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium)
c) Plastics (thermoplastics, thermosets)
d) Ceramics and Diamond
e) Composite Materials & f) Nano-materials.
The engineering materials are often primarily selected based on their mechanical, physical, chemical and manufacturing properties. The secondary factors to be considered are the cost and availability, appearance, service life and recyclability.
Nhận viết luận văn Đại học , thạc sĩ - Zalo: 0917.193.864
Tham khảo bảng giá dịch vụ viết bài tại: vietbaocaothuctap.net
Download luận văn thạc sĩ ngành vật lí chất rắn với đề tài: Chế tạo và nghiên cứu vật liệu keo zno bằng phương pháp thủy nhiệt, cho các bạn làm luận văn tham khảo
Synthesis and Characterisation of Copper Oxide nanoparticlesIOSR Journals
Cupric oxide (CuO) nanoparticles were prepared by the chemical route by calcinations at a higher temperature from 300oC to 400 oC. For the comparison transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and x-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements were made through JCPDS. There is good agreement between data produced by spectroscopy and the microscopic measurements.
This document summarizes information about black carbon:
- Black carbon is a product of incomplete combustion that is produced from biomass burning, residential cooking, and diesel engines. It causes warming by absorbing heat and reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice.
- The top emitting regions are East Asia, South America, and Western Africa. Residential cooking and open agricultural burning are the largest contributors globally.
- Reducing black carbon emissions through cleaner cookstoves, diesel filters, banning agricultural burning, and other measures could slow near-term warming by 0.1-0.2 degrees Celsius and prevent millions of premature deaths.
Download luận văn thạc sĩ ngành vật lí chất rắn với đề tài: Nghiên cứu tổng hợp vật liệu quang xúc tác trên cơ sở TiO2 và vật liệu khung cơ kim (MOF), cho các bạn làm luận văn tham khảo
This document discusses the properties and applications of graphene. Graphene is a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice. It is the strongest and thinnest material known. Graphene was first isolated in 2004 by Geim and Novoselov at the University of Manchester. Graphene has high electrical conductivity, is very strong yet light, and is an excellent conductor of heat. Potential applications of graphene include use in bendable mobile device screens, drug delivery systems, batteries, solar cells, desalination, pollution removal, and aircraft design. Graphene derivatives also show promise as photocatalysts. The document concludes that graphene's potential applications are limited only by imagination.
The document discusses the properties and applications of graphene. It begins by describing graphene as a one-atom thick sheet of carbon atoms that is the strongest and most conductive material. It then provides details on graphene's structure, properties such as self-repairing abilities, and production methods like mechanical exfoliation. The document concludes by outlining several potential applications of graphene, including use in bioengineering devices, optoelectronics like touch screens, ultrafiltration, composite materials, photovoltaics, energy storage, and nanotechnology.
This document discusses the production of activated carbon from natural sources. It begins with an introduction and overview of activated carbon and its properties and applications. It then describes the key steps in production which include carbonization at 250-700°C to produce char, followed by activation at higher temperatures of 900-1100°C using either steam or chemical activation methods. The document provides details on factors that affect the quality of activated carbon produced, such as activation time and temperature. It concludes with a case study on producing activated carbon from coconut shell, palm kernel shell, and maize husk using charring followed by chemical activation with phosphoric acid.
Graphene based metal oxide nanocompocites for heavy metals remediation in waterSifiso Themba Shongwe
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on graphene-based metal oxide nanocomposites for heavy metal remediation in water. It begins with an introduction to graphene and its properties, followed by an overview of synthesizing graphene, metal oxides, and graphene-metal oxide nanocomposites. Characterization techniques are then discussed. The document focuses on using graphene-metal oxide nanocomposites to remove heavy metals from water, referencing several studies demonstrating removal of arsenic. It concludes that these low-cost nanocomposites show potential for efficient heavy metal remediation in water.
The document summarizes research on using surfactant-modified chitosan beads to adsorb Cd2+ and Pb2+ from wastewater. Key findings include:
- Surfactant modification of chitosan beads significantly improved their adsorption capacity for Cd2+ compared to unmodified beads. Maximum adsorption was over 100 mg/g for Cd2+ onto modified beads, compared to under 30 mg/g for unmodified beads.
- Kinetic studies showed Cd2+ adsorption onto modified beads followed pseudo-second order kinetics and reached equilibrium within 6 hours. Higher initial Cd2+ concentration resulted in higher adsorption but lower removal percentage.
- The surfactant-modified ch
Nanotechnology allows for the conversion of carbon dioxide into usable fuel. Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere are rising at 2.2 parts per million per year and are projected to exceed 400 parts per million in 2016. Nanoporous membranes and metal organic frameworks can be used to capture carbon dioxide through thermodynamic potentials and porous crystalline structures, respectively. The captured carbon dioxide can then be converted into methane fuel using nanosized catalysts at low temperatures and pressures or through titania nanotubes and a co-catalyst using sunlight. The resulting methane fuel provides a safe and transportable energy storage medium and feedstock.
Thermal detectors like thermocouples, bolometers, and Golay cells are used to detect infrared radiation. Thermocouples produce a small voltage proportional to temperature when two dissimilar metals are joined. Bolometers have an absorptive element whose resistance changes with temperature when exposed to IR radiation. Golay cells contain a gas-filled chamber where gas pressure rises when heated, deforming a flexible diaphragm. Infrared spectroscopy is widely used for structure elucidation, identification of substances and functional groups, studying reaction progress, detection of impurities, and quantitative analysis.
A pyrometer is a non-contact device that measures the surface temperature of an object by detecting the thermal radiation it emits. Modern pyrometers became available in 1901 with the development of the disappearing filament pyrometer. Issues with early pyrometers relying on emissivity led to the development of ratio or two-color pyrometers. There are different types of pyrometers including optical, radiation, digital, and infrared pyrometers that use various detectors like thermopiles, photocells, bolometers, and thermistors. Pyrometers are useful for measuring temperatures of moving or inaccessible objects and are widely used in industries like smelting, heat treatment, and steam boilers.
The document discusses different types of dyes used in industry, their environmental impacts, and potential solutions. It outlines various dye categories including natural, synthetic, food, and organic dyes. Dye production and use leads to air and water pollution through emissions and wastewater. Dyes can remain in the environment for a long time and are toxic, carcinogenic, and negatively impact aquatic life. Potential health impacts on dye workers include respiratory issues and cancer. The conclusion suggests developing more efficient dyes that use less water and moving dye production to reduce environmental rule violations.
Nhận viết luận văn Đại học , thạc sĩ - Zalo: 0917.193.864
Tham khảo bảng giá dịch vụ viết bài tại: vietbaocaothuctap.net
Download luận án tiến sĩ ngành kim loại với đề tài: Nghiên cứu chế tạo và đặc trưng tính chất của màng phủ nitrua trên nền hợp kim cứng WC-Co bằng phương pháp phún xạ magnetron
1) Atmospheric CO2 levels have risen from 280 ppm pre-industrially to over 410 ppm currently due to emissions from fossil fuel combustion and respiration. Maximum safe levels are believed to be 450 ppm or less to avoid worst effects of global warming and ocean acidification.
2) The document discusses strategies for converting CO2 into useful products like dimethyl carbonate (DMC), formic acid and methanol. It outlines more sustainable routes for producing these chemicals directly from CO2 rather than traditional methods that rely on other carbon sources.
3) Specifically, it presents a method for continuously producing pure formic acid by hydrogenating supercritical CO2 with an immobilized catalyst and base, avoiding high
Activated carbon is a form of carbon processed to increase its surface area for adsorption. It has micro-pores that adsorb substances via Van der Waals forces. Activated carbon is made from materials like wood and coal. It has a wide range of applications including water treatment, food processing, and gas storage. Carbon nanotubes are also being investigated as catalyst supports due to their strength, conductivity, and adsorption properties.
Download luận văn đồ án tốt nghiệp ngành kĩ thuật môi trường với đề tài: Khảo sát thực trạng môi trường và công nghệ tái chế nhựa thải tại Phường Tràng Minh – Kiến An – Hải Phòng
This lesson highlights the classification of the engineering materials and their processing techniques. The engineering materials can broadly be classified as:
a) Ferrous Metals
b) Non-ferrous Metals (aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium)
c) Plastics (thermoplastics, thermosets)
d) Ceramics and Diamond
e) Composite Materials & f) Nano-materials.
The engineering materials are often primarily selected based on their mechanical, physical, chemical and manufacturing properties. The secondary factors to be considered are the cost and availability, appearance, service life and recyclability.
Nhận viết luận văn Đại học , thạc sĩ - Zalo: 0917.193.864
Tham khảo bảng giá dịch vụ viết bài tại: vietbaocaothuctap.net
Download luận văn thạc sĩ ngành vật lí chất rắn với đề tài: Chế tạo và nghiên cứu vật liệu keo zno bằng phương pháp thủy nhiệt, cho các bạn làm luận văn tham khảo
Synthesis and Characterisation of Copper Oxide nanoparticlesIOSR Journals
Cupric oxide (CuO) nanoparticles were prepared by the chemical route by calcinations at a higher temperature from 300oC to 400 oC. For the comparison transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and x-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements were made through JCPDS. There is good agreement between data produced by spectroscopy and the microscopic measurements.
This document summarizes information about black carbon:
- Black carbon is a product of incomplete combustion that is produced from biomass burning, residential cooking, and diesel engines. It causes warming by absorbing heat and reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice.
- The top emitting regions are East Asia, South America, and Western Africa. Residential cooking and open agricultural burning are the largest contributors globally.
- Reducing black carbon emissions through cleaner cookstoves, diesel filters, banning agricultural burning, and other measures could slow near-term warming by 0.1-0.2 degrees Celsius and prevent millions of premature deaths.
Download luận văn thạc sĩ ngành vật lí chất rắn với đề tài: Nghiên cứu tổng hợp vật liệu quang xúc tác trên cơ sở TiO2 và vật liệu khung cơ kim (MOF), cho các bạn làm luận văn tham khảo
This document discusses the properties and applications of graphene. Graphene is a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice. It is the strongest and thinnest material known. Graphene was first isolated in 2004 by Geim and Novoselov at the University of Manchester. Graphene has high electrical conductivity, is very strong yet light, and is an excellent conductor of heat. Potential applications of graphene include use in bendable mobile device screens, drug delivery systems, batteries, solar cells, desalination, pollution removal, and aircraft design. Graphene derivatives also show promise as photocatalysts. The document concludes that graphene's potential applications are limited only by imagination.
The document discusses the properties and applications of graphene. It begins by describing graphene as a one-atom thick sheet of carbon atoms that is the strongest and most conductive material. It then provides details on graphene's structure, properties such as self-repairing abilities, and production methods like mechanical exfoliation. The document concludes by outlining several potential applications of graphene, including use in bioengineering devices, optoelectronics like touch screens, ultrafiltration, composite materials, photovoltaics, energy storage, and nanotechnology.
This document discusses the production of activated carbon from natural sources. It begins with an introduction and overview of activated carbon and its properties and applications. It then describes the key steps in production which include carbonization at 250-700°C to produce char, followed by activation at higher temperatures of 900-1100°C using either steam or chemical activation methods. The document provides details on factors that affect the quality of activated carbon produced, such as activation time and temperature. It concludes with a case study on producing activated carbon from coconut shell, palm kernel shell, and maize husk using charring followed by chemical activation with phosphoric acid.
Graphene based metal oxide nanocompocites for heavy metals remediation in waterSifiso Themba Shongwe
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on graphene-based metal oxide nanocomposites for heavy metal remediation in water. It begins with an introduction to graphene and its properties, followed by an overview of synthesizing graphene, metal oxides, and graphene-metal oxide nanocomposites. Characterization techniques are then discussed. The document focuses on using graphene-metal oxide nanocomposites to remove heavy metals from water, referencing several studies demonstrating removal of arsenic. It concludes that these low-cost nanocomposites show potential for efficient heavy metal remediation in water.
The document summarizes research on using surfactant-modified chitosan beads to adsorb Cd2+ and Pb2+ from wastewater. Key findings include:
- Surfactant modification of chitosan beads significantly improved their adsorption capacity for Cd2+ compared to unmodified beads. Maximum adsorption was over 100 mg/g for Cd2+ onto modified beads, compared to under 30 mg/g for unmodified beads.
- Kinetic studies showed Cd2+ adsorption onto modified beads followed pseudo-second order kinetics and reached equilibrium within 6 hours. Higher initial Cd2+ concentration resulted in higher adsorption but lower removal percentage.
- The surfactant-modified ch
Nanotechnology allows for the conversion of carbon dioxide into usable fuel. Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere are rising at 2.2 parts per million per year and are projected to exceed 400 parts per million in 2016. Nanoporous membranes and metal organic frameworks can be used to capture carbon dioxide through thermodynamic potentials and porous crystalline structures, respectively. The captured carbon dioxide can then be converted into methane fuel using nanosized catalysts at low temperatures and pressures or through titania nanotubes and a co-catalyst using sunlight. The resulting methane fuel provides a safe and transportable energy storage medium and feedstock.
Thermal detectors like thermocouples, bolometers, and Golay cells are used to detect infrared radiation. Thermocouples produce a small voltage proportional to temperature when two dissimilar metals are joined. Bolometers have an absorptive element whose resistance changes with temperature when exposed to IR radiation. Golay cells contain a gas-filled chamber where gas pressure rises when heated, deforming a flexible diaphragm. Infrared spectroscopy is widely used for structure elucidation, identification of substances and functional groups, studying reaction progress, detection of impurities, and quantitative analysis.
A pyrometer is a non-contact device that measures the surface temperature of an object by detecting the thermal radiation it emits. Modern pyrometers became available in 1901 with the development of the disappearing filament pyrometer. Issues with early pyrometers relying on emissivity led to the development of ratio or two-color pyrometers. There are different types of pyrometers including optical, radiation, digital, and infrared pyrometers that use various detectors like thermopiles, photocells, bolometers, and thermistors. Pyrometers are useful for measuring temperatures of moving or inaccessible objects and are widely used in industries like smelting, heat treatment, and steam boilers.
Ir spectroscopy nd its applications copykeshav pai
Infrared spectroscopy is a technique that analyzes infrared light interacting with molecules. It can be used to identify unknown substances by comparing their infrared spectra to a reference database. The technique works because molecules absorb different wavelengths of infrared light depending on their chemical bonds and structure. Common applications of infrared spectroscopy include identification of materials, detection of impurities, and studying the progress of chemical reactions.
Infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy) is the spectroscopy that deals with the infrared
region of the electromagnetic spectrum, that is light with a longer wavelength and
lower frequency than visible light.
Infrared Spectroscopy is the analysis of infrared light interacting with a molecule.
A pyrometer is a device used to measure high temperatures by detecting thermal radiation emitted from an object's surface. The first pyrometer was invented by Josiah Wedgwood to measure temperatures in his kilns. Modern pyrometers work by focusing thermal radiation onto a detector, and the detector's output signal is related to the object's temperature through Stefan-Boltzmann law. There are two main types of pyrometers: optical pyrometers which use manual measurements by comparing an object's brightness to a calibrated lamp, and radiation pyrometers which can measure higher temperatures by detecting infrared wavelengths between 0.7-20 microns.
There are three main types of radiation detectors: gas-filled detectors which use a gas between electrodes, scintillation detectors which use materials that produce light when irradiated, and semiconductor detectors made of purified crystalline materials. Detectors can also be classified by the type of information they provide, such as counting interactions, measuring energy, or indicating dose. The main challenges for detectors are dead time at high interaction rates and maintaining good energy resolution and detection efficiency.
This document provides an overview of infrared spectroscopy (IR) and its applications. It discusses the IR regions, the principles of IR which involve molecular vibrations and interactions with IR radiation. It describes fundamental vibrations such as stretching and bending, and instrumentation used including sources, sample handling, and detectors. Fourier transform IR is highlighted as a preferred method. Applications include detection of impurities, protein quantification, forensic analysis, and studying reaction progress and molecular structure identification.
Infrared & Thermal Testing
Infra- is a Latin word means Below / Beyond.
Infrared (IR) is the Electromagnetic spectrum / radiation of a wavelength longer than visible light but shorter than microwave. Radiation having a wavelength between 700 nm and 1 mm.
This document summarizes various methods of fire detection, including smoke, flame, and heat detection. It describes the phases of fire and how different sensor types detect fires at different phases. Smoke detectors use ionization chambers or photoelectric sensors. Flame detectors use spectral analysis to detect flickering frequencies unique to flames. Heat detectors include fixed temperature types and rate-of-rise types. Other detection methods discussed are air aspiration systems and gas sensors.
The document describes the components and working of infrared (IR) spectrometers and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometers. It discusses various IR sources like the Nernst glower, Globar, and tungsten filament lamp. It also describes optical components like entrance and exit slits, and detectors like thermal detectors and quantum detectors. The key advantages of FTIR spectrometers are provided, including higher resolution and throughput compared to dispersive instruments. Applications of IR and Raman spectroscopy in areas like drug analysis, fiber analysis, and biological analysis are also mentioned.
Non-intrusive Methods of Temperature Measurement ( Radiation Thermometry )rajguptanitw
A radiation thermometer is an instrument which collects radiation from a target and produces an output signal, usually electrical, related to the radiance, which is used to infer the temperature of the target.
The wavelength of maximum emission varies between 10.6 mm at 0°C and 1.3 mm at 2000C.
For most measurement applications, radiation is emitted predominantly in the visible, near- and middle-infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
A radiation thermometer is an instrument which collects radiation from a target and produces an output signal, usually electrical, related to the radiance, which is used to infer the temperature of the target.
The basic measurement system for a radiation thermometer comprises the following elements.
(1) The target of measurement.
(2) An optical system which collects and directs the radiation.
Elements of the optical system may also be used to modify the spectral response of the thermometer.
(3) A sensor which produces a signal, usually electrical, related to the incident energy flux.
(4) A reference source which may be physically situated in the instrument itself or located in a calibration laboratory.
(5) A means of signal processing and display.
The document discusses various analytical techniques used in clinical chemistry laboratories including spectrophotometry, fluorometry, luminometry, nephelometry/turbidimetry, electrochemistry/chemical sensors, chromatography, mass spectrometry, and electrophoresis. It provides details on the basic components, principles, and applications of each technique.
This document discusses various methods for temperature measurement. It describes liquid-in-glass thermometers, which measure the expansion of liquid in a bulb. Bimetallic thermometers use the different expansion rates of two metals. Electrical thermometers rely on the temperature dependence of electrical resistance. Infrared thermometers measure the thermal radiation emitted by objects. Pyrometers also use thermal radiation measurements and some employ disappearing filament or two-color techniques. Each method has advantages and limitations depending on the measurement situation and temperature range.
This document provides information on different types of radioactivity counters. It discusses the Geiger-Müller counter, which detects ionizing radiation using a Geiger-Müller tube. It operates by amplifying the ionization caused by radiation in a gas. The document also covers ionization chambers, which measure the number of ion pairs created in a gas by radiation. Finally, it discusses scintillation counters, which use a scintillator to generate light pulses from radiation, which are then converted to electrical signals.
- Infrared spectroscopy analyzes the absorption of infrared radiation by molecules to determine their structure.
- Infrared radiation is passed through a sample, and the wavelengths absorbed are measured to produce an infrared spectrum.
- The spectrum corresponds to the vibrational and rotational frequencies of functional groups in the molecule, allowing the structure to be deduced.
Flame photometry is a technique used to determine the concentration of certain metal ions in a solution. It works by nebulizing the sample into a flame, which excites the metal ions and causes them to emit light at wavelengths specific to each metal. A photodetector then measures the intensity of light, allowing quantification of the ions present. The method was developed in the 1800s and improved over time, with commercial instruments now available. It finds various applications in analyzing samples like water, urine and alloys.
This document provides an overview of infrared spectroscopy. It discusses:
1) The principle of infrared spectroscopy is that infrared radiation is absorbed by molecules at frequencies that match the natural vibrational frequencies of bonds within the molecules.
2) Infrared instrumentation includes sources that emit infrared radiation like incandescent lamps, detectors that sense absorbed radiation like bolometers and thermocouples, and components that separate wavelengths like prisms.
3) Samples can be analyzed as solids, liquids between salt plates, or gases in gas cells to collect infrared absorption spectra that are characteristic of molecular structure.
The document discusses various analytical techniques and instrumentation used in chemistry. It describes spectroscopic techniques like UV-VIS and IR spectroscopy. It also discusses chromatographic techniques like gas chromatography and HPLC. Finally, it provides an overview of different types of detectors used in analytical instrumentation like photomultiplier tubes, photodiodes, and describes their basic working principles.
This article illustrates the principle and working of Colorimeter and Photometer and how absorbance, transmittance and light intensity can be measured.
Supermarket Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
Supermarket management is a stand-alone J2EE using Eclipse Juno program.
This project contains all the necessary required information about maintaining
the supermarket billing system.
The core idea of this project to minimize the paper work and centralize the
data. Here all the communication is taken in secure manner. That is, in this
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2. Previously on “Pyrometers” by (1/4)
• Simplest & oldest non-contact way of estimating the temperature of a radiating body
by observing its color
• radiation thermometer (e.g. infrared thermometer)
• radiation wavelengths: visible & infrared radiation bands
(0.4 ~ 20 μm)
• Simplest & oldest non-contact way of estimating the temperature of a radiating body
by observing its color
• radiation thermometer (e.g. infrared thermometer)
• radiation wavelengths: visible & infrared radiation bands
(0.4 ~ 20 μm)
4. Previously on “Pyrometers” by (3/4)
• Manually operated pyrometers
- operator’s eye acts as a comparator
1) Disappearing filament pyrometers
2) Two-color pyrometers (= Ratio pyrometers)
• Manually operated pyrometers
- operator’s eye acts as a comparator
1) Disappearing filament pyrometers
2) Two-color pyrometers (= Ratio pyrometers)
5. Previously on “Pyrometers” by (4/4)
• Automatic pyrometers
- optical system concentrating the radiation on radiation detector
- radiation detector which may be either a thermal or a photoelectric sensor
- signal converter, conditioning the detector output signal before being displayed
- measuring part, which may have an additional analogue or digital output
1) Total radiation pyrometers 2) Photoelectric pyrometers
3) Two-wavelength pyrometers 4) Multi-wavelength pyrometers
• Automatic pyrometers
- optical system concentrating the radiation on radiation detector
- radiation detector which may be either a thermal or a photoelectric sensor
- signal converter, conditioning the detector output signal before being displayed
- measuring part, which may have an additional analogue or digital output
1) Total radiation pyrometers 2) Photoelectric pyrometers
3) Two-wavelength pyrometers 4) Multi-wavelength pyrometers
7. 1. Disappearing Filament Pyrometers
• History
The first pyrometer by the potter Josiah Wedgwood (1780s)
Modern pyrometers became available when the first disappearing filament
pyrometer was built by L.Holborn and F.Kurlbaum. (1901)
• History
The first pyrometer by the potter Josiah Wedgwood (1780s)
Modern pyrometers became available when the first disappearing filament
pyrometer was built by L.Holborn and F.Kurlbaum. (1901)
8. 1. Disappearing Filament Pyrometers
• Principle of operation
The brightness of a lamp filament is changed by adjusting the lamp current
until the filament disappears against the background of the target.
Eye of the observer is the detector. à lower limit of temperature range ≈ 700˚C
10. 1. Disappearing Filament Pyrometers – Red filter
• Red filter (Scholl RG2, Jena 4512)
Comparison occurs at one wavelength è The effective wavelength, λe =0.65μm
λe is nearly constant at all measured temperatures. è (1300Kà3600K, Δ: 0.003μm)
Comparison occurs at one color è subjective estimation of color cannot influence
the measurement results.
11. 1. Disappearing Filament Pyrometers – Red filter
• Red filter
Steepness of the curve W0,λ=0.65 = f(T) is greater than that of W0 = f(T).
The spectral radiance difference at λ=0.65 is greater than that of total radiance.
L0,λ = CW0,λ (Weichert, 1976) (L: spectral radiance, C: constant, W: radiant intensity)
12. • Reasons for the application of a red filter
1) Comparison takes place only at one wavelength è eliminating the influence of
subjective color estimation by different observers
2) At λe = 0.65μm, the lowest possible temperature can be measured.
3) At λe = 0.65μm, pyrometer sensitivity is higher than for the total radiation.
4) Easy to produce good filters of λe = 0.65μm which are stable in time
5) The smallest color changes as a function of wavelength are observed.
1. Disappearing Filament Pyrometers – Red filter
• Reasons for the application of a red filter
1) Comparison takes place only at one wavelength è eliminating the influence of
subjective color estimation by different observers
2) At λe = 0.65μm, the lowest possible temperature can be measured.
3) At λe = 0.65μm, pyrometer sensitivity is higher than for the total radiation.
4) Easy to produce good filters of λe = 0.65μm which are stable in time
5) The smallest color changes as a function of wavelength are observed.
14. • Black body: physiological feeling of brightness through a red filter of
spectral transmissivity (τλ)
(Vλ: relative spectral sensitivity of a standard human eye)
• Filament: physiological feeling of brightness through a red filter of
spectral transmissivity (τλ)
1. Disappearing Filament Pyrometers - Indicator
(εf λ : spectral emissivity of the filament)
• Filament: physiological feeling of brightness through a red filter of
spectral transmissivity (τλ)
• The brightness of the filament and of the target are equal & λ=λe
15. 1. Disappearing Filament Pyrometers - Indicator
(Tf: filament temperature, I: lamp current)
• Direct calibration of the ammeter of the pyrometer in temperature units.
è Radiance temperature of a target at the wavelength, λe
• Scale divisions of the temperature scale is not linear.
16. 1. Disappearing Filament Pyrometers - Indicator
• For a non-black body…. How to calibrate? (Equation)
(ελe: non-black body of spectral emissivity, Ti: pyrometer readings of black body)
(black body)
C2: 1.4388 x 10-9 m•K
λe: 0.65μm
(non-black body)
17. 1. Disappearing Filament Pyrometers - Indicator
• For a non-black body…. How to calibrate? (Diagram)
18. 1. Disappearing Filament Pyrometers – Grey filter
• The tungsten filament can only be used up to 1400˚C.
• Dark deposit on the glass è changing the lamp characteristic
• To extend the pyrometer measurement up to 2000˚C
a grey filter is used.
• A grey filter: reduce the target radiance.
19. 1. Disappearing Filament Pyrometers – Grey filter
• For a black body
(w/o grey filter)
(w/ grey filter, τ'λe: spectral transmissivity)
Denote:
A: Radiance reducing factor of the grey filter
With grey filter, it’s possible to calibrate the pyrometer above the maximum
filament temperature.
20. 1. Disappearing Filament Pyrometers – Applications
• Typical applications
- Comparison measurement in calibration of total radiation pyrometers
- Temperature measurement of small size targets ( 0.1 mm)
- Temperature measurement in research laboratories
- Comparison measurement of temperature of non-black bodies
- Measurement of temperature uniformity inside furnace chambers
• The application of disappearing filament pyrometers in industry
has become less frequent.
• Typical applications
- Comparison measurement in calibration of total radiation pyrometers
- Temperature measurement of small size targets ( 0.1 mm)
- Temperature measurement in research laboratories
- Comparison measurement of temperature of non-black bodies
- Measurement of temperature uniformity inside furnace chambers
• The application of disappearing filament pyrometers in industry
has become less frequent.
21. 2. Two-Color Pyrometers
• General information
= Ratio pyrometer
The ratio of spectral radiances at 2 wavelengths is estimated by the human eye
The observer adjusts the filter position so that the target appears to be grey.
Target temperature increases è the percentage of green ↑, red ↓
• General information
= Ratio pyrometer
The ratio of spectral radiances at 2 wavelengths is estimated by the human eye
The observer adjusts the filter position so that the target appears to be grey.
Target temperature increases è the percentage of green ↑, red ↓
Color
temperature
Measurement range: 1200 to 2000˚C
Error: ± 20 to 30 ˚C
22. 2. Two-Color Pyrometers
• Scale defining equation (For a black body and a grey body)
(W: Spectral radiant intensity, ελ1 : emissity)
(For grey body, ελ is constant.)
The ratio of spectral radiant intensities is a function of the temperature
Target temperature increases è the ratio of Wλ1/ Wλ2 decreases.
23. 2. Two-Color Pyrometers
RED
GREEN
Reduction in the precision of temperature measurement
with increasing target temperature
The upper limit of the pyrometer: 2200˚C
The lower limit of the pyrometer: 700 ˚C
GREEN
24. 2. Two-Color Pyrometers
• Scale defining equation (For a non-grey body)
Non-black and non-grey bodies : selectively radiating bodies
è wavelength dependence of their spectral emissivity
è ελ1 ≠ ελ2
Manually operated two-color pyrometers are now being replaced
by automatic ones.
26. 1. Optical Systems
• To reach a sufficiently high measurement precision…
è lenses, light-guides, or mirrors
• Lenses should be….
1) High transmission factor over a wide wavelength range
2) High mechanical strength
3) High working temperature
4) Good resistance to atmospheric and chemical influences
5) Good resistance to abrasion
6) Good resistance to rapid temperature variations
27. 1. Optical Systems – lenses or mirrors
• In pyrometry, the upper cut-off wavelength of incident radiation is important.
è determines the lowest temperature which the pyrometer can measure.
• Quartz
- High mechanical and chemical resistance
- Withstand rapid temperature variations
• KRS-5
- Most commonly used material for lenses
of low temperature pyrometers
- starting from -50˚C
• Silicon
- Sometimes replaces KRS-5
- The Ardometer pyrometer(Siemens AG)
• Quartz
- High mechanical and chemical resistance
- Withstand rapid temperature variations
• KRS-5
- Most commonly used material for lenses
of low temperature pyrometers
- starting from -50˚C
• Silicon
- Sometimes replaces KRS-5
- The Ardometer pyrometer(Siemens AG)
• Mirrors: the lowest measured temperatures, where no lenses may be applied .
• Metals with high reflection factor (e.g. Gold)
28. 1. Optical Systems – light guides
• When the objects are too small
• When pyrometer would be endangered by excessive temperatures
èLight guides replace lenses.
• Absorption along the rod, imperfect reflection from the rod walls and
reflection losses è some of the transmitted energy is lost.
• the angle of incidence > the critical angle
• Materials: Artificial sapphire(Al2O3) or quartz(SiO2)
• Solid rod or flexible stranded fibreoptic cable of thin fibres
• When the objects are too small
• When pyrometer would be endangered by excessive temperatures
èLight guides replace lenses.
• Absorption along the rod, imperfect reflection from the rod walls and
reflection losses è some of the transmitted energy is lost.
• the angle of incidence > the critical angle
• Materials: Artificial sapphire(Al2O3) or quartz(SiO2)
• Solid rod or flexible stranded fibreoptic cable of thin fibres
29. 2. Radiation Detectors – thermal radiation detector
• Used in <total radiation pyrometers>
• Detector is heated by incident radiation.
• Detector should be….
1) High sensitivity (output signal / incident radiation power)
2) Time stable properties
3) High resistance to shocks and vibrations
4) Low thermal inertia
5) Output signal independent of the pyrometer position
6) High output signal-to-noise ratio
7) High emissivity
8) Sensitivity independent of wavelength
• Thermopile:
most commonly used, the reference junctions at the pyrometer housing temperature
• Thermistor and metal bolometers:
used in AC bridge circuits è easy amplification of the output signals
• Pyroelectric detectors:
low temperature radiation pyrometers, high sensitivity but complicated construction of pyrometer
• Used in <total radiation pyrometers>
• Detector is heated by incident radiation.
• Detector should be….
1) High sensitivity (output signal / incident radiation power)
2) Time stable properties
3) High resistance to shocks and vibrations
4) Low thermal inertia
5) Output signal independent of the pyrometer position
6) High output signal-to-noise ratio
7) High emissivity
8) Sensitivity independent of wavelength
• Thermopile:
most commonly used, the reference junctions at the pyrometer housing temperature
• Thermistor and metal bolometers:
used in AC bridge circuits è easy amplification of the output signals
• Pyroelectric detectors:
low temperature radiation pyrometers, high sensitivity but complicated construction of pyrometer
31. 2. Radiation Detectors – photoelectric detector
• Used in <two/multi-wavelength pyrometers>
• Photoconductors:
incident radiation à captured incident photons à photoelectrons à current
• Photodiodes:
conductivity s proportional to the intensity of the radiation
• Photovoltaic cells:
generated voltage is a logarithmic function of the incident radiation
• Vacuum photocells:
incident radiation à emission of electrons from a metallic photocathode in a vacuum glass
• Photovoltaic cells:
generated voltage is a logarithmic function of the incident radiation
• Used in <two/multi-wavelength pyrometers>
• Photoconductors:
incident radiation à captured incident photons à photoelectrons à current
• Photodiodes:
conductivity s proportional to the intensity of the radiation
• Photovoltaic cells:
generated voltage is a logarithmic function of the incident radiation
• Vacuum photocells:
incident radiation à emission of electrons from a metallic photocathode in a vacuum glass
• Photovoltaic cells:
generated voltage is a logarithmic function of the incident radiation
34. 3. Total Radiation Pyrometers
• The temperature of a body is determined by the thermal radiation,
which it emits over a large range of wavelengths.
• This radiation is concentrated onto a thermal radiation detector
35. 3. Total Radiation Pyrometers
• Scale defining equation (For a black body)
(Ap: Plate area)
(K2: Heat transfer coefficient by convection and conduction)
when the plate is in the thermal steady-state…
36. • Scale defining equation (For a non-black body)
3. Total Radiation Pyrometers
simplify
• Equation • Diagram
37. 3. Total Radiation Pyrometers
• Influence of housing temperature
to make the readings independent of the housing temperature,
the difference between Tp and TH should be equal.
• Influence of target distance
the whole field of view should be filled by the target area
• Influence of target distance
the whole field of view should be filled by the target area
• Extension of measurement range
with grey filter è weakening the radiant flux coming from the object
(Tt: reading of pyrometer with grey filter,
T’t: measured temperature,
τ1: filter transmission factor)
38. 4. Photoelectric Pyrometers
• Measurement of rapidly changing temperatures
Total radiation pyrometers: 1 ms ~ 15 ms
Photoelectric pyrometers: 1 ~ 2 μs
Photoelectric
Pyrometer
with
Direct radiant flux
Photoelectric
Pyrometer
with
Direct radiant flux
Photoelectric
Pyrometer
with
Modulated radiant flux
39. 4. Photoelectric Pyrometers
• Scale defining equation (For a black body)
the output signal of the photoelectric radiation detectors is proportional
to the number of photons (N)
(Warnke, 1972)
(in a narrow temperature range)
(IT: output current, B: constant, T: black body temperature,
n: 5~12)
40. • Scale defining equation (For a non-black body)
4. Photoelectric Pyrometers
(Reynolds, 1961)
Band emissivity is never precisely known.
Band emissivity is never precisely known.
in practical, (Worthing, 1941)
41. 5. Two-Wavelength Pyrometers
• Automatic two-color pyrometers
• The eye of observer is replaced by a photoelectric detector.
Rotating disk
Light guide
Light guide
Mirror
42. 6. Multi-Wavelength Pyrometers
• Used to measure the temperature of non-grey bodies of low emissivity
• Good precision of the method in the temperature range up to about 1700˚C
• Splitting the incoming radiation : light guide systems, filters, and prisms