Prepositions.ppt

MEKDELA AMBA UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND
LITERATURE
ENGLISH FOR PRE-UNIVERSITY STUDENTS, 2014 E.C.
By: Misbah Awel (M.A In TEFL)
MAY, 2023
South Wollo, Ethiopia

3.2.2. Relative clauses
Relative Clauses are those clauses introduced
with the relative pronouns such as who, that,
which, whose, when.
Example: I want to eat in a restaurant whose cooks
smoke.
Yesterday was a day when every thing went
wrong!
 There are two types of relative clauses:
1. Defining/Identifying or Restrictive relative
clauses
2. Non-defining/Adding relative clauses

1. Defining Relative Clauses
 These describe the preceding noun in such a way to distinguish it
from other nouns of the same class. It is essential to clear
understanding of the noun.
Example: The boy who was playing is my brother.
Defining Relative Pronouns
Subject Object Possessive
For
People
Who/that Who/Whom/ that whose
For
Things
Which/that Which/that Whose/ of which

Defining Relative Clauses: People
A. Subject: Who or that. Who is normally used:
The man who robbed you has been arrested.
The girls who serve in the shop are the owner’s
daughters. But that is a possible alternative after all,
everyone, everybody, no one, nobody and those:
Everyone who/that knew him liked him.
Nobody who/that watched the match will ever forget it.

…Defining Relative Clauses: People
B. Object of a verb: whom, who or that
The object form is whom, but it is considered very formal.
In spoken English we normally use who or that (that being
more usual than who), and it is still more common to omit
the object pronoun altogether:
The man whom I saw told me to come back today.
The man who I saw told me to come back today.
The man that I saw told me to come back today.
The man I saw told me to come back today.

… Defining Relative Clauses: People
C. With a preposition: whom or that
In formal English the preposition is placed before the
relative pronoun, which must then be put into the form
whom:
The man to whom I spoke…
In informal speech, however, it is more usual to move the
preposition to the end of the clause.
Whom then is often replaced by that, but it is still more
common to omit the relative altogether:
The man who/whom I spoke to…
The man that I spoke … The man I spoke to …

… Defining Relative Clauses: People
D. Possessive
Whose is the only possible form:
People whose rents have been raised can appeal.
The film is about a spy whose wife betrays him.
 In general, defining relative clause exactly defines/
identifies which thing/person the speaker is talking about.
Doesn’t have commas around it.
Example: I saw the girl who was outside our house.

… Defining Relative Clauses: things
A. Subject: which or that.
 Which is more formal than that.
This is the picture which/that caused such a sensation.
The stairs which/that lead to the cellar are rather slippery.
B. Object of a verb: Which or that or no relative at all.
The car which/that I hired broke down. The car I hired
broke down.
Which is hardly ever used after all, everything, little,
much, none, no and compounds of no, or after
superlatives. Instead we use that, or omit the relative
altogether, if it is the object of a verb:
All the apples that fall are eaten by the pigs.
This is the best hotel (that) I know.

… Defining Relative Clauses: things
C. Object of a preposition
The formal construction is preposition + which, but it is more usual
to move the preposition to the end of the clause, using which or that
or omitting the relative altogether:
The ladder on which I was standing began to slip.
The ladder which/that I was standing on began to slip.
The ladder I was standing on began to slip.
D. Possessive
Whose + a clause is possible but with + a phrase is more usual:
A house whose walls were made of glass
A house with glass walls

…Defining Relative Clauses: things
E. Relative adverbs: when, where, why
N.B: when can replace in/on which (used of time):
The year when (= in which) he was born
The day when (= in which) they arrived
Where can replace in/at which (used of place):
The hotel where (= in/at which) they were staying
Why can replace for which:
The reason why he refused is… The reason for which he refused is …
When, where and why used in this way are called relative adverbs.

2. Non- Defining Relative Clauses
 They are placed after nouns which are definite already, and
they do not therefore define the noun.
Non- defining relative clauses merely add something to the
noun by giving some more information about it.
 It is a non- restrictive relative clause
They are not essential in the sentence and can be omitted
without causing confusion.
They are separated from their noun by commas.
The pronoun can never be omitted in a non-defining
relative clause.
Example: The boy who was playing is my brother.

…Non- Defining Relative Clauses
Non-Defining Relative Pronouns
Non-Defining Relative Clauses: people
A. Subject: who (No other pronoun is possible.)
Note the commas: My neighbor, who is very pessimistic,
says there will be no apples this year. Peter, who had been
driving all day, suggested stopping at the next town.
Subject Object Possessive
For People Who Whom/who whose
For Things which which Which/ of which

…Non- Defining Relative Clauses: People
B. Object: whom, who
 The pronoun cannot be omitted. Whom is the correct form,
though who is sometimes used in conversation:
Peter, whom everyone suspected, turned out to be
innocent...
C. Object of a preposition: whom
The pronoun cannot be omitted. The preposition is
normally placed before whom:
Mr Jones, for whom I was working, was very generous
about overtime payments.
It is however possible to move the preposition to the end of
the clause. This is commonly done in conversation, and who
then usually takes the place of whom:
Mr Jones, who I was working for, was very generous about
overtime payments.

… Non- Defining Relative Clauses: People
If the clause contains an expression of time or place, this
will remain at the end:
Peter, with whom I played tennis on Sundays, was fitter
than me.
could become:
Peter, who/whom I played tennis with on Sundays, was
fitter than me.
D. Possessive: whose
Ann, whose children are at school all day, is trying to get
a job.
This is George, whose class you will be taking.

… Non- Defining Relative Clauses: Things
A. Subject: which
That is not used here:
That block, which cost £5 million to build, has been empty
for years.
The 8.15 train, which is usually very punctual, was late
today.
B. Object: which
That is not used here, and the which can never be omitted.
She gave me this jumper, which she had knitted herself.
These books, which you can get at any bookshop, will give
you all the information you need.

… Non- Defining Relative Clauses: Things
C. Object of a preposition
The preposition comes before which, or (more informally) at the
end of the clause:
Ashdown Forest, through which we’ll be driving, isn’t a forest
any longer. Ashdown Forest, which we’ll be driving through, isn’t
a forest any longer.
His house, for which he paid £10,000, is now worth £50,000.
His house, which he paid £10,000 for, is now worth £50,000.
D. Possessive: whose or of which
Whose is generally used both for animals and things. Of which is
possible for things, but it is unusual except in very formal English.
His house, whose windows are all broken, was a depressing
sight.
The car, whose handbrake wasn’t very reliable, began to slide
backwards

Cont’d…
If the subject in the main clause is different from the
subject in the defining relative clause, we normally leave
out the pronoun.
Examples: The student you saw in Bahir Dare is my
neighbour. (The subjects are the student and you.)
The bike she borrowed belongs to me. (The subjects are the
bike and she.)
If the subjects in both parts of a sentence are the same, we
cannot omit the pronoun, because it becomes the subject of
the clause. E.g. The driver who took you to school is from
New York. The pen that is on the desk is new.

Cont’d …
There is only one subject in each
sentence - the driver and the pen. If we
leave out the subject, it will not be clear
what we mean.
Wrong: The driver took you to school is
from New York. (This sentence does not
make any sense.)

Cont’d…
• A noun/ pronoun before a relative pronoun is called
antecedent.
‘ the shirt’ in the example above is the antecedent.
•We normally use that, not which after all, everything,
nothing, the only and the superlatives. Example: He is one
of the kindest people that I know.
• Whose is always used with prepositions.
• Whose goes together with a noun (= whose + noun)
Example: The merchant whose purse was stolen.
•We sometimes use of which instead of ‘whose’ to refer to
things and animals
• We don’t omit whose from a relative clause.
e.g. She is the student whose address I lost.

Non-defining relative clauses
• Also known as non- identifying/non-restrictive/adding
relative clause
• A pairs of commas are used before and after a non-
defining clause
e.g. My father, who is 65 now, still works.
His car, which cost nearly 20,000 pounds, is broken.
• Except ‘that’ all relative pronouns are used and omission
of the object pronoun is impossible
• Non- defining relative clause is in the middle of a
sentence.

Cont’d
•a few, several, some, many, much, most, all, none,
either/neither, half, a number, the biggest… + of
whom/which in non-defining relative clause
Example: The journalist has made many visits to Canada, the
most recent of which began today.
•The connective/coordinating relative clauses do not specify
or describe the preceding nouns or pronouns, but only
develop the story.
• It is always a non-defining relative clause
e.g. I gave the letter to James, who sent it to London.
She passed me the salt, which fell on the floor.
•The omission of commas around relative clauses can
sometimes affect the meaning.

Cont’d…
Examples: My uncle who is in Dire Dawa is an engineer.
(= I have an other uncle or other uncles some where else)
My uncle, who is in Dire Dawa, is an engineer.
(= I have only one uncle and he is in Dire Dawa.)
 Whose is used in place of possessive pronoun and
followed by a noun.
Example: There's a boy in grade 11 whose father is a
teacher. (= There is a boy in grade 11. His father is a
teacher.)

3.2.3. Adverbs
 Adverbsarewordswhich modify or giveexra information about verbs, adjectives, other adverbs or wholeclauses.
Form: some adverbs are not derived from other words while others are formed by adding the suffif -ly to other words, or are
formed from groupsofwords. Somecommon examples ofadverbsinclude:
o Adverbs thatarenotformedfromotherwords likejust,well, soon, too, quite, still, etc.
o Fixedphrases likeofcourse, kind of, at last, etc.
o Adjective+ -lysuch astragic tragically, excitable excitably, easy easily, real really
o Noun/preposition+ - ward(s)/- wise= home homeward, after afterwards, price pricewise, health healthwise
o Compounds = some+ times sometimes
Uses:Akey useofadverbsistoadd information about the time, manner, or placeofan action or statedescribed in thesentence.
KindsofAdverbs:Therearedifferent kindsofadverbsin English.Someoftheseareadverbsofmanner,adverbsofplace,adverbs
oftime, adverbs offrequency and adverbsofdegree.

KINDS OF ADVERBS
a. Adverbs of manner: They describe how something is done, and
answer the question “how?” Most of these adverbs end in -ly.
Some commonly used adverbs include slowly, loudly, quietly,
quickly, angrily, hopefully, easily, kindly and carefully.
Example: He walks quickly. = How does he walk? (quickly =
manner)
 Position of Adverbs of Manner in a sentence: They have some
positions in different sentences.
o Subject + intransitive verb + adverbs of manner (after
intransitive verb)

POSITIONS OF ADVERBS
Examples: Aster dances beautifully. He drives fast.
o After an object if the verb is transitive. (= subject + transitive verb + object + adverbs
of manner
Examples: He opened the door quietly. We packed our documents carefully.
o Before a verb to emphasise the action. (= Subject + verb + adverbs of manner)
Examples: He hurriedly put his laptop. She was eagerly reading the magazine.
o Before a verb if the object is very long.
Example: Derartu carefully picked up all the pieces of broken coffeepots.
b. Adverbs of Frequency: They are used to describe how frequently we do an activity.
These are called adverbs of frequency ( = answer the question “how often?”). Some of the
commonly used adverbs of frequency include:

KINDS OF ADVERBS
Frequency Adverbs of Frequency Example Sentence
100% Always I always go to bed before 11 p.m.
90% Usually, I usually have cereal for breakfast.
80% normally / generally I normally go to the gym.
70% often / frequently I often surf the internet.
50% Sometimes I sometimes forget my wife's birthday.
30% Occasionally I occasionally eat junk food.
10% Seldom I seldom read the newspaper.
5% hardly ever / rarely I hardly ever drink alcohol.
0% Never I never swim in the sea.
 Adverbs of frequency can be divided into three groups for convenience of
explanation. These include:-
o Group A: always, sometimes, usually, occasionally, once, repeatedly,
periodically, frequently, normally, generally, etc.
o Group B: seldom, rarely, never, hardly ever and scarcely ever (these
adverbs have a negative meaning.)

ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
o Group C: Twice a week, once a year, time and again, now and
then, again and again, every month, every day, every Monday,
every year, etc.
o We can also use group C adverbs of frequency when we want to
be more specific about the frequency and they are also known as
adverbs of definite frequency as the exact frequency is specified.
Note: Everyday (one word) is an adjective, and it means
“ordinary or usual”. Every day (two separate words) is an
adverb and it means “each day”. Examples: He wore his everyday
clothes. (adjective)
He takes more exercise every day.( adverb)

Position of Adverbs of Frequency in a Sentence
o Group A and B adverbs of frequency are placed after verb to be. (=
Subject + to be + adverbs of frequency)
o Group A adverbs (e.g., usually, sometimes, occasionally) can also be
placed at the beginning or end of a sentence, but always is not
normally put at the beginning of a sentence except with imperatives,
or orders. Besides, seldom, rarely, hardly, ever, and never cannot be
used at the beginning of a sentence.
Examples: They are never pleased to see me.
She isn't usually bad tempered.
Sometimes he drinks alcohol. OR He drinks alcohol sometimes.

Position of Adverbs of Frequency in a Sentence
o We use adverb expressions like a lot or not + (very) much after the main verb.
Examples: She travels a lot. He doesn’t study very much.
o Group B adverbs can be put at the beginning of a sentence with inversion.
Example: I have never watched such a boring movie. = Never have I watched such a boring movie.
o Before one -word verbs, i.e., with simple present and simple past tenses. (= Subject + adverb + main verb)
Examples: I always remember to do my homework. He normally gets good marks in exams.
Samrawit never visited her uncle. Tesfaye often played volleyball.
o When we use an auxiliary verb (have, will, must, might, could, would, can, etc.), the adverb is placed between the auxiliary and the
main verb. (= Subject + auxiliary + adverb + main verb)
She can sometimes beat me in a race. I would hardly ever be unkind to someone.
They might never see each other again. They could occasionally be heard laughing.
o Adverbs of frequency are usually placed before have to and used to. (= adverb + have to/ used to + main verb)
Examples: Everybody always has to think about peace and modernity. Fatuma hardly ever used to bake bread.

C. Adverbs of Time
 They tell us when an action happens. These adverbs answer the question “when?” Some of
these adverbs are now, today, tonight, last week, yesterday, tomorrow, soon, today, an hour
ago, later, previously, currently, finally, yet, etc.
Position of Adverbs of Time
These adverbs are put:
o After intransitive verbs (subject + intransitive verb + adverbs of time)
Examples: He was running yesterday. They are leaving tomorrow.
o After an object (subject + verb+ object + adverbs of time)
Examples: Alex broke the glass three days ago. They bought a bunch of keys last week.
o At the beginning of a sentence for emphasis. when adverbs of time come at the beginning of a sentence, they may or
may not be separated by a comma. The comma is preferred when the time adverb is long. However, the end position is
more common.
Examples: Today Girma send her a gift. After three weeks, I’ll visit Lalibela.
o Yet, still, and just = are also adverbs of time.

ADVERBS OF TIME
 Yet: It means ‘up to now’. It is normally placed at the end of a sentence, and it
is used with interrogatives and negative statements.
 Examples: Isn’t she ready yet? He has not come yet.
 not + yet, but it is less usual. Examples: She has not yet come.
We have not yet had our breakfast.
 Yet is used as a conjunction, and it means “nevertheless”.
Examples: Selamawit will never marry Haftu, yet she doesn’t want to displease
him.
He is not good at Physics and Mathematics, yet he wants to be an engineer.

…. ADVERBS OF TIME
 Still: Still means “even to this time” or “even to that time”. It is used to mean the action or
situation is continuing. It is placed after verb to be, but before a main verb.
Examples: He is still sleepy.
Alemitu still expects a letter from Kemal although he always phones her.
 When still used as a conjunction, it means “nevertheless”. In this case, yet and still have the
same position and meaning.
Example: He is not very rich, still he helps some needy people.
 Just: It means “a short time ago”. It also means “at present”, and it comes between the
auxiliary and the main verbs.
Examples: The boy has just been taken to the hospital. Wait for me, I’m just washing my
hands.

D. Adverbs of Place
They answer the question “where?” These adverbs describe where something
happens.
 Common adverbs of place include: abroad, anywhere, downstairs, here,
nowhere, outside, somewhere, there, underground, etc.
Positions of adverbs of place in a sentence
o They are usually placed after intransitive verb.
Example: He sat on the bench. Where did he sit? Answer: on the bench.
o After an object (Subject + verb + object + adverbs of Place)
Example: They built a splendid house near the river.

Positions of adverbs of place in a sentence
o When two or more adverbs of place come together, the more exact or specific adverb of place
comes before the more general.
Example: Misbah lives in Oromiya, Jimma. (unusual)
Misbah lives in Jimma, Oromiya.( correct)
o Here and there = They can be placed at the end of a sentence.
Examples: We intended to go there. Sofiya put the book here.
o Here and there can be placed at the beginning when they are used with go, come or be. When the
subject is a noun, here and there can be used with inversion.
Examples: Here is Alemayehu. (= Alemayehu has just appeared or we have just found him.)
Here comes my girlfriend. (= My girlfriend has just arrived.)
There goes the waggon. (= The waggon is going now.)

E. ADVERBS OF DEGREE
 Tell us the level or extent of something. Some adverbs of degree include absolutely,
completely, entirely, totally, wholly, extremely, fully, really, partly, mostly, etc.
Examples: The party was totally awesome! It was extremely cold today.
F. Adverbs of Purpose: They describe why something happens. Some of the commonly used
adverbs of purpose include: So, so that, to, in order to, because, since, accidentally,
intentionally, purposely, etc.
Order of Different Adverbs
 When adverbs of place, manner, and time come together in the same sentence, the
sequence of the adverbs should be MPT = Adverbs of manner + adverbs of place +
adverbs of time. Examples: He worked hard in the bank last year.

3.2.4. Adjectives and prepositions
 Adjectives are words that describe nouns or
pronoun (people, places, things, or ideas). You can
identify adjectives by asking one of the following
questions and seeing if the word answers any of
these questions: which one? what kind? how many?
how much? or whose? Examples:
The tall man walked down the street.
The young students performed a play.

Types of Adjectives
 Adjectives can be divided as:
•Descriptive Adjectives
•Demonstrative Adjectives
• Interrogative adjectives
•Predicate Adjectives
•Comparative Adjectives
•Supper lative Adjectives

Descriptive Adjectives
• Descriptive adjectives add detail or describe a
noun or pronoun.
Examples:
My hat is on the top shelf.
The white snow falls slowly to the ground.

DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES
 Adjectives used for pointing out person or
things.
 some of the demonstrative adjectives
include: this, that, these, those
This and these are used to point at anything
that is close to us, but that and those are
used to point at any thing that is further.
Examples: Such boys are brave.
These books are old.

Interrogative Adjectives
 They are used to ask questions such as
what, whose, and which.
Examples: What color is the flag of Ethiopia?
Which laptop is yours?
Whose cat is that?

Predicate Adjectives
• Predicate adjectives come after a linking
verb and are used to describe the subject
Example:
Mr. Smith is a lonely man.
Linking verb
Predicate adjective

Order of Adjectives
 The English language normally uses a particular word order when using more than one adjective to describe a noun.
The following is the sequence generally followed to arrange adjectives before a noun:
1. Article/possessive adjective/demonstrative adjective/other determiners: both/this/my/an/several
2. Numerals/ordinals: first/last/fifth 3. Quantifiers/Quantity: few/a little/plenty
4. Qualitative/ opinion: ugly/main/famous 5. Size: big/heavy
6. Age/Temperature: hot/old 7. Condition or state: Wet, rich, intelligent, surprised, hungry, empty
8. Shape: circular/round 10. Pattern: Striped, polka dotted, checked, plaid
1. 9. Colour: reddish, mauve, beige, blue-green, off-white 11. Origin/Nationality: French, Korean, Saudi, African, Asian. 12.
Material/noun: plastic/table 13. Purpose: dining, shopping, work, gardening
 As pointed out by the fabulous Mignon Fogarty, 'OSASCOMP' is a great way to remember the order of adjectives.
 We can also put adverbs like 'really' and 'very' at the beginning, though after the determiners. Here are some
examples: I carried a very small black suitcase.
We bought a new round kitchen table. That is a really ugly wooden chair.

 A word that shows a relationship between a noun or
pronoun and some other word in the sentence.
 Some prepositions include on, through, behind, for,
beneath, against, beside, over, during, without,
abroad, across, among, against, around ,at the end, at
the bottom, between, behind, below, by , inside , corner,
into, via, after , to , about ,in, on, at, since ,while,
under, over, right, left

There are three kinds in prepositions
@ Simple prepositions: Prepositions which consists only
one word. e.g. in, on, at, with, against etc..,
@ Compound prepositions: Prepositions which consists of
two or more words. e.g. instead of, in the middle of, by the
side of etc..,
@ Phrase prepositions @ Participle Prepositions

PARTICIPLE PREPOSITION
◦ Present participles of verbs used absolutely without any noun or
pronoun being attached to them
◦ E.g. Concerning/Considering/Touching/Respecting/Regarding/Pending

Prepositions of Place
Some prepositions show where something happens. They are
called prepositions of place.
Examples:-
Sanny was sitting under a tree.
There’s a wooden floor underneath the carpet.
Some geese flew over their house.
John and Sarah were hiding inside the wardrobe.
There was a tree beside the river.
I have a friend who lives in America.

AT vs IN
◦ AT is used for a small place
◦ IN is used for a big place
1. He lives at Alwar in Rajasthan.
2. A temple is situated at Madurai in Tamil Nadu.

AT vs IN
◦ AT shows stable position
◦ IN shows movement
1. She is at home.
2. The taxi is in motion.

IN
◦ Used for enclosed space
1. In the garden
2. In Delhi
3. In India
4. In a car
5. In my wallet
6. In a box

IN
◦ Used for existing state of things
1. He is swimming in the river.
2. There are 25 students in the class.

ON
◦ Used for a surface
1. On the ceiling
2. On the page
3. On the carpet
4. On the door
5. On the floor

Prepositions of Time
Some prepositions show when something happens. They are called
prepositions of time.
Examples:-
School starts at nine o’clock.
We’re going to the zoo on Saturday.
No, you can’t watch a video. It’s past your bedtime already.
I visited my grandparents during the summer.
You must finish the work by Friday.
I’ll do my homework before dinner.

IN
◦ Used for long periods, centuries, years and months
1. In 1990
2. In the next century
3. In the Ice Age
4. In the past
5. In the morning
6. In the mornings

ON
◦ Used for days and dates
1. On Sunday
2. On Tuesdays
3. On 6th
March
4. On Independence Day
5. On my birthday
6. On Monday evening

AT
◦ Used for a precise time
1. At 3 o’clock
2. At 9 am
3. At sunrise
4. At night
5. At the moment
6. At present
7. At the same time

Prepositions of Direction
Some prepositions show where something is going.
They are called prepositions of direction.
Examples:-
The boys chased after each other.
The football rolled down the hill.
A man was walking his dog along the riverbank.
The freeway goes right through the city.
We were travelling towards Miami.

Prepositions with special uses
Our modules are full of real life examples.
I ate a plate of rice and a quarter of milk.
Would you like a glass of lemon juice?
I need three pieces of paper.
Most of the children in my class like Education.
There are several ways of cooking Upma.
Usage of “OF”

Usage of “FOR”
I made this bookmark for Mom.
Is there room for me on this seat?
I’d like a new computer for Christmas.
We’re going downtown for a meeting. I made this gift
for my mother.

Usage of “WITH”
He pounds nails with a hammer.
She painted the picture with her new paints.
Would you like to come with us to the cinema?
I can do difficult problems with help from Mom.
Who is the man with the beard?

Usage of “EXCEPT” AND “INSTEAD OF”
I like all kinds of food except porridge.
We go to school every day except Saturday and
Sunday.
You should eat fruit instead of candy.
We could watch TV instead of reading our books.

PHRASE PREPOSITION
◦ Groups of words used with the force of a single preposition
◦ Eg: According to/ By means of/ In order to/With regard to/ For the
sake of/ Because of/Away from

PREPOSITIONS WITH ADJECTIVE ,VERBS .
ADJECTIVE + PREPOSITIONS
The adjectives in these examples are printed in red color.
Dad was angry with us.
We were afraid of the big dog.
She’s not very interested in sports.
John is very good at drawing.
Mr. Lee is pleased with our work.
The teachers are always kind to us.
What’s wrong with the computer?

Prepositions are used with some verbs. The verbs in
these examples are printed in green color.
I’m looking for my pencil. Have you seen it?
Can you think of another word for ‘pleased’?
Does this book belong to you?
We’re listening to CDs.
I agree with you.
Tell me about the show you saw.
Cut the cake into five pieces.
They borrowed money from the bank.

Prepositions are used with some nouns. The nouns in
these examples are printed in red color.
What’s the answer to this question?
Is there a reason for this delay?
What’s the matter with you?
Here’s an example of good behavior.
Congratulations on winning the competition!
Traffic can cause damage to the environment.
 There is no preposition of time if the day/year has
each, every, last, next, this before it. Examples: each
year, every Monday, last week, next day, this week,
etc.

1. A cat was sitting _______the roof of my car. (place)
2. Some people were talking ___the movie. (time)
3. A man was coming____ us on his bike. (direction)
4. The party starts_____ six o’clock. (time)
5. She put the book ____her bag. (place)
6. We walked____ the street to the park. (place)
7. She keeps her slippers____ her bed. (place)
8. We always wash our hands ____meals. (time)
9. She ran ____the dog because she was frightened.
(direction)
TRY THIS:

Fill in the blanks with the right prepositions:
1. John has never been good … English. 2. I am
surprised … her rude behavior. 3. He was really
fit… his new duties, this is what he told me. 4. I
don’t think John was completely honest … me. 5.
She was grateful … Mary … helping her with her
new project. 6. I was angry … my brother because
he had not told me the truth. 7. You could see
clearly that he was afraid … his wife. 8. He told me
he had got pretty fed up … his job. 9. Because …
the bad weather, we came back. 10. He is expert …
hiding his feelings.

3.2.5. Grammar: Reported Speech
 Direct Speech: The exact words someone says, set within quotation
marks (some times called quoted speech.)
It is word-for - word.
It uses quotation marks, i.e. either single or double quotations.
It adds color and liveliness to your writing if used wisely.
Example : She said, “Today’s lesson is on reported speech.” Or
“Today’s lesson is on reported speech,” she said.
 Indirect Speech: The reporting of what some one has said, without
using his/her exact words.
 it is known as reported speech.
 it doesn’t use quotation marks to enclose what the person said.
 it doesn’t have to be word- for- word expression.

Cont’d …
We use Reported Speech when:
 we are interested not in the words that were
chosen, but in the information given.
we want to tell some one else what some one
said/ asked.
 we want to repeat what someone said.

Advantages of Using Reported Speech in Writing
Reported speech is very important for legal
language, because it is used in:
 newspaper reports of crimes and
investigations,
reports on trials(judgements/ hearings), and
judicial procedure.
 It is found in fictions, talking or writing
about conversation, reports, articles or
speeches.

Tense-Wise Rule for Changing Direct speech to Reported Speech
Direct speech Indirect speech/reported speech
Simple Present
“I never eat meat,” he explained.
Simple Past
= He explained (that) he never ate meat.
Present Continuous
“I’m waiting for Ann”, he said.
Past Continuous
= He said (that) he was waiting for Ann.
present Perfect
“I have found ten dollars,” he said.
Past Perfect
= He said (that) he had found ten dollars.
Present Perfect Continuous
He said, “I have been waiting for ages.”
Past Perfect Continuous
= He said (that) he had been waiting for ages.
Simple Past
“I took it home with me,” she said.
Past Perfect
= She said (that) he had taken it home with her.
future
He said, “I will/shall be in Paris on Monday.”
Conditional
= He said (that) he would/should be in Paris on Monday.
Future Continuous
“I will/shall be using the car myself on the 24h,” she said.
Conditional Continuous
= She said (that) she’d been using the car herself
on the 24th.
Conditional
I said, “I would like to see it.”
Conditional
= I said (that) I would like to see it.

Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases of Time Change as follows:
Speaker`s word/Direct speech Reported speech/Indirect Speech
Here There
This That
These those
Now Then, at the time, immediately
Today That day
Tonight That night
Tomorrow The next day/the following day
Yesterday The day before / the previous day
Next Monday The following Monday
Last Monday The previous Monday
The day before yesterday two days time
The day after tomorrow In two day`s time
A year ago a year before/the previous year

Direct Speech Indirect/Reported Speech
I
you
we
me
you
us
he, she
I, she, he, we, they
they
him, her
him, her, us, them
them
my
your
our
mine
yours
ours
his, her
my, his, her, our, their
their
his, hers
mine, his, hers, ours, theirs
theirs
Changes of Personal Pronouns

Usage of Reporting Verb in Reported Speech
If the reporting verb is simple present, present perfect , or
future, no change in tense or adverbs of time and place is
necessary.
Examples: He says, “ I go to school every day.”
He says that he goes to school every day.
She has said, “I wash my hair everyday.”
She has said that she washes her hair everyday.
She will say, “ I make coffee everyday.”
She will say that she makes coffee everyday.
If the reporting verb of the sentence is in the past, the verb
in the noun clause will usually be in a past form.
Example: She said, “ I will never forget you.”
= She said (that) she would never forget you.

Patterns of Reporting Verbs
 The commonly used reporting verbs are SAY and TELL.
SAY: We say something to somebody and the pattern is:
Say + (that) + Clause
Example: She said, "I've already eaten my breakfast.” =
She said (that) she had already eaten her breakfast.
 TELL: tell + someone + (that) + clause
John told me, “ I’ve seen the film.” = John told me (that)
he had seen the film.
When we are reporting orders, we can also use another
pattern with 'tell’: tell + someone + to + infinitive
e.g. She told the children to go to bed.

… Patterns of Reporting Verbs
 ASK
We use 'ask' to report questions or requests.
For questions we use the pattern:
ask + someone + if / question word + clause
e.g. I asked my boss if I could leave early.
She asked them where the station was.
For requests we use the pattern:
ask + someone + to + infinitive
e.g. I asked Lucy to pass me the salt.

Reporting Questions
1. WH-questions: Wh-word stays as conjunction.
Examples:
He asked, “Why are you studying English.”
He asked me why I was studying English.
Dave asked, “ Where did you go last weekend?”
Dave asked me where I had gone the previous
weekend.
NB: Word order changes into that of a statement.

2. Indirect(Yes/No) Questions
 When reporting Yes/No questions, we use
(introduce) the conjunctions if or whether.
 We use the following introducing verbs: ask,
enquire, wonder, want to know, etc.
The subject is placed before the verb as in the
affirmative s/ce.
Example: She asked “Do you want to come
with me?”
She asked me if I wanted to come with her.

Reporting Orders and Requests
When we want to report an order or request, we can use a
verb like ‘tell’ with a to- clause.
Examples: He said, “ Go away.” = He told me to go away.
Other verbs to report order and request in this way are:
command, order, warn, ask, advise, invite, beg, teach,
forbid.
Example: The doctor said to me, “Stop smoking!”
= The doctor told me to stop smoking.
 requests used to ask for objects can be reported as follow:
ask + for + object
Examples: “ Can I have an apple?” she asked.= She asked for
an apple. “Sugar, please.” = she asked for sugar.

Reporting Suggestions
Suggestions are usually reported with a that- clause.
‘That’ and ‘should’ are optional in this clauses.
Example: She said, “ Why don’t you get a mechanic to look
at the car?”
She suggested (that) I (should) get a mechanic to look at the
car.
Other reporting verbs used in this way are: insist,
recommend, demand, propose.
Example: The dentist said, “I think you should use a
different tooth brush.”
The dentist recommended ( that) a different tooth brush.

UNIT 4: WATER
4.1. Speaking: Expressing Regrets (Wish)
 We can express regrets using the following forms:
o [I] Wish + Subject + Simple Past = our regret refers to
present/ a wish for things to be different.
Example: I wish she loved me. = She doesn’t love me.
If only she loved me. = She doesn’t love me
I wish I were taller. = But I’m not taller.
The verb changes into the opposite.
o [I] Wish + Subject + Past Perfect = Our regret refers to
past wish.
oE.g. I wish I had worked hard. = I didn’t work hard.
I wish you had been there. = You weren’t there.

Speaking: Expressing Regrets (Wish)
o I wish + Subject (never I) + would/ wouldn’t +
infinitive
= Our regret refers to future/ things to happen/ to stop
happening or change some way.
I wish I could sing. But I can’t sing.
I wish you wouldn’t be late. = You are always late.
FACT/Regret WISH
I am fat. I wish I wasn’t fat.
He doesn’t help me. I wish he would help me.
I have lost my pen. I wish I hadn’t lost my pen.
I don’t have any friends. I wish I had some friends.

4.2.1. AS and LIKE
 AS and Like can be used to say that things are similar.
Examples: My daughter is intelligent, like her mother.
He doesn’t want to live as he was brought up.
 As + subject + verb
I like your hair as it is now. I promised, as we have a test today.
We can also use as + noun, but it has a different : to show a job or in
the capacity/ function of. The school hall is being used as a classroom
at the moment.

AS and LIKE
Compare these two sentences:
He works as a singer. (He is a singer.)
He behaves like a film star. (He isn’t a film star.)
‘AS’can mean ‘because’. As it was raining, we stayed at home.
‘As’ can mean ‘while’ or ‘at the same time’: As I was walking
down the straight, I saw Hayelom.
We use ‘AS’ to talk about one thing is similar to another thing.
E.g., Ali loves spicy food, as I do. (as do I= more formal)

AS and LIKE
 ‘As’ is also used to talk about something’s (a tool’s) function
(what we are using it for).
Don’t use the shovel as a shield. Don’t use the knife as a
screwdriver.
We need to use ‘as’ with expressions like ‘as much as’ and as +
adjective +as.
Ali loves spicy food as much as I do. She is as clever as her sister.
Note: when ‘as’ and ‘like’ are used in these ways, they are always
stressed.

ACTIVITY
I. Complete these sentences with as and like.
1. I always wear bright colors ...................... red and yellow.
2. Please put the tables and chairs back ...................... they
were before.
3. Your idea is good. We will do ...................... you suggest.
4. My brother’s working for my uncle ...................... his
assistant.
5. This coffee is not good. It tastes ...................... water.
6. ................... I told you; I’m going to work very hard in
Grade 12.

4.2.2. QUANTIFIERS
Quantifiers are adjectives or adjectival phrases that
describe “how much”(uncountable) or “how
many”(countable) of a given noun there is.
 Some quantifiers can only go with countable (precise
quantity) nouns, while others only modify uncountable
(imprecise) nouns. A few quantifiers can modify both.
Examples: The city has a large amount of traffic due to road
construction.
Not much rain in the spring meant that the crops suffered in
the summer.
 Some examples of quantifiers are listed on the following
table below.

… QUANTIFIERS
For use with
countable nouns
For use with
uncountable nouns
For use with both
types of nouns
A few, few A little, little No, one
A number of A bit of Some(of)
Numerous A great deal of Any
Several A large amount of A lot
Many Much Lots of
[Number] Plenty of
Enough

‘SOME’AND ‘ANY’
 Some and Any are used before plural nouns and
uncountable nouns to talk about an indefinite quantity: we
don't know or we don't want to say the exact quantity.
 'Some' means 'a certain number of' or 'a certain amount
of’.
 We don't use 'some' if we are talking about something in
general or thinking about it as a category.
 When we use 'some', we don't say the exact quantity, but
we could probably find it out if we needed to.
Example: Can you buy some milk? [We don't know exactly
how much, but I'm talking about a certain amount of milk –
I don't want all the milk in the world.]

…. SOME AND ANY
Some is used in affirmative sentences.
Examples: There are some letters for you.
- I’ve got some money.
 Some is used in questions when we want to
encourage people to say ‘yes’; for example in requests
and offers.
Examples: Can you let me have some paper?
Would you like some more tea?
 Any is used in negatives and questions.
Examples: Are there any new stories in your store.
Any is used after words with negative meaning such
as without, never, seldom, rarely, hardly.
Examples: I found a taxi without any trouble.

… SOME AND ANY
 'Any' can be used in a positive sentence to mean 'it's not
important which one’.
When we use 'any' in this way, it's most often used with
singular countable nouns:
You can take any bus. Pass me any glass.
 Compare the following two sentences:
Do you have any letters for me? [This is a real question. I
don't know if you have any letters or not.]
Do you have some letters for me? [I think you do, so I'm
expecting that you will say 'yes'.]

‘Little’ and ‘A Little’
 We use a little to express positive idea with
uncountable nouns. It means “ a small amount, but
some.”
I have a little sugar in the jar.
There is still a little work to do.
 Little means “not much or almost no.” It is used to
express negative idea with uncountable nouns.
There is little work to do. [ = almost no work to do.]
 ‘Few’ and ‘a few’
 Few describes negative idea with plural nouns. It
means
“not many or almost no.”
Example: The exam is extremely difficult, and few

Few’ and ‘a few’
 A few: we use a few to express positive idea with plural
nouns. It means “small number, but some.”
Examples: A few students passed it because the exam is
extremely difficult.
 A few of the students [=a small number of the students]
forgot to bring their books to class.
 Few of the students forgot to bring their books to class.
[=not a lot of the students forgot; many of them
remembered]

Much, many, a lot of, lots of
 We use the quantifiers much, many, a lot of, lots of to talk
about quantities, amounts and degree in affirmative
sentence.
 We can use them with a noun (as a determiner) or without
a noun (as a pronoun).
 We use much and many mostly in question and negative.
Much is used with uncountable nouns, and many is used
with countable plural nouns.
Examples: We haven’t got much rice left.
- Has he got many books?
 We often use much and many in affirmative sentences
after too, as, so and very.

… Much, many, a lot of, lots of
Examples: I’ve got so many jobs to do today.
We enjoy the party very much.
We’ve got too much milk.
 In affirmative sentences, we normally use a lot (of), and
lots (of). We also use a lot (of), and lots (of) with both
uncountable nouns and plural nouns.
We’ve got a lot of milk. (Not: We’ve got much milk.)
He’s got a lot of / plenty of books. (Not normally: He’s got
many books.)

… Much, many, a lot of, lots of
 We use much with singular uncountable nouns
and many with plural nouns:
I haven’t got much change. I’ve only got a ten euro note.
Are there many campsites near you?
 When we use much and many in negative questions, we
are usually expecting that a large quantity of something
isn’t there. When we use a lot of and lots of in negative
questions, we are usually expecting a large quantity of
something.

Much, many, a lot of, lots of: Negative Questions
 Haven’t they sold many tickets? No, they haven’t.
[ = The speaker expects that they have sold a small quantity
of tickets.]
 Haven’t they sold a lot of tickets? (or lots of) No, they
haven’t. = The speaker expects that they have sold a large
quantity of tickets.
 Isn’t there much food left? (No, there isn’t.) = The
speaker expects that there is a small quantity of food left.
 Isn’t there a lot of food left? (or lots of) (Yes, there is.)
= The speaker expects that there is a large quantity of food
left.

Much, many, a lot of, lots of
 We usually leave out the noun after much, many and a lot,
lots when the noun is obvious:
A:Would you like some cheese?
B:Yes please but not too much. (not too much cheese)
A:Can you pass me some envelopes?
B:How many? (how many envelopes?)
A:How many people came?
B:A lot. (or Lots.)

Quantifiers followed by “of”
 Many quantifiers that end in “of” must be followed by an article or
determiner (these, his, my, etc.), although some do not.
 Numbers are different from quantifiers: quantifiers are
more general in description, while numbers indicate precise
quantities. However, quantifiers and numbers can be used
in the same way: e.g. The experiments were repeated a few times
in order to ensure accuracy Vs Experiments repeated three times in
order to ensure accuracy.
Must be followed by
article/determiner
May or may not be followed by
article/ determiner
All of, some of, many of, [A] few
of, [A] little of, None of, several
of, enough of
Plenty of, a lot of, a number of,
a couple of

…Cont’d
 The quantifier ‘a few’ describes the noun times in a
general sense. The “methods” and/or the “experimental”
portion of a scientific manuscript should not use general
quantifiers.

4.2.3. ARTICLES
 It is often difficult to decide whether an English noun
needs an article before it, and, if so, which article
(a/an/the) to use.
 The main things to consider when choosing an article are
whether or not the noun is countable, and whether it is
definite.
 Article is a word which points out at a person, thing or
place spoken of. Basically, an article is an adjective. Like
adjectives, articles modify nouns. English has two types of
articles: ‘the’ and ‘a/an’.
There are two types of articles:
Definite and
Indefinite articles

DEFINITE ARTICLE
 Definite article tells us about a specific person/ thing. We
usually use definite article when our reader or listener
understands what we are referring to. “The” is called the
definite article, as it normally points out some particular
person or thing.
Examples:
I bought a book last week. The book is about trees. = You
have just mentioned the book, so you both know which one.
We went to a wedding yesterday. The bride wore a lovely
dress. = You have not mentioned the bride before, but you
both know she is connected to the wedding.

WHEN DO WE USE “THE”?
 “The” is used with a singular noun for classifying
things/people in a general statement.
Example: The cobra is dangerous. = A certain class of snakes
as distinct from other classes, such as the grass snakes. In
this statement, it is possible to use zero article with plural
nouns as. Cobras are dangerous. = All the creatures with the
characteristics of snakes called cobras.
 The is also used to refer to the group as a whole: ‘The +
nationality adjectives, particularly those ending in –ch,-sh,
and -ese.’ OR ‘The’ + plural names.
Examples: The British =The British people in general.
The American or Americans (zero article)
 Families: The price sisters have opened a boutique.

• Races: The Europeans are a long way from political unity.
• Politics: The liberals want electoral reform.
• Titles: to emphasis the groups’ identity.
Examples: The Beatles and/The Jesuits.
 The can be used with specified nouns: The + collective
noun/plural countable noun.
Examples: The police, the public, the bosses, the unions.
 The is used for specifying a noun with context/ situation or
grammatically:
 specifying by means of back-reference: sth. that’s been mentioned
referred to again.
e.g. Tabour is a quiet village near Hawassa. The village has a
population of a few people.

• Specifying by means of ‘the’ + ‘noun’ + ‘of’.
Examples: The life of Napoleon was very stormy.
The freedom of the individual is worth fight of.
 By means of clauses and phrases: the … + clause/ the …
+ phrases.
Examples: The Smith you’re looking for no longer lives
here. And/ Or The letters on the shelf are for you.
 with in a limited context. Reference can be made to:
People: Who’s at the door? It is the postman.
Place: Where’s Zelalem? He’s in the garden/ He’s at the
supermarket.

• Locations which are ‘one of a kind’ always require the:
The earth, the sun, the moon, the solar system, the sea, the
sky, the galaxy, the universe, etc.
To refer to parts of a whole of people/things:
 A human being: the brain, the head, the heart, the lung,
the mind, the stomach, …
 A room: the floor, the ceiling, the door…
 An object: the back/front, the center, the inside …
 A town: the shops, the streets, the stadium…
 An appliance( a machine): the on/ off switch …

‘The’ is used in time expressions to talk about:
 Sequence of time: the past, the present, the future.
 Parts of the day: in the morning, in the after noon, in the
evening, but the cannot be used with next
week/moth/year, on Tuesday, last week/month, year…
 Seasons: [the] spring/summer/ autumn/ winter.
 Dates: the is used with cardinal numbers in dates.
Examples: May 24th ( Spoken as the 24th May).
24th May (Spoken as the 24th of May).
 Fixed time expressions: all the while, at the moment, at
the time being, in the end …

 The is used with unique items rather than place names:
 Institution and organizations: the United Nations, the boy
Scouts, but congress/ parliament with out the.
 Historical events: the French Revolution, the Victorian age
…
 Ships: the Canberra, the Discovery, the Titanic …
 Documents & official titles: the Great Charter, the Queen
…
 Political Parties: the Conservative Party, the Labor Party
…
 The Press: the Economist, the Times, the New Yorker …
 Public bodies: the Government, the Army, the Police …

 ‘The’ can be used with decades: He was born in the 1980s.
 Currencies: The dollar is getting stronger against the pound.
 Superlatives and ordinals: The second book in the series is the best.
 Oceans, seas and many rivers: The Nile flows into the
Mediterranean.
 Adjectives used as nouns: The poor will always be a challenge for the
rich in any country.
 A symbol: The Merlion is a symbol of Singapore.
 In general, a single, countable noun must have an article if there is no
other number, determiner or possessive (e.g. two, our, this).
 our house – you do not need an article, because you already have the
possessive our.
 Trees are usually green – no article is needed, because you are talking generally and
he noun is not definite, i.e. you are not talking about specific trees.

INDEFINITE ARTICLE (A/AN)
 Indefinite article: speaks of any(indefinite) person thing or
place. We use ‘a’ or ‘an’ to refer to objects more generally
than particularly.
 We use ‘a’/ ‘an’ before singular countable nouns. e.g., a dog/cat.
 We use ‘a’ before words which begin with consonant sounds. A
uniform, a European, a film, a union, a day, a unit…
 We use ‘an’ before words which begin with vowel sounds like an
umbrella, an usual, an apple, an eye, an orange …
 We use ‘an’ before words where ‘h’ is silent such as an hour, an
honest, an honor, an heir, an historian, etc.
 An is also used before these letters L, M, N, O, S,R, X when they
are pronounced alone: an ‘L’, an ‘M’, an ‘N’, an ‘O’, an ‘S’, an ‘R’,
an ‘X’.

ZERO ARTICLE
 We use zero article with proper nouns:
Examples: Hailu is going Ghana. ( Not: the Ghana)
 With meals: Have you had lunch yet? ( Not: a/the lunch)
 With school, class, college, university, home, work, church, bed,
hospital, prison, town when we talk about going to these places or
being in them for their normal use:
He has been in hospital for two weeks.
 With by + item of transport:
Example: Did you go by bus? [Not: by the bus]
 With next/last + week/ days of the week, etc:
Examples: next Friday, last night, next time…

4.2.4. LINKING WORDS
 Linking words: are words used to connect ideas and
sentences together. Hence, the method of connecting ideas
and sentences using linking words/ coordinators is known
as coordination.
 There are two types of linking words:
o Coordinating conjunctions, and
o Subordinating conjunctions
 Coordinating conjunctions: are used to connect words,
phrases, or independent clauses that have equal importance
in a sentence. The are seven coordinating conjunctions in
English: ‘FANBOYS’
 For: used to give reasons. Example: I need to rest, for I
am tired.

Coordinating conjunctions
• And: used to add or join information. Example: she is
smart and funny.
• Nor: is used to add a negative idea or to indicate that non
of the things mentioned are true.
Example: He didn’t speak Arabic, nor did he understand it.
[You must reverse the normal subject-verb positions in the
second clause when using nor.]
 But: used to show contrast or a different idea.
Example: He is short, but he is strong.
 Or: shows alternatives or choices.
Example: Would you like tea or coffee?

Coordinating conjunctions
• Yet: used to show contrast, or to indicate something
unexpected. Example: He is very intelligent, yet he is
failing his classes.
• So: used to show the result or the consequence of sth. It
has the same meaning as therefore, as a result.
Example: She studied hard, so she passed the exam.
•Note: When you use the above coordinating conjunctions
to join complete sentences, use a comma before the
coordinators.
Example:
Azeb studied hard, so she scored a good grade.
You must be early, or you will miss the bus.

Subordinating Conjunctions
• Subordinating Conjunctions: are kinds of conjunctions that join
subordinate[dependent]clauses with independent clauses.
• The method of joining an independent clause and a
dependent clause in the same sentence by using
subordinators is known as subordination.
•The linking devices we use in subordination are:
Subordinating Conjunctions
Relative Pronouns
 Here the subordinate clauses cannot stand alone; they
must be joined to an independent clause to be
grammatically correct.

They tell when, where, why, how, and to what extent.
Meaning Subordinating Conjunction
cause because, since, as
contrast/concession although, as though, even though, though,
even if, where as, while,
conditioneven if, if, as if, as long as, provided that, unless,
provided
result that, so that, in order that
timeafter, until, as soon as, before, since, when, while, once,
whenever, after
place where, wherever
comparison as, than, as…..as

Examples:
If they can punch through the ice sheet, polar bears love
swimming most.
Rahel was reading fiction while her brother was listening
music.
Because the train was late, I arrived late to work.
We sang three more songs although our voices were tired
from singing so much.
Taylor goes to school after she brushes her teeth.
Shawn finished his homework as soon as he came home
from school.
My teacher lets us choose partners whenever we have been
doing a good job in class.

Types of sentences
• In terms of their construction, there are five types of sentences:
 Simple Sentence
 Compound Sentence
 Complex Sentence
 Compound-Complex Sentence
 Complex-Complex Sentence
• 1. Simple Sentence is a sentence consisting of one subject and one
predicate, either or both of which may be compound. It, in other
words, is one main clause.
Examples:
• The players arrived.
• The players and the judges arrived.
• The players arrived and reported.
• The players and the judges arrived and reported.

• I have never played tennis.
• The big oak tree in front of our house is a permanent house for
thousands of birds.
N.B. Don’t be confused by the length of a sentence. You should
simply count the number of clauses in the sentence.
2. Compound Sentence is a sentence which consists of two
independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction,
conjunctive adverbs or separated by a semi-colon.
Examples:
• I have never played tennis, but I hope to start taking
lessons next year.
• I steamed the carrots, then I baked the potatoes.
• I ate every thing on the tray; I was really hungry.
• I bought coca cola, and I drank it at once.

3. Complex Sentence is a sentence which consists of one main
clause and one subordinate clauses.
Example
• Although I have never played tennis, I planned to start taking
lessons next year.
4. Compound -Complex Sentence is a sentence which consists
of two independent clauses with one or more subordinate clauses.
Example
• Although I have never played tennis, I planned to start taking
lessons next year; I really need the aerobic exercise that tennis
provides.
• Although I have never played tennis, I really need the
exercise, so I planned to start taking lessons next year.
• I bought coca cola, and I drank it at once because I was very
thirsty.

• 5.Complex-complex sentence
• A complex-complex sentence has one independent clauses
and two or more dependent clauses, one of which depend
on the other.
• Example:
• I like students who work hard when they are told.

Instructions for Mastering Vocabulary Words
 When reading passages for pleasure, for work, or for
university coursework, you will encounter unfamiliar
vocabulary.
 Examples, appositives, punctuation, the conjunction “or,”
clauses, referents, “be” verb, contrasts, and other words in
the sentence are contextual clues which may help you to
understand a new word.
o EXAMPLE
Examples in the form of a word or phrase may help to
explain the meaning of a word: as, case in point, for
instance, for example, in fact, like, specifically, such as, and
to illustrate.

… Cont’d
e.g. This outcome is a reflection of strong sense of
solidarity within the corporate peasant community; for
instance, this solidarity is apparent in the tendency for
almost every man to remain within his village over his
lifetime. =The meaning of solidarity is identified by the
example that most men remain within their village during
their lifetime; therefore, you can guess that solidarity
means having an identity or coincidence of interests,
purposes, or sympathies among members of a certain
group.
o APPOSITIVE - is a noun or noun phrase which is set off by commas and
which modifies another noun] can help you to identify the meaning of an
unknown word.

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