The document provides information on various types of building materials, including glass. It discusses flat glass used in windows and mirrors, laminated safety glass which holds broken glass together, glass building blocks used in wall construction, tempered safety glass which breaks into small dull pieces, colored structural glass used as building exteriors and interiors, opal glass which scatters light, and fiberglass used for insulation and composites.

1. Building Materials
Project Report
August 2012
By: Suneeta Bodapati
B-23 A, Sector- 62 (Next to Fortis Hospital) Noida, 201301 Uttar Pradesh

2. Acknowledgements
This project would not have been a success without the guidance and motivation of
all my mentors. I am thankful to all the persons behind this project.
I would like to express my gratefulness to Ms. Shivani Sood, who
acted as a mentor throughout my project for providing me valuable
information and guidance.
Secondly, I would like to thank Ms. Renu Bhargava who have
been very helpful in facilitating my site visits and encouraged at
every instant.
Last but not the least; I would like to thank my classmates & my family for
motivating me all the time throughout this project. Suneeta Bodapati
Interior Designing – JD Institute, Noida
2

3. Index
1. Introduction - page 04
2. Wood - page 05
3. Bricks - page 12
4. Glass - page 16
5. Sand - page 21
6. Steel - page 23
7. Stone - page 28
8. Concrete - page 37
9. Bamboo - page 42
10.Conclusion - page 47
11.Bibliography - page 49
12.Sample - page 50
3

4. Introduction
Fundamentally, Interior designers must know about the building materials that will
be used to create and furnish the space, how texture, color, lighting and other
factors combine and interact to make a space.
The aim of this project was to understand about different types of the basic building
materials i.e. wood, bricks, glass, sand, steel, stone, concrete & Bamboo.
This report presents the vital nature of these building materials along with their
properties, limitations, usage and current cost (in northern part of Indian sub-continent).
This report is based on actual site visits, detailed interviews with building material
traders / manufacturers and information from World Wide Web.
4

5. Wood
“I have little patience with scientists who take a board of wood, look for its thinnest
part, and drill a great number of holes where drilling is easy.”
- Albert Einstein
5

6. Wood
Woods are of many different types. Each unique wood type has its own combination of properties such as color,
scent, strength, density, flexibility, and grain pattern. These factors make different types of wood better for
making certain items we use in our daily lives.
Wood can be broadly classified in two main groups: softwoods and hardwoods. The structure of the cells, or
wood fibers, is what determines the strength and flexibility of a particular type of wood.
HARDWOODS
OAK: Oak is the most widely used hardwood. There are more than 60 species of oak
grown, which can be separated into two basic varieties; white and red. The red variety is
also known as black.
Properties: Oak is a heavy, strong, light colored hardwood. It is ring porous, due to the
fact that more and larger conductive vessels are laid down early in the summer, rather
than later. Prominent rings and large pores give oak a course texture and prominent
grain. Oak also has conspicuous medullar rays which can be seen as "flakes" in quarter
sawed oak lumber.
Uses: Oak is the most popular wood used to craft western designs. It is also used for
Gothic as well as many transitional and contemporary pieces.
MAPLE: There are 115 species of maple. Two of the five are hard rock maple and sugar
maple.
Properties: Maple is so hard and resistant to shocks that it is often used for bowling alley
floors. Its diffuse evenly sized pores give the wood a fine texture and even grain. Maple
that has a curly grain is often used for violin backs.
Uses: Maple is used extensively for American colonial furniture, especially in medium
and lower priced categories. It can also be stained to simulate cherry wood, which it
resembles. 6

7. Wood
MAHOGANY: Mahogany, also known as Honduras mahogany is a tropical hardwood
indigenous to South America, Central America and Africa. There are many different grades
and species sold under this name, which vary widely in quality and price. Mahogany which
comes from the Caribbean is thought to be the hardest, strongest and best quality. Logs
from Africa, though highly figured, are of slightly lesser quality. Philippine mahogany has a
similar color, but is not really mahogany at all. It is a much less valuable wood, being less
strong, not as durable or as beautiful when finished.
Properties: Mahogany is strong, with a uniform pore structure and poorly defined annual
rings. It has a reddish - brown color and may display stripe, ribbon, broken
stripe, rope, ripple, mottle, fiddleback or blister figures. Crotch mahogany figures are
widely used and greatly valued. Mahogany is an excellent carving wood and finishes well.
Uses: Mahogany is used extensively in the crafting of Georgian, Empire and Federal
reproduction furniture. Mahogany is also used in styles ranging from Victorian furniture
reproductions to Contemporary.
CHERRY: Cherry is sometimes called fruitwood. The term fruitwood is also used to
describe a light brown finish on other woods.
Properties: A moderately hard, strong, closed grain, light to red-brown wood, cherry
resists warping and checking. It is easy to carve and polish.
Uses: Cherry veneers and solids are used in a variety of styles. Cherry has been called
New England mahogany and is often used to craft 18th century, Colonial and French
Provincial designs. 7

8. Wood
WALNUT: Walnut is one of the most versatile and popular cabinet making woods. It
grows in Europe, America and Asia. There are many different varieties.
Properties: Walnut is strong, hard and durable, without being excessively heavy. It has
excellent woodworking qualities, and takes finishes well. The wood is light to dark
chocolate brown in color with a straight grain in the trunk.
Uses: Walnut is used in all types of fine cabinet work, especially 1 8th century
reproductions.
ROSEWOOD: Very hard and has a dark reddish brown color.
Properties: It is fragrant and close grained. It is hard to work and takes high polish.
Uses: Used in musical instruments, piano cases, tool handles, art projects, veneers and
furniture.
TEAK: True teak is indigenous to Southeast Asia, but similar wood species also grow in
Africa.
Properties & Uses: Teak is a yellow to dark brown hardwood which is extremely
heavy, strong and durable. Often strongly figured, teak may show straight grain, mottled
or fiddle back figures. It carves well, but because of its high value, is often used as a
veneer. Scandinavian modern, and oriental furniture styles are often crafted of teak.
8

9. Wood
SOFTWOODS
CEDAR: Several species of cedar grow in the southern United States, Central and South
America.
Properties & Uses: Cedar is a knotty softwood which has a red-brown color with light
streaks. Its aromatic and moth repellent qualities have made it a popular wood for lining
drawers, chests and boxes. Simple cases and storage closets are also constructed from
this light, brittle wood.
ASH: There are 16 species of ash wood. Of these, the white ash is the largest and most
commercially important.
Properties & Uses: Ash is a hard, heavy, ring porous hardwood. It has a prominent grain
that resembles oak, and a white to light brown color. Ash burls have a twisted,
interwoven figure. Ash is widely used for structural frames and steam bent furniture
pieces. It is often less expensive than comparable hardwoods.
9

10. Wood
PINE: Pine is a softwood which grows in most areas of the Northern Hemisphere. There
are more than 100 species worldwide.
Properties: Pine is a soft, white or pale yellow wood which is light weight, straight
grained and lacks figure. It resists shrinking and swelling. Knotty pine is often used for
decorative effect.
Uses: Pine is often used for country or provincial furniture. Pickled, whitened, painted
and oil finishes are often used on this wood.
BIRCH: There are many species of birch. The yellow birch is the most commercially
important. European birch is fine grained, rare and expensive.
Properties & Uses: Birch is a hard, heavy, close grained hardwood with a light brown
or reddish colored heartwood and cream or light sapwood. Birch is often rotary or flat
sliced, yielding straight, curly or wavy grain patterns. It can be stained to resemble
mahogany or walnut.
Douglas-Fir: Douglas-Fir is technically not a true Fir (Abies genus), but is in its own
genus: Pseudotsuga. It is an incredibly valuable commercial timber, widely used in
construction and building purposes. The tree itself grows to be very large, and yields a
large amount of usable lumber and veneer for plywood.
Properties: Douglas-Fir is very stiff and strong for its weight, and is also among the
hardest and heaviest softwoods. Can vary in color based upon age and location of tree.
Usually a light brown color with a hint of red and/or yellow, with darker growth rings.
Uses: Douglas-Fir heartwood is rated to be moderately-durable in regard to decay, but is
susceptible to insect attack. 10

11. Wood
Prices
S.No Wood type Units Min price Max price
1 Oak Sq-Mtr Rs. 2,100 Rs. 5,800
2 Maple Sq-Mtr Rs. 3,700 Rs. 4,100
3 Cherry Sq-Mtr Rs. 6,100 Rs. 6,300
4 Walnut Sq-Mtr Rs. 5,100 Rs. 5,300
5 Rosewood 1/2" x 2-7/8" x 36-1/4" Rs. 2,970
6 Teak Cubic ft Rs. 2,500 Rs. 5,000
7 Cedar Sq-Mtr Rs. 2,400 Rs. 3,100
8 Ash Sq-Mtr Rs. 3,900 Rs. 4,200
9 Pine 100x100mm Rs. 370 Rs. 455
11

12. Bricks
“A successful man is one who can lay a firm foundation with the bricks others have
thrown at him.”
- David Brikley
12

13. Brick
Bricks have been around for thousands of years and are still an
important part of the construction industry today. Modern bricks are
made in much the same way as they were in the past. Clay is dug out
of the earth, dried then crushed into a fine powder, and mixed with
water to a specific consistency. The clay is then molded into
units, dried in ovens, and finally baked in high-temperature kilns.
Bricks are named according to the clay they are manufactured
from, the kind of method used in shaping the units (sand or water
struck), how they are to be used (face brick or common), the
strength, or the finish applied to the face after the initial firing such as
glazed brick.
Standard brick size in India: 9’ X 4’ X 3.5’
HANDMADE BRICK: Handmade Bricks are literally made by hand by throwing clay into
moulds. Each brick is unique and they have a pleasing and distinctive appearance with a
creased face (known as a smile) as well as longstanding durability - many of our most
admired historic buildings were built with handmade bricks. This have a labour intensive
production process.
STOCK BRICK: Stock Bricks are a traditional type of brick with a slightly irregular shape
made by using a mechanised moulding process known as soft mud moulding. A wide
range of colours is available. In price, as well as style, stock bricks fall between the
wirecuts and the handmades.
This type of brick is currently one of the most popular.
13

14. Brick
WIRECUT BRICKS: Wirecut Facing Bricks are made by extrusion of a continuous column
of clay which, as the name implies, is cut by the wire but not before the column has been
textured. They are suitable for almost every type of application and are available in a
wide range of colours and textures. The highly automated production process makes
wirecuts relatively inexpensive compared to some other types of brick.
ENGINEERING BRICK: Engineering Bricks are used for their performance characteristics
rather than their appearance and are most suited for groundworks, manholes and
sewers, retaining walls and other situations where strength and resistance to frost attack
and water are the most important factor.
FLETTON BRICK: Fletton Bricks, or Londons are only manufactured by Hanson Brick. They
are made from deposits of Oxford clay. They are available in a wide range of colours and
textures, and are particularly popular for matching existing brickwork.
REPRESSED BRICK: Re-Pressed Bricks are wirecut bricks which are re-pressed to create a
solid brick with very precise size tolerances and distinctive surface texture. Known as the
'Jacobean', this range is unique and is a high quality product that can be used effectively
in housing.
14

15. Brick
Brick Prices:
• Mud Bricks Rs. 2.00 – 4.00 per piece Price depends on thickness and finish.
• Mud Bricks (Light Weight) Rs. 3.50 – 6.00 per ton Various qualities depends on manufacturer
• Fly Ash / Hallow Bricks Rs. 8.25 + per piece Standard sizes and finishing depends on manufacturer
15

16. Glass
“People who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones”
- Romanian proverb
16

17. Glass
There is a special relationship between glass and buildings. Glass is a magical
material which has so many different properties and uses, that it has presented
Interior designers with many new possibilities and designs. In their quest for
transparency and safety, Designers & Architects often use glasses.
There are many kinds of glass. Several important kinds of glass are explained below.
FLAT GLASS is used chiefly in windows. It is also used in mirrors, room dividers, and
some kinds of furniture. All flat glass is made in the form of flat sheets. But some of
it, such as that used in automobile windshields, is reheated and sagged (curved) over
molds.
LAMINATED SAFETY GLASS is a “sandwich” made by combining alternate layers of
flat glass and plastics. The outside layer of glass may break when struck by an
object, but the plastic layer is elastic and so it stretches. The plastic holds the
broken pieces of glass together and keeps them from flying in all directions.
Laminated glass is used where broken glass might cause serious injuries, as in
automobile windshields.
GLASS BUILDING BLOCKS are made from two hollow half-sections sealed together at
a high temperature. Glass building blocks are good insulators against heat or cold
because of the dead-air space inside. The blocks are laid like bricks to make walls and
other structures.
17

18. Glass
TEMPERED SAFETY GLASS unlike laminated glass, is a single piece that has been
given a special heat treatment. It looks, feels, and weighs the same as ordinary glass.
But it can be several times stronger. Tempered glass is used widely for all-glass doors
in stores, side and rear windows of automobiles, and basketball backboards, and for
other special purposes. It is hard to break even when hit with a hammer. When it
does break, the whole piece of glass collapses into small, dull-edged fragments.
COLORED STRUCTURAL GLASS is a heavy plate glass, available in many colors. It is
used in buildings as an exterior facing, and for interior walls, partitions, and
tabletops.
OPAL GLASS has small particles in the body of the glass that disperse the light
passing through it, making the glass appear milky. The ingredients necessary to
produce opal glass include fluorides (chemical compounds containing fluorine). This
glass is widely used in lighting fixtures and for tableware.
FIBERGLASS consists of fine but solid rods of glass, each of which may be less
than one-twentieth the width of a human hair. These tiny glass fibers can be
loosely packed together in a wool like mass that can serve as heat insulation.
They also can be used like wool or cotton fibers to make glass yarn, tape, cloth,
and mats. Fiberglass has many other uses. It is used for electrical insulation,
chemical filtration, and firefighters' suits. Combined with plastics, fiberglass
can be used for airplane wings and bodies, automobile bodies, and boat hulls.
Fiberglass is a popular curtain material because it is fire-resistant and
washable. 18

19. Glass
GLASS-CERAMICS are strong materials made by heating glass to rearrange some of
its atoms into regular patterns. These partially crystalline materials can withstand
high temperatures, sudden changes in temperature, and chemical attacks better
than ordinary glass can. They are used in a variety of products, including heat-
resistant cookware, turbine engines, electronic equipment, and nose cones of
guided missiles. Glass-ceramics have such trade names as Pyroceram, Cervit, and
Hercuvit.
FOAM GLASS when it is cut, looks like a black honeycomb. It is filled with many tiny
cells of gas. Each cell is surrounded and sealed off from the others by thin walls of
glass. Foam glass is so light that it floats on water. It is widely used as a heat
insulator in buildings, on steam pipes, and on chemical equipment. Foam glass can
be cut into various shapes with a saw.
RADIATION-ABSORBING AND RADIATION-TRANSMITTING GLASS can
transmit, modify, or block heat, light, X rays, and other types of radiant energy. For
example, ultraviolet glass absorbs the ultraviolet rays of the sun but transmits visible
light. Other glass transmits heat rays freely but passes little visible light. Polarized
glass cuts out the glare of brilliant light. One-way glass is specially coated so that a
person can look through a window without being seen from the other side.
PHOTOSENSITIVE GLASS can be exposed to ultraviolet light and to heat so that any
pattern or photograph can be reproduced within the body of the glass itself. Because
the photographic print then becomes an actual part of the glass, it will last as long as
the glass itself.
19

20. Glass
MIRRORS are usually made from float glass 4-6mm thick, and
silvered on one side. Mirrors are available for use without a
surrounding frame, these usually are made from a type of
safety glass. Old mirrors, and modern mirrors supplied within
a frame, should not be used unframed as any damage to
them might cause the glass to shatter dangerously.
Prices
S.No Glass type Units Min price Max price
1 Flat glass Per Sqft Rs. 70 Rs. 80
2 Laminated glass Per Sqft Rs. 100 Rs. 120
3 Glass building blocks Per block Rs. 275 Rs. 345
4 Colored structural glass Per Sqft Rs. 330 Rs. 700
20

21. Sand
“Write injuries in sand, kindnesses in marble”
- French proverb
21

22. Sand
Sand is an extremely needful material for the construction but this
important material must be purchased with all care and vigilance.
Sand which is used in the construction purpose must be clean, free
from waste stones and impurities. It is important to know what type
of sand is beneficial for construction purpose as sand is also classified
into three different forms that make it suitable for specific type of
construction.
Sand is classified as: Fine Sand (0.075 to 0.425 mm), Medium Sand (0.425
to 2 mm) and Coarse Sand (2.0 to4.75 mm). However this classification of
sand is further has types of sand in particular and on that basis only
they are being incorporated in the construction. Read out the
detailing of the types of sand:
PIT SAND (Coarse sand): Pit sand is classified under coarse sand which is also
called badarpur in common language. This type of coarse sand is procured from
deep pits of abundant supply and it is generally in red-orange colour. The coarse
grain is sharp, angular and certainly free from salts etc which is mostly
employed in concreting.
RIVER SAND: River sand is procured from river streams and banks and is fine in quality
unlike pit sand. This type of sand has rounded grains generally in white-grey colour. River
sand has many uses in the construction purpose such as plastering.
22

23. Steel
“The finest steel has to go through the hottest fire”
- Nixon, Richard M
23

24. Steel
The most common construction material used in building
structures is steel. Steel is a perfect material in building
components and structures. It has changed the construction
industry; bringing remarkable architectural designs to life. One of
the most important benefits to consider is its level of sustainability.
Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon with a small
percentage of other metals such as nickel, chromium, aluminum,
cobalt, molybdenum, tungsten etc. Steel metal is used primarily for
structural framework for larger buildings or as an external surface
covering.
There are many different types of steel classified on the basis of the type of metal used and the percentage
content of the metal in the particular type of steel.
Below given are some commonly used types of steel:
MILD STEEL: The mild carbon steel is simply composed of iron and carbon but
it has a very low content of carbon in it.
This steel is used in the making of sheet metal for roofs, panels, boxes, cases
and vehicle frames. It is now also used as a replacement for wrought iron in
the making railroad rails.
24

25. Steel
GALVANIZED STEEL: The grayish galvanized steel with a tensile strength of
50,000 psi is zinc-coated steel. A "hot dip galvanizing" procedure of immersing
steel in a molten zinc bath coats steel with hard, uniform, impervious gamma,
delta and zeta zinc iron alloy layers and a pure zinc eta layer offering steel that
is corrosion resistant.
Paint, weld- and join-friendly, weatherproof, stain proof, long-lasting, cost-
effective and almost maintenance free, galvanized steel is suited for
residences, commercial buildings, bridges and airports.
STAINLESS STEEL: Stain less steel is the most resistant and commonly
used steel of all the types. It apart from carbon contains 11% chromium
and some amount of nickel. It is probably the most resistant steel of all
the types.
Although all the types of steel are generally resistant to rust and
corrosion, the stainless steel in particular is resistant to any sort of
external attack. Even a scratch cannot stay on the surface of stainless
steel.
ALUMINUM STEEL: Aluminum steel is smooth steel with a high content of
aluminum. Because of its strong and smooth surface it is used in the making
of furniture.
25

26. Steel
TERNE METAL: Terne metal or thin gauge steel is carbon steel or stainless
steel coated with an 80:20 tin-zinc alloy through a hot dip process. Terne
has mild steel equivalent tensile strength and a low shine light grey satin
texture.
Terne metal does not require painting. Terne is weatherproof, solder
friendly, formable, durable and maintenance free. The highly corrosion
resistant Terne metal roofs, sidings, downspouts, fascias and gutters are
used in buildings in harsh coastal and industrial conditions.
MEDIUM CARBON STEEL: The medium carbon steels have a normal content of
carbon that means that they are not as hard as the high carbon and neither
are they as strong the Mild carbon steel.
They are used in the making of tool frames and springs.
CHROMIUM STEEL: Chromium steels have a high content of chromium and
are resistant to corrosion.
They are very strong, ensile and are elastic in nature. It requires organic
coating before use; it can be lacquered, printed and finished in fine
stone, stone and matte finishes. Hence, it has building trade uses such as
space bars and false ceiling rails.
26

27. Steel
Prices
S.No Steel type Units Min price Max price
1 Mild steel Rs / Kg Rs. 65 Rs. 80
2 Galvanized steel Rs / Kg Rs. 60 Rs. 65
3 Stainless steel Rs / Kg Rs. 165 Rs. 220
4 Medium carbon steel Rs / Kg Rs. 70 Rs. 90
5 Chromium steel Rs / Kg Rs. 65 Rs. 80
27

28. Stone
“A rolling stone gathers no moss”
- Publius Syrus
28

29. Stone
Building stone, also called dimension stone, derives from one of three naturally occurring rock types:
IGNEOUS - Igneous stones are formed from molten or partly molten material i.e. magma, through solidification
of magna. Lava is a form of magma cools and solidifies on the surface of the earth. Liquid magma cools and
solidifies underneath the Earth's surface, and then mineral gases and liquids penetrate the stone and create new
crystalline formations and various colors.
Of all igneous rocks, granite is the most common choice. It is a coarsely crystalline unstratified igneous rock
composed of alkali feldspars, quartz, mica and hornblende.
SEDIMENTARY - Soft and fairly porous rock formed from deposits of eroded pre-existing rock that settled in
layers mostly on sea beds, and became compacted. The best examples are sandstone and limestone.
METAMORPHIC - Hard and non-porous rock formed from pre-existing rock that has been altered by intense heat
or pressure. The best examples are marble and slate.
There are huge variations within each of these rock types, caused by specific mineralogy and geology
conditions, and while any stone can be used for building, they each have constraints that make them more or
less suitable for different purposes.
29

30. Stone
MARBLES Coarse-grained marbles are more suitable for architectural and
monumental uses; it is the coarseness of the grain, which is the cause of the
great durability of marble against meteoric weather-ing. The fine-grained,
purest white marbles are reserved for statuary use, for which no other
varieties can be of service.
Green Oynx marble
The marble deposits of India are fairly widespread and of large extent. The
principal source of the marbles of India is the crystalline formation of
Rajasthan -- the Aravalli series. Marble quarries are worked at Mekrana
(Jodhpur), Kharwa (Ajmer), Maundla and Bhainslana (Jaipur), Dadikar
(Alwar), and some other places, from which marbles of many varieties of
colour and grain, including the beautiful white variety of which the Taj Mahal
is built, are obtained. It was the accessibility of this store of material of
unsurpassed beauty which, no doubt, gave such a stimulus to the Mogul Botticino marble
taste for architecture in the seventeenth century.
Good quality marble also occurs in a large outcrop near Jabalpur, Jaisalmer in
Rajasthan, Motipura in Baroda, Narsingpur in Madhya Pradesh, Kharwa in
Ajmer. Some quarries in and around Jaipur furnish a dense black marble,
capable of taking an exquisite polish, largely employed in the ancient
buildings of Delhi, Agra and Kashmir.
Pearl marble
30

31. Stone
LIMESTONES Limestones occur in many formations, some of which are entirely composed of
them. Not all of them, however, are fit for building purposes, though many of them are burnt
for lime. In the Cuddapah, Bijawar, Khondalite and Aravalli Groups limestones attain
considerable development; some of them are of great beauty and strength. They have been
largely drawn upon in the construction of many of the noted monuments of the past in all
parts of India. Vindhyan limestones are extensively quar-ried, as already referred to, in
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and elsewhere, and form a valued source for lime and cement, as
well as for building stone. The Gondwanas are barren of calcareous rocks, but the small
exposures of the Bagh and Trichinopoly Cretaceous include excellent limestones. The
Nummulitic limestones of the extra--Peninsular districts, viz. Sind, Hazara, the Salt-Range,
Punjab and Assam, are an enormous repository of pure limestone, and when accessible are in
very large demand for burning, building, as well as road-making purposes.
Limestones suitable for the manufacture of both lime and cement occur in enormous
quantities in the Vindhyan and older Formations. Cement grade limestone is quarried from
Shahbad and Singhbhum districts of Bihar, Jabalpur (Katni and Jukheri areas) and Satna
districts of Madhya Pradesh, Sundergarh district of Orissa, Narji limestone from the Guntur
and Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesh, Ambala and Mahendragarh districts of Punjab,
Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh, and the Carboniferous limestone from the Raisi tahsil of J
& K. The Vindhyan limestone in the Son Valley of Uttar Pradesh is also used for the
manufacture of cement.
In the plains of India, the only available source of line is ‘kankar’, which occurs plentifully as
irregular concretionary disseminations in clays. The clay admixture in kankar is often in
sufficient proportion to produce a hydraulic lime on burning. 31

32. Stone
GRANITES Granites and coarsely foliated gneisses form very desirable and
durable building-stones. These rocks, by reason of their massive nature and
homogeneous grain, are suitable for monu-mental and architectural work as
well as for massive masonries. Their wide range in appearance and colour -
white, pink, red, grey, black, etc. - renders the stones highly ornamental and
effective for a variety of decorative uses. The charnockites of Tamil
Nadu, the Arcot gneiss, Bangalore gneiss, the porphyries of
Seringapatam, and many other varieties of granite obtained from the
various districts of the Peninsula are very attractive examples. Its dura-bility
is such that the numerous ancient temples and monuments of South India
built of granite stand today almost intact after centuries of wear, and to all
appearance are yet good for centuries to come. From their wide
prevalence, forming nearly three-fourths of the surface of the Peninsula, the
Archaean gneisses form an inexhaustible source of good material for
building and oma-mental uses.
SERPENTINE Serpentine forms large outcrops in the Arakan
range of Burma and also in Baluchistan. It occurs as an
altera-tion-product of the basic and ultra-basic intrusions of
Cretaceous and Miocene ages. From its softness and liability
to weather on exposure it is of no use for outdoor
architectural purposes, but serpentines of attractive colour
are employed in internal decora-tions of buildings and the
manufacture of vases, statuary, etc. Serpentinous marble
(Verde antique) is rare in India.
32

33. Stone
SANDSTONES
Vindhyan sandstones - The Vindhyan and, to a lesser extent, the Gondwana formations afford sandstones
admir-ably suited for building works. The most preeminent among them are the white, cream, buff and pink
Upper Vindhyan sand-stones, which have been put to a variety of uses. It is the most widely quarried stone in
India, and being both a freestone as well as a flagstone it can yield, according to the portion selected, both
gigantic blocks for pillars from one part and thin, slate-like slabs for paving and roofing from another part. The
superb edifices, modern and medieval, of Delhi, Rajasthan and Agra are built of red and white Vindhyan
sandstone quarried from a number of sites in the vicinity.
Some of the Vindhyan sandstones are so homogeneous and soft that they are capable of receiving a most
elaborate carving and filigree work. Centuries of exposure to the weather have tested their durability.
Upper Gondwana sandstones - Another formation possessing resources in building-stones of good quality is the
Upper Gondwana, which has contributed a great store of building-stone to Orissa and Chanda. The famous
temples of Puri and the other richly orna-mented buildings of these districts are constructed of Upper
Gondwana sandstones.
The Mesozoic (Umia) sandstone of Dhrangadhra and the Cret-aceous sandstone underlying the Bagh beds of
Gujarat (Songir sandstones) furnish Gujarat with a very beautiful and durable stone for its important public and
private buildings.
Among the Tertiary sandstones, a few possess the qualities re-quisite in a building-stone, e.g. the Murree and
Kamlial (Tarki) sandstones; but the younger Siwalik sandstones are too uncon-solidated and incoherent to be fit
for employment in building work.
33

34. Stone
Different types of Sandstones

35. Stone
LATERITE Laterites of South India are put to use in building -works, due to the ease
with which they are cut into bricks or blocks when freshly quarried and their property
of hardening with exposure to air. Its wide distribution from Assam to Comorin makes
laterite a widely used material for road-metal. This stone is not capable of receiving
dressing for any architectural or ornamental use.
SLATES Slates for paving and roofing are not of common occur-rence in
India, except in some mountainous areas, e.g. at Kangra and Pir Panjal in
the Himalayas and Rewari in the Aravallis. When the cleavage is finely
developed and regular, thus enabling them to be split into thin even plates,
the slates are used for roofing; when the cleavage is not so fine, the slates
are used for paving. True cleavage-slates are rare in India; what generally
are called slates are either phyllites or compacted shales in which the
planes of splitting are not cleavage-planes.
The chief slate-quarries of India are those of Kangra, in the Kangra district;
Rewari, in the Gurgaon district; and Kharakpur hills in the Monghyr district.
35

36. Stone
Prices
S.No Stone type Units Min price Max price
1 Green Oynx marble Per Sqft Rs. 35 Rs. 60
2 White marble Per Sqft Rs. 60 > Rs. 300
3 Italian marble Per Sqft Rs. 200 >Rs. 2500
4 Pink marble Per Sqft Rs. 35 Rs. 60
5 Yellow marble Per Sqft Rs. 45 Rs. 55
36

37. Concrete
“Evil is the product of the ability of humans to make abstract that which is concrete”
- Jean-Paul Sartre
37

38. Concrete
Concrete structures are known for their durability and cost-saving features. With concrete construction, one
can design home or office building to look just like what they want and also garner many other added benefits
by choosing to build with concrete.
Concrete structures can withstand nearly any assault Mother Nature can dole out without sacrificing the
comfort and design flexibility of a traditional home. In fact, more and more homeowners are doing just that, for
reasons ranging from reducing escalating heating and cooling costs to allaying fears of being in the path of
another disaster like fire or floods.
Some common and main types of concrete are:
Normal Concrete
The concrete in which common ingredients i.e. aggregate, water, cement
are used is known as normal concrete. It is also called normal weight
concrete or normal strength concrete.
It has a setting time of 30 - 90 minutes depending upon moisture in
atmosphere, fineness of cement etc.
The development of the strength starts after 7 days the common strength
values is 10 MPa (1450 psi) to 40 MPa (5800 psi). At about 28 days 75 - 80%
of the total strength is attained.
Almost at 90 days 95% of the strength is achieved.
38

39. Concrete
High strength concrete
Compressive strength of high strength concrete mix is usually greater than
6,000 pounds per square inch.
High strength concrete is made by lowering the water cement (W/C) ratio
to 0.35 or lower.
Often silica fume is added to prevent the formation of free calcium
hydroxide crystals in the cement, which might reduce the strength at the
cement aggregate bond.
Air Entrained Concrete
One of the greatest achievements in field of concrete technology is
development of air entrained concrete. It is used where the concrete is
vulnerable to freezing and thawing action.
It is used where the concrete is vulnerable to freezing and thawing action.
It is prepared by adding the air entraining admixture.
The air entrainment in concrete does the following functions:.
•It lowers the surface tension of water and thus bubbles are created.
•Secondly the air entraining agents prevents coalescing i.e. the combining
of bubbles. The diameter of these bubbles ranges form 10 micrometer to
1000 micrometer and in entrapped air the diameter of bubble is greater
than 1mm.
Air entraining agents OR air entrained admixtures are used for the purpose
of making entrained air in concrete.
DRAW BACKS of Air Entrained Concrete:
It has low strength as compare to normal concrete. 39

40. Concrete
LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE
The concrete which has substantially lower mass per unit volume then the
concrete made of ordinary ingredients is called lightweight concrete. The
aggregates used are lighter in weight.
Density of light weight concrete is 240 kg/m³ (15pcf) -1850 kg/m³ (115 pcf).
Strength of light weight concrete blocks varies from 7 MPa (1000 psi) - 40 MPa
(5800 psi).
Some times Air Entrained Admixtures are also added to it giving resistance
to freezing and thawing along with strength.
Uses of Light weight concrete:
Used where extra load is not applied e.g. parapet wall, road lining etc. or to
reduce dead load.
SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE
The concrete where no vibration is required. The concrete is compacted due to
its own weight. It is also called self consolidated concrete or flowing concrete.
This self-consolidating concrete is characterized by:
•Extreme fluidity as measured by flow.
•No need for vibrators to compact the concrete.
•Placement being easier.
•No bleed water, or aggregate segregation.
Uses and Applications of Self Compacting Concrete:
It is used in location unreachable for vibrations. e.g. underground structure, deep
wells or at bottom of deep sea.
SCC can save up to 50% in labor costs due to 80% faster pouring and reduced
wear and tear on formwork. 40

41. Concrete
Shotcrete
Shotcrete concrete uses compressed air to shoot concrete onto (or into) a
frame or structure.
Shotcrete is mortar or (usually) concrete conveyed through a hose and
pneumatically projected at through a shortcrete nozzle with high velocity onto
a surface. Shotcrete undergoes placement and compaction at the same time
due to the force with which it is projected from the nozzle.
It can be impacted onto any type or shape of surface, including vertical or
overhead areas.
Shotcrete is frequently used against vertical soil or rock surfaces, as it
eliminates the need for formwork.
Pervious concrete
Pervious concrete contains a network of holes or voids, to allow air or water to
move through the concrete. This allows water to drain naturally through it, and
can both remove the normal surface water drainage infrastructure, and allow
replenishment of groundwater when conventional concrete does not.
It is formed by leaving out some or the entire fine aggregate (fines), the
remaining large aggregate then is bound by a relatively small amount of Portland
cement.
When set, typically between 15% and 25% of the concrete volumes are
voids, allowing water to drain.
The majority of pervious concrete pavements function well with little or no
maintenance. Maintenance of pervious concrete pavement consists primarily of
prevention of clogging of the void structure. 41

42. Bamboo
“The taller the bamboo grows, the lower it bends”
- Chinese proverb
42

43. Bamboo
There are about 1,450 different species of bamboo. Bamboo grows across East Asia, from 50 N latitude in
Sakhalin (just north of Japan) through to Northern Australia, and west to India and the Himalayas. Bamboo is also
found in sub-Saharan Africa, and in the Americas from Mid-Atlantic United States south to Argentina and
Chile, reaching their southernmost point anywhere, at 47 S latitude.
There are two types of bamboo: Running bamboo (monopodial) and clumping bambo (sympodial). Running
bamboos originate from cold areas of China, Japan and Korea. They send out long, underground stems (or
rhizomes) every year. Each rhizome is capable of producing many new shoots along its length. Running bamboos
have a habit of spreading outwards very quickly. This is great for land reclaimation but not so good if your
neighbor's garden starts to become invaded with bamboo you planted. If this happens one solution is to replace
the running bamboo with a type of clumping bamboo. In contrast, Clumping bamboos are shallow-rooted, and
most of them are suited to tropical and subtropical climates. Their growth is limited because each rhizome
produced develops into a single culm, or hollow jointed stem, located very close to its mother culm. This makes
the plant far less invasive than running bamboo
Price of Indian Bamboo ranges from INR 90 ~ INR 150 pr 24 ft stick.
43

44. Bamboo
BAMBUSA MULTIPLEX or Alphonse Karr is a popular clumping bamoo . It
normally grows to about 30 feet. Bambusa can withstand temperatures as
low as 15 F. The culms are golden with random green stripes. Bambusa
multiplex makes a good container plant or an outdoor plant where you need
a privacy screen because it makes a tight cluster.
BAMBUSA GLAUCESCENS VIRIDISTIATA grows in a tight clump. It is an
average height bamboo that is native to tropical areas. It has vertical green
stripes on the culm and small foliage that starts near the ground.
BAMBUSA VULGARIS or Giant Buddha's Belly is a beautiful bamboo variety
with incredible thick culms and thin leaves.
BAMBUSA TEXTILIS or Weaver's Bamboo is a dense, cold tolerant bamboo. It
has nodding culm tops and no leaves on the lower half. Bambusa is an
attractive non-invasive bamboo that grows in tight clumps of tough, straight
canes. Weaver's Bamboo produces high quality thin-walled culms that are
often used for weaving or furniture making.
44

45. Bamboo
GIGANCOCHLOA ATTER grows an incredible 50 feet high and has much
bigger foliage. The young edible shoots taste sweet and are covered in
purple hairs. From Indonesia. It's straight culms are useful for building
furniture. This is a tight clumper.
PLEIOBLASTUS LINEARIS is found in Japan and China. The Pleioblastus
variety of bamboo is often used for flutes and fishing rods. This particular
bamboo has thin leaves and thin culms. When young the culms are
erect, when older they tend to hang.
SCHIZOSTACHYUM is a medium flowering bamboo with a dense clump and
erect culms. The Schizostachyum grows best in the tropics. The long
internodes are attractive in this tropical clumper. Hardiness Zone: 10 to 11
PHYLLOSTACHYS EDULIS is commonly known as moso bamboo. It is perhaps
the most famous bamboo in the Phyllostachys genus and perhaps the most
important type of bamboo used for commercial purposes. Moso bamboo is
extensively grown in China (mostly in Guangdong Province). It is a fast
growing running bamboo that has thick straight culms. The bamboo makes
very hard products such as strand woven bamboo flooring. 45

46. Bamboo
PHYLLOSTACHYS PARVIFOLIA found in the Midlands, UK. Similar in look to
the other phyllostachys listed below. All are known to be invasive, sending
out rhizomes a long way under ground. In a garden the shoots need to be
regularly pruned.
PHYLLOSTACHYS BISSETI is a popular type of bamboo often planted in
gardens in the USA as well as in the UK. Clearly a good species of bamboo for
temperate zones, although the species is native to Asia.
PHYLLOSTACHYS BAMBUSOIDES 'Holochrysa'. There in total 75 species of
Phyllostachys and 200 varities and cultivars. That is a staggering number for
just 1 type of bamboo.
SINOBAMBUSA TOOTSIK is a popular running bamboo from China
sometimes called 'Temple Bamboo'. Sinobambusa tootsik makes a good
potted plant and forms a dense screen when planted in a row. Temple
bamboo grows up to 32 feet in height. The culms turn from jade to yellow in
full sunlight. The culm has an average diameter of one and half inches.
46

47. Conclusion
With so many choices of building materials and house components and parts available today, how can one ever
know which is best for one’s home or office building or remodeling project? The answer comes from learning all
about available building materials / components, deciding what you want to pay, and thinking about what suits
your house design or office building or remodeling project.
Over the past decade or so, green thinking has increasingly recognized that minimal levels of sustainability
depend on radical increases of resource-efficiency—in the industrialized countries. Efficiency gains could be
made but, they might easily be offset by continuing growth of the economy as a whole. Hence, while choosing
building materials, one should also keep environment sustainability in mind.
Find below the conclusions with Earth-wise tips:
Brick (clay) Mudbrick
Uses - Walls, paths, driveways Uses - Walls, floors
Advantages - Versatile, good thermal mass Advantages - Source material can be found on site,
Disadvantages - Production is energy-intensive and long-lasting, biodegradable, high thermal mass; pest-
uses non-renewable resources. and fire-resistant
Earth-wise tips - Look for recycled bricks. Disadvantages - Making bricks is labour-intensive;
requires soil with high clay content; poor insulator.
Glass Earth-wise tips - Bricks can be purchased ready-made.
Uses - Windows, doors, skylights; bricks
Advantages - Stable, long-lasting, efficient, recyclable
Disadvantages - Production is energy-intensive, uses
non- renewable minerals.
Earth-wise tips - Seek out recycled windows; buy
energy-efficient new glass.
47

48. Conclusion
Timber / Wood Concrete
Uses - Floors, walls, supports and roof frames Uses - Floors, walls, supports
Advantages - Strong, easy to work Advantages - High thermal mass, strong, durable,
with, versatile, potentially renewable, biodegradable economical, resists termites and earthquakes
Disadvantages - Some timber is non-renewable; often Disadvantages - Production involves quarrying and
treated with toxic chemicals. creates greenhouse emissions; poor insulator, needs
Earth-wise tips - Use recycled wood or timber from reinforcing.
sustainable sources, with no chemical treatments. Earth-wise tips - Use autoclaved aerated concrete
(AAC), which is lightweight, energy-efficient and non-
Steel toxic, or concrete made with recycled aggregate.
Uses - Frames, supports
Advantages - Strong, economical, durable, recyclable
Disadvantages - Production is energy-intensive and
highly polluting; coatings are often polluting.
Earth-wise tips - Buy recycled steel or opt for
renewable timber.
Suneeta Bodapati
Interior Designing – JD Institute, Noida
Year 2012-2013
48

49. Bibliography
Places visited:
Wood : Timber Market, Sector - 31, Village Nithari, Noida - 201 301, Uttar Pradesh, India
Glass : Sector - 31, Village Nithari, Noida - 201 301, Uttar Pradesh, India
Stone : Barola, Noida
Bamboo : Nyay Khand II,Kala Patthar Road,Indirapuram, Gaziabad.
49

50. Samples
Pit Sand River Sand Concrete
White marble Yellow marble
50