Practical reptile keeping september 2015

SNAKES◆LIZARDS◆TORTOISES◆AMPHIBIANS◆INVERTS
Keepingwww.practicalreptilekeeping.co.uk
Practical
BEARDEDDRAGONHEALTHGIANTCENTIPEDES SEEYOURPHOTOS
No.79: September 2015 £3.70
HOW
HERBSCAN
REPTILES
HERBSCAN
REPTILES
HERBSCAN
REPTILES
HELP
Discoverwhy
theyareso
popularas
pets
MEET MARK O’SHEA
Television’sreptile
adventureranddedicated
snakeenthusiast
Hermann’s
tortoises
Practical
No.79: September 2015 £3.70 KeepingKeepingKeepingKeepingKeepingKeeping
Reptile
Plantedvivariums
Aprofessionalzooenclosuredesigner
revealshissecretsforsuccess

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T
here’s always something new in the world of
reptile keeping, which is part of the reason that
this is such a fascinating hobby. One of the clear trends now is the creation of
naturalistic enclosures for a whole host of species, ranging right across the spectrum.
This is paralleling what has happened in the aquarium hobby in many ways where,
driven by technology, successful planted tanks have become very popular. Indeed, some
people now concentrate more on the plants than the tank occupants themselves!
This month, we have an interview with Andrew Stephenson, who is one of the
leading creators of planted enclosures in the zoo world, both in terms of designing and
building them. He has plenty of tips to pass on, highlighting the pitfalls that people
often make with set-ups of this type – either large or small – particularly when it comes
to the background.
Scientific studies involving fish keeping have revealed that watching fish swim
around brings measurable health benefits, by lowering blood pressure for example. I
reckon that if these tests were repeated now with people looking at lizards or other
creatures moving around in a planted vivarium, you could anticipate similar results.
There’s been a lot of talk about‘closed cycles’, and using invertebrates to maintain
healthy conditions within planted vivariums, mimicking the natural cycle that happens
in the wild. Springtails have recently been introduced to the market for this purpose, but
how should you use them to get the best results? We have some answers, based on
research that should help you to build up a healthy population in a short space of time
in a new set-up.
Also, don’t forget to enter our competition to win a signed copy of Dan Eatherley’s
fascinating new book about the life of Raymond Ditmars, the pioneering herpetologist.
It’s amazing to think that the bushmaster snake acquired by Ditmars in 1934 for New
York’s Bronx Zoo drew an estimated extra 100,000 visitors. Can you imagine that
happening today? It seems very unlikely, but there is some exciting news from the zoo
world closer to home. ZSL London Zoo now has a Komodo dragon that you can see there.
DavidAlderton,Editor.
Email: prk.ed@kelsey.co.uk
Welcome
David Alderton
✥ David has extensive practical experience with this group of creatures, extending back over 40
years. He has written and broadcast widely about their care and biology, and his website can be
found at www.petinfoclub.com
ContentsWelcome
.September 2015.
MaincoverimageHermann’stortoise/photocourtesyxpixel,www.shutterstock.com
8MEET MARK O’SHEA–SusieKearleytalkswith
thefieldherpetologist,globalexplorer,authorand
televisionpresenter,inthefirstofatwo-partfeature.
13 DEFENCE MECHANISMS IN REPTILES
–Effectivecommunicationcanplayavitalrolein
stayingalive,foranimalsofalltypes.Discoverthe
differentwaysinwhichsnakesandlizards
communicateandprotectthemselvesfrom
predators.
28 HERMANN’STORTOISE –anin-depthprofile
ofthisverypopularspeciesbyDavidAlderton.
32HERBS AND INTESTINAL HEALTH
–veterinarysurgeonNickThompsonexplainsthe
riskstotheintestinalhealthofreptiles,andherbs
thatcanassistinpromotinghealthinthisareaofthe
body.
36PLANTED ENCLOSURES,BIG AND SMALL
–JasonRandallmeetsupwithAndrewStephenson,
anddiscovershowhestarteddevelopingplantedzoo
enclosures,andhasnowbecomerecognised
internationallyforhisexpertiseinthisarea.Andrew
alsopassesontipsforthosewantingtodesign
plantedvivariumsathome.
48THE SNAKETHATWALKED–readaboutthe
amazingnewdiscoveryofasnakethathadfourlegs.
Thesignificanceofthisfossilhasbeenlikenedtothat
ofArchaeopteryx,whichwascriticaltoour
understandingaboutthedevelopmentofbirds.
50ONTHETRAIL OFTHE DEADLY
BUSHMASTER–DanEatherleydelvesbackintothe
lifeofRaymondDitmars,thesnake-keepingpioneer,
whoisthesubjectofhisnewbook. Here’sachance
towinasignedcopytoo!
4 NEWS ANDVIEWS–featuringnewsaboutthe
discoveryoftheworld’sfirstvenomousfrogs,new
productsonthemarkettolookoutfor,andan
excitingnewadditiontothereptilecollectionat
LondonZoo,plusareportonthetheftofalarge
groupofmarginatedtortoises.
20VETERINARY CASEBOOK–thecaseofan
off-colourbeardeddragonisthesubjectofthis
month’scolumn.
22 OUT OF AFRICA–centipedes.PaulDonovan
describestheremarkablelifestylesofthese
little-knowninvertebratesandwhatisinvolvedin
theircare,aswellastheirunusualbreedinghabits.
34AMPHIBIAN FOCUS–profilingaveryvariable
Asianspeciesoffrog,whichcreatesanestforits
eggs.
46 Q&A–addressingtheproblemsthatyouwant
answered,concentratingthismonthonhowtouse
springtailsinsettingupabioactiveenclosure.
54HERPETOLOGICAL MYSTERIES–Couldthere
besurvivingdescendantsofdinosaurslivingin
remoteregionsofSouthAmerica?DrKarlShuker
investigates,inthefirstofatwo-partreport.
60 PUZZLES–testyourknowledgewithourrange
ofreptile-relatedpuzzles.
61YOU ANDYOUR REPTILES–astunning
selectionofthephotosthatyou’vesentin.Whynot
tryyourhandattakingsomepicturesofyourpets,
emailthemtousandhopefullyseetheminprint,
andpossiblywinaprizeaswell?
66NEXT MONTH–andalsohowtocontactus.
Regulars
64 SUBSCRIPTION OFFER
don’truntheriskofmissingoutonyourcopyof
PracticalReptileKeepinginfuture.Takeouta
subscription,andbenefitfromourspecial
subscriptionoffer.
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FOR £5
SNAKES◆LIZARDS◆TORTOISES◆AMPHIBIANS◆INVERTS
Practical
BEARDEDDRAGONHEALTH
GIANTCENTIPEDES SEEYOURPHOTOS
No.79: September 2015 £3.70
HOW
HERBSCAN
REPTILES
HERBSCAN
REPTILES
HERBSCAN
REPTILES
HELP
Discoverwhy
theyareso
popularas
pets
MEET MARK O’SHEA
Television’sreptile
adventureranddedicated
snakeenthusiast
Hermann’s
tortoises
Practical
No.79: September 2015 £3.70 KeepingKeepingKeepingKeepingKeepingKeepingReptile
Plantedvivariums
Aprofessionalzooenclosuredesigner
revealshissecretsforsuccess
001 Cover Sept15.indd 1
07/08/2015 17:05
UP
TO

News & Views
Featuring news this month about the discovery of the
world’s first venomous frogs, new products on the market to
look out for, and an exciting new addition to the reptile collection at
London Zoo, plus a report on the theft of a large group of
marginated tortoises.
A
tragic theft of what could well be
the largest breeding collection of
marginated tortoises (Testudo
marginata) in the UK took place
during the night of the 14th to the 15th of
July, in the Reigate area of Surrey. The haul
included nine large adults, up to 70 years
old, as well as a further eight young adults,
around 10 years of age, plus two very
young individuals.
Marginated tortoises are a
Mediterranean species, found in parts of
Greece, with their range extending to areas
of Italy and the Balkans in the south of
Europe. A separate population is also
present on Sardinia. These tortoises can
reach a surprisingly large size,
attaining a shell length of up to
35cm (14in) and weighing as
much as 5kg (11lb), which
makes them Europe’s
largest tortoise.
This species differs
from others occurring
in the Mediterranean
area by the fact that
the marginal scutes
around the rear part
of the tortoise are
decided flared. This is
particularly evident in
adults seen from above.
Their colouration is quite
distinctive as well, as their shells
are predominantly black, with yellow
markings in the centre of the vertebral and
costal scutes covering the back, giving
them a relatively dark appearance. This
means identification of this species is
straightforward, and the individuals in
question can also be identified easily, as
they are micro-chipped.
In addition, three adult Mediterranean
spur-thighed tortoises (Testudo gracea)
were also stolen, leaving their
owner completely
heartbroken. She now has
just a couple of rescue
tortoises that the thieves left
behind. Given the number of
tortoises involved, they must
have been moved in a vehicle, and
probably more than one person was
involved.
The break-in occurred when the
tortoises were thought to be tucked up
safely in a greenhouse and shed. “It’s hard
to value a collection of tortoises like this,
because they are unique, but at a low
estimate, this group is worth £20,000-
25,000,”says John Hayward, Co-ordinator of
the National Theft Register, who is helping
to investigate the loss.
“We are very concerned for the
4 |Practical Reptile Keeping
well-being of these tortoises, as clearly they
have welfare and dietary requirement that
need to be met. All the stolen tortoises are
listed on Annex A under European
legislation, and so cannot be sold legally
without an official Article 10 exemption.
“This represents a major wildlife crime,”
continues John.“Anyone involved could be
looking at a jail sentence of five years, and
increasingly, the courts have been handing
down stiff sentences in cases of this type,
especially where a breeding collection has
been taken.
‡ The flattening of the
marginal scutes is very
evident – it is a
characteristic of the
marginated tortoise.
Major tortoise theft
present on Sardinia. These tortoises can
reach a surprisingly large size,
attaining a shell length of up to
35cm (14in) and weighing as
much as 5kg (11lb), which
adults seen from above.
Their colouration is quite
distinctive as well, as their shells
are predominantly black, with yellow
just a couple of rescue
tortoises that the thieves left
behind. Given the number of
tortoises involved, they must
have been moved in a vehicle, and
probably more than one person was
involved.
The break-in occurred when the
A Sardinian example of the
marginated tortoise, photographed
from above. Note the distinctive
colouration and flaring of the shell
over the feet and tail.
Photo courtesy Mayer Richard.
Contact point
If you have any information at all about
this theft or the whereabouts of the
tortoises, call John immediately on 01869
325699. Email: jh@ntr.supanet.com
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SEPTEMBER 2015 | 5
Plan a visit
Visitors to ZSL London Zoo can see Ganas
the Komodo dragon at‘Land of the Giants’,
which is also home to giant Galápagos
tortoises and ProfessorWu, who is the
zoo’s Chinese giant salamander. Find out
more now at www.zsl.org
Here be a dragon!
A
new Komodo dragon has arrived at
ZSL London Zoo. Razor-edged
teeth, long sharp claws, scaly skin
and a huge muscular tail make the
zoo’s newest arrival an enthralling sight
to behold.
Ganas, a seven-year-old male Komodo
dragon (Varanus komodoensis) has
moved to the UK from Randers Zoo in
Denmark, to take up residence in ZSL
London Zoo’s‘Land of the Giants’exhibit.
Native to Indonesia’s Lesser Sunda
Islands, and named after the island of
Komodo where they occur, these
monitor lizards, which are the largest and
heaviest lizards in the world, have
survived on earth for millions of years but
are now classified as endangered due to
competition with humans for their
habitat.
Able to eat up to 80 percent of their
body weight in a single feed, Komodo
dragons will target a variety of animals,
from pigs to huge water buffalo. They rely
on camouflage and patience to wait for
the perfect moment to ambush their
prey, although they are known to
scavenge as well.
Ganas’s care and personality
Zookeepers at ZSL London Zoo will
replicate the wild eating patterns of a
Komodo dragon when it comes to
feeding Ganas, hiding food around his
enclosure, and encouraging him to use
his keen sense of smell to sniff it out.
With a name meaning‘fierce’in the
Bahasa Indonesian language, Ganas’
keepers are getting to know the
personality of the giant monitor lizard,
and they have already seen a positive
response in his new training sessions.
Deputy team leader of ZSL’s
herpetology team Iri Gill says:“Ganas is a
really exciting new arrival here at the zoo,
and we’re really enjoying getting to know
his character.
“He’s very eager to get going when it’s
time for his training and enrichment here
with us. This involves rewarding him with
his favourite snacks when he responds to
a target – we use a coloured ball on the
end of a stick.
“As a result, this means that if we ever
need to move Ganas to a different area of
his enclosure, weigh him, or give him a
health check, he will happily walk to
where he needs to be and even gets on
to the scales himself, as he knows there’s
a treat waiting for him at the end.”
Already more than 1.75m (5.5ft) long,
and weighing 29kg (64lb), Ganas could
eventually grow to 3m (10ft) in length
and weigh more than 136kg (300lbs).
Ganas has settled well in
his new home. Photo
copyright ZSL London Zoo.
ˆ It has proved possible
already to train Ganas,
which will make his care
more straightforward in
future. Photo copyright ZSL
London Zoo.
Springtails and springtail food available
P
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The value of springtails has already been proven in Peregrine’s
amphibian breeding collection. The company’s own breeding
colony of bumblebee walking toads would be impossible to
breed without a copious supply of these invertebrates, with
newly metamorphosed individuals feeding on them. Springtails
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With the increase in interest in natural set-ups, and bioactivity,
these springtails are a natural addition to the ProRep range of
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To maintain a healthy colony
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Manufactured from
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Springtails themselves retail at £4.15 a tub, with their
food, available in 150g pots, is priced at £6.29. Both products are
available from your local ProRep stockist. Please contact sales@
pro-rep.co.uk or ring 01279 438459 to find your nearest stockist.

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News & Views
Venomous frogs discovered
in Brazil
I
t’s no surprise that some frogs
secrete poison from glands in their
skin. But researchers have discovered
the first two species of frog, both
living in Brazil, that are actually
venomous. Not only do the frogs
produce potent skin toxins, as is
common amongst amphibians, but
they also have a mechanism to deliver
those harmful secretions into another
animal using bony spines on their
heads.
“Discovering a truly venomous frog
is nothing any of us expected, and
finding frogs with skin secretions
more venomous than those of
the deadly pit vipers of the
genus Bothrops was
astounding,”says Edmund
Brodie, Jr. of Utah State
University.
Both the frogs in
question, Greening’s frog
(Corythomantis greeningi)
and Bruno’s casque-
headed frog
(Aparasphenodon brunoi),
are not newly-discovered
species but have been
recognised by science for many
decades. Yet scientists have
known little about their biology up
until now. What had been a puzzle was
Further information
Jared et al. Venomous Frogs Use
Heads asWeapons. Current Biology,
August 2015 DOI: 10.1016/j.
cub.2015.06.061
species, A. brunoi, is far more potent,
and would be enough to kill more than
300,000 mice or about 80 humans.
“It is unlikely that a frog of this
species produces this much toxin, and
only very small amounts would be
transferred by the spines into a wound,”
Brodie adds.“Regardless, even in the
interests of science, we have been
unwilling to test this by allowing a frog
to jab us with its spines!”
The researchers say the new
discovery is important for
understanding the biology of
amphibians and their interactions with
predators in the wild.
The team now plans to characterise
the venom better, and also to
investigate the skin glands that
produce the venom. Brodie and Jared
say they will be looking further afield in
the future as well, studying several
other frog species from around the
world, which they suspect could be
venomous.
that the frogs had no
known predators, but this,
of course, now makes perfect
sense, in light of these latest
findings.
A chance discovery
Brodie and Carlos Jared from the
Instituto Butantan in São Paulo have
both studied predator-prey systems of
amphibians throughout their entire
careers. Unfortunately for Jared, he first
realised that C. greeningi might be
venomous literally at first hand, while
he was collecting some of these frogs
for research. His hand was injured by
one of the frog’s spines, which led to
intense, radiating pain for a period of
approximately five hours.
Needless to say, that event got the
researchers’attention.“This action
should be even more effective and
painful on the mouth lining of an
attacking predator,”Jared says.
There was a bit of luck: the species
whose venom Jared encountered was
the less toxic of the two. The
researchers’calculations suggest that in
comparison, a single gram of the
deadly secretion from the other frog
is nothing any of us expected, and
finding frogs with skin secretions
more venomous than those of
the deadly pit vipers of the
astounding,”says Edmund
,
are not newly-discovered
recognised by science for many
decades. Yet scientists have
known little about their biology up
until now. What had been a puzzle was
that the frogs had no
known predators, but this,
of course, now makes perfect
sense, in light of these latest
findings.
A chance discovery
‡ The venom of these
new frogs is potentially
more deadly than that of
pit vipers from the
region, such as the
Brazilian lancehead
(Bothrops moojeni).
… Greening’s frog was first described in 1896, but its
deadly impact has only just been discovered.
Source PD.
‡ Bruno’s casque-headed frog (Aparasphenodon brunoi).
Photo courtesy Carlos Jared/Butantan Institute.

SEPTEMBER 2015 | 7
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Susie Kearley talks with field herpetologist, global explorer, author and television presenter Mark
O’Shea, in the first of a two part feature.
M
ark O’Shea’s name will
undoubtedly be well-known to
many readers of this magazine.
He is a pioneering herpetologist,
who has appeared regularly on television
in a variety of reptile-related shows.
Indeed, amongst his many
achievements, Mark was at the forefront
of developing the high octane,
presenter-driven natural history and
travel series that have subsequently
proved to be so popular with audiences
worldwide.
At the outset
So how did it all begin? Born during 1956
in Wolverhampton in the West Midlands,
Mark always had a fascination for reptiles
but this sparked into a passion after he
was able to handle a boa constrictor at
Dublin Zoo when he was eight years old.
He still remembers the experience well.
“One of the keepers gave me this
huge snake to hold,”he recalls.“It was a
defining moment and I was hooked on
snakes after that. I later tried to catch an
adder on Kinver Edge in the Midlands,
but I failed. I was disappointed at the
time, but it was probably a good thing
because small boys and wild venomous
snakes don’t mix very well!
“I was initially attracted to reptiles
because to be honest, I was a bit of a
rebel. I was drawn to animals that other
people didn’t like, which gave reptiles
instant appeal. As I learnt about snakes
and other reptiles, I became more and
presenter-driven natural history and
MeetMarkO’Shea– TELEVISION’S REPTILE ADVENTURER
more fascinated, because in finding the
answers to some of my questions, new
questions arose and I became even more
curious.”
Building up a breeding
collection
Mark’s first pet snake was an Italian grass
snake (Natrix natrix), which he named
Escapist. She lived up to her name,
repeatedly, and over the next 20 years,
Mark built up an impressive collection of
snakes – up to 200 at one point when he
started breeding them – and their
enclosures took up a good proportion of
his parents’house.
“My parents were very supportive
when I got my first grass snake as a pet,”
he recalls with a wry smile.“They weren’t
quite so keen when the collection grew
to about 200 animals!”
Mark didn’t jump straight from school
into a job with reptiles though. He
worked in the Accident & Emergency
Department at the local hospital for
seven years, although he harboured
ambitions to do something that
ˆ Mark in the company
of a 4.8m (16ft) anaconda.
Ilha Caviana, Brazil 1999.
Mark O’Shea with a
splendid leaf-frog,
Turrialba, Costa Rica
1999.

FEATURE | MEET MARK O’SHEA
reflected his fascination with biology.
Both his parents were teachers, so it
might have seemed a natural
progression to go into teacher training
but instead, he did a degree in Applied
Sciences at the Polytechnic of
Wolverhampton.
Bigger challenges
“During the late 1970s, in my early 20s, I
went down to Dorset looking for reptiles,
and found all six species of native reptiles
in one day,”he remembers.“I stopped
counting when I’d found 100 of any one
species, and that day I recorded: 100+
slow worms, 100+ common lizards, 15
sand lizards, two grass snakes, three
smooth snakes and 36 adders! That’s
when I decided that I needed to start
looking overseas for more challenging
adventures.”
heart is. I do a lot of work there now, and
my team and I bagged 29 venomous
snakes for the snakebite research project
in Papua New Guinea in 2013.
Childhood recollections
“As a young boy, I had three front pages
from the Daily Express pinned to the wall
of my den, which was a shed at the
bottom of the garden. One was about
an expedition to the Brazilian Amazon.
The leader of the expedition went to get
something from the boats and
didn’t come back, so his deputy
went to find him. It turned out
he’d been killed by an
uncontacted Amazonian
tribe. This story inspired
me because it made the
Amazon sound so
dangerous and exciting.
In 1987-88, I worked on a
large ecological project in
the Brazilian Amazon for
the Royal Geographical
Society.
“During 1985, we were deep
in the Honduran jungle in Central
America, and we climbed up this
waterfall onto a plateau where there had
been no people for 500 years. We saw
ancient Payan ruins and the remains of
old buildings. It was so weird being in an
area with no signs of modern man, no
trails, no old campsites, no cold
campfires, nothing at all. The animals
weren’t afraid of us because they’d never
seen people before.
“The second news report on my wall
as a child was about Japanese soldiers in
the Guam jungle, who didn’t know that
the Second World War was over. They
were so cut off from the outside world,
that the news hadn’t reached them so
they had continued to fight the war into
the early 1960s. I went to Guam in 2001
to make a film about the invasive brown
Becoming acquainted with a 3.6m (12ft) anaconda, Dona
Barbara, Los Llanos, Venezuela 1997.
With his passion for
reptiles, Mark led herping
expeditions in Florida and
Borneo during the 1980s, and
became a member of the scientific
staff of Operation Raleigh, which
asked him to run herpetological projects
in Honduras and Belize, Papua New
Guinea, and Cameroon. He became the
herpetologist on the 13 month Royal
Geographical Society’s‘Maraca Rainforest
Project’in Amazonian Brazil, spending
seven months in the Amazon on that
project.
During the early 1990s, he was the
herpetologist on a long-term snakebite
research project in Papua New Guinea
for Oxford University and the Liverpool
School of Tropical Medicine. He also
accepted the position of biological
director on eco-tourist expeditions to
Nepal and Guyana.
“Working in Papua New Guinea was a
childhood dream,”he explains,“I always
wanted to go there, and it’s where my †
The leader of the expedition went to get
something from the boats and
didn’t come back, so his deputy
went to find him. It turned out
he’d been killed by an
uncontacted Amazonian
the Brazilian Amazon for
the Royal Geographical
Society.
“During 1985, we were deep
in the Honduran jungle in Central
America, and we climbed up this
Borneo during the 1980s, and
became a member of the scientific
staff of Operation Raleigh, which
asked him to run herpetological projects
‡ Entrancing a Sri
Lankan cobra, Gampola,
Sri Lanka 1997.
ˆ Restraining a large
anaconda, measuring
4.5m (15ft). Los Lanos,
Venezuela 1997.
SEPTEMBER 2014 | 9
‡ Mark with a New Guinea small-eyed snake (Micropechis ikaheka), which he caught in Oro
Province, Papua New Guinea for venom research during 2013.

“Some inhabit the clear water of coral
reefs and others are to be found in the
muddy waters of estuaries. A number are
highly venomous but others are evolving
towards becoming nonvenomous; some
are dietary generalists, others are
amazingly specialised predators, preying
on just a single species of eel. While
certain seasnakes are docile, you can find
other species that are definitely
aggressive. They are not easily kept for
study purposes in captivity, but they’re
really fascinating to observe in the wild.
Not that Mark’s discoveries about
treesnake,”says Mark.
“The third news report on my den wall
was about Michael Rockefeller, son of
New York Governor, and later Vice
President, Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller.
Michael had gone on an expedition to
New Guinea in 1961, and when his
canoe capsized in the river, he tried to
swim to the shore but he disappeared.
“Despite extensive searches, his body
was never found. It is thought that he
had either drowned, been attacked by a
shark or saltwater crocodile, or the
Asmat tribesmen had killed and eaten
him. Local stories suggest the latter was
his fate. I have now been to New Guinea
ten times.
“As a boy growing up in the 1960s,
this was a real adventurous Boy’s Own
stuff. It meant there were still places out
there that were so remote and cut off
from civilisation that you took your
life in your hands when you
visited them. That intrigued me.
Today, I still love travelling to
these exciting, remarkable
places, following my
dreams and exploring new
environments. For me, the
thrill hasn’t changed,”adds
Mark.
Filming
In the late 1980s and 1990s,
Mark started to work with TV
companies, and appeared on
chat shows talking about his work
with reptiles. He worked on location on
the BBC Natural World film, New Guinea:
An Island Apart and Discovery Channel’s
Cobra King of the Snakes. He moved in
Mark with a king
cobra in 2007.
front of camera during the
mid-1990s, starting with
Giant Snake in Venezuela, and
Black Mamba in South Africa,
with the latter being produced in
partnership with Channel 4.
After the success of those early
programmes, Discovery Channel offered
Mark his own series, which became
O’Shea’s Big Adventure on Animal Planet
and O’Shea’s Dangerous Reptiles on
Channel 4. Four seasons of O’Shea’s Big
Adventure were filmed between 1999
and 2003.
More recently, he’s appeared in two
episodes of Safari Park for Central TV, one
of which was filmed at the West
Midlands Safari Park, and the other in
Namibia on the Ongava Game Reserve.
He has now carried out fieldwork and
made films on every continent except
Antarctica!
Incredible encounters
So what have been his personal
highlights to date? Mark replies:“I have
many amazing memories from filming,
including some spiritual moments like
looking into the eyes of a wild king cobra.
Diving and catching seasnakes on
Ashmore Reef, Western Australia, the
seasnake capital of the world, was an
amazing experience too. There around 70
species of seasnakes and sea kraits and
they are a fascinating group, but quite
difficult to survey. Seasnake diversity
is every bit as interesting as the
diversity of snakes living within a
rainforest, but this isn’t widely
appreciated.
Mark started to work with TV companies, and
appeared on chat shows talking about his
work with reptiles. He worked on location on
the BBC Natural World film, New Guinea: An
Island Apart and Discovery Channel’s Cobra
King of the Snakes.
‡
Another king cobra.
Orissa, India 2001.
Mark with a
black mamba,
Transvaal, South
Africa 1997.
Mark with sea kraits, New Caledonia 2001.
there that were so remote and cut off
from civilisation that you took your
visited them. That intrigued me.
companies, and appeared on
chat shows talking about his work
with reptiles. He worked on location on
front of camera during the
mid-1990s, starting with
Giant Snake
Black Mamba
with the latter being produced in
partnership with Channel 4.

FEATURE | Meet Mark O’Shea
… Mark with two New
Guinea small-eyed
snakes, Karkar, Madang
2000.
snakes have all been in such unlikely
aquatic surroundings.“On one
expedition in Papua New Guinea, I found
a little python hiding under some tin
sheeting on the edge of an abandoned
airstrip. At the time, there were eight
recognised python species in New
Guinea and this wasn’t one of them. I
should know - I wrote the field guide! I
eventually identified it as the first
spotted python ever recorded from New
Guinea,”he explains.
“Travelling around filming reptiles and
bringing them into people’s living rooms
for those seasons of O’Shea’s Big
Adventure was an exciting way to earn a
living. I’ve been to places that I’d never
ordinarily have been able to visit because
of the costs and resources required. You’d
have to be a lottery winner to be able to
visit all the places I’ve been!
“To be able to see these places and
the wildlife, and at the same time, film it
and tell the world all about what is there
is a very satisfying experience. To have
people say‘Wow I never knew that’is
incredibly gratifying, because that is
what it is all about: research, education
and conservation.”
Reptile surveys in
Southeast Asia
Mark still continues to work with snakes
around the world.“Since 2009, I’ve been
involved in a detailed survey of reptiles
SEPTEMBER 2015 | 11
… Mark O’Shea and a
black caiman, Rupununi,
Guyana 1999.
 Mark with a Cuvier’s
dwarf caiman
(Paleosuchus
palpebrosus). Iwokrama,
Guyana 1999.


and amphibians in the Southeast Asian
country of Timor-Leste, running the
project with my American colleague
Professor Hinrich Kaiser,”he continues.
“It is a fascinating project where we
take American, German and Timorese
students and teach them field biology
and herpetology. We have so far
documented 70 species of reptiles and
amphibians, including some 20-25 new
species. There’s a timeline of the project,
and a record of our discoveries on a
special page on my website which can
be found at www.markoshea.info/timor.
php
“In 2014 we ran two phases of the
Timor-Leste project. Phase IX was the
American phases with students from
California, Phase X was the German
phase with students and
herpetologists from Germany.
The International Union for
the Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources
(IUCN) had also invited
me to Honolulu, to
attend a workshop on
Papua New Guinean
snakes and lizards and
help in the determination
of their conservation
status.
“The workshop date
clashed with the fieldwork in
Timor-Leste, and the IUCN kindly
changed the dates of their workshop
so that I could attend. I dashed from
place to place, working on Phase IX in
Timor-Leste, then attending the
workshop in Hawaii, before flying back
to Timor-Leste to continue work on
Phase X – that was a lot of air miles!”
Helping snakebite victims
“Another project that I’ve been involved
with for a long time is the snakebite
research project in Papua New Guinea.
This is a long-term project,
originally run by the Oxford
University Department of
Clinical Medicine and
Liverpool’s School of
Tropical Medicine, but now
it is under the auspices of
the Australian Venom
Research Unit (AVRU) at the
University of Melbourne,”
explains Mark.
“It is coordinated by the
toxicologist Dr David Williams, who is
also now Head of AVRU. The main
development has been a new taipan
antivenom which is nine-times cheaper
than the existing product from Australia.
The Australian antivenom costs up to
$2000 a pack, whereas our new
antivenom should cost around $150 a
pack. This means Papua New Guinea can
afford to buy much larger quantities and
save more snakebite victims every year.
“The new antivenom has been on trial
in the country and from what I hear, the
results are good. The antivenom is
produced in Costa Rica using venom
obtained from taipans we have caught
and which now live in a special unit in
Port Moresby, the capital of Papua New
Guinea. The new antivenom is designed
to be stored without refrigeration so
rural health centres and aid posts that
do not have electricity will be able to
hold and use it.
“Developing new antivenoms is
important. At the moment, some
antivenoms can cost hundreds of
pounds for a single pack, and to put this
in context, in 1993 I had to have 16
packs of antivenom when I was bitten
by a rattlesnake. Some snakebites
require a lot more,”says Mark.
“Many drug companies have stopped
producing antivenom but people in
poor countries are still being bitten by
snakes, and dying as a result. There is a
looming antivenom crisis. We need more
antivenom, and that antivenom needs to
be cheap and it needs to be able to be
kept in clinics even where there is no
electrical power available.”
Mark’s other commitments
When Mark is in the UK, he works as
Consultant Reptile Curator at the West
Midlands Safari Park and presents some
of the Discover Reptiles talks, where he
introduces some of the reptilian
residents to wide-eyed onlookers in the
Reptile Theatre. He is the author of five
books, with another nearing completion,
and in addition, he is just beginning
work on his seventh book.
He and his field colleagues also write
scientific papers, describing new species
of reptiles and presenting data from
fieldwork. Mark’s latest paper describes a
new venomous snake from Papua New
Guinea that he found mislabelled in an
American museum collection! He is still
involved in television work as well,
including a live studio show on Channel
4, and other projects are in the planning
stages.
To be continued next month… ✥
Website: http://www.markoshea.info
Timor pages: http://www.
markoshea.info/timor.php and
https://www.facebook.com/
pages/Herp-
Timor/1439082246357116
Papers and articles by Mark can
be downloaded here: https://wlv.
academia.edu/MarkOShea
University of Wolverhampton
Graduate to Great video
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=q3OjTi65eaI
Find out more
California, Phase X was the German
herpetologists from Germany.
the Conservation of Nature
clashed with the fieldwork in
Timor-Leste, and the IUCN kindly
changed the dates of their workshop
This is a long-term project,
the Australian Venom
Research Unit (AVRU) at the
University of Melbourne,”
explains Mark.
“It is coordinated by the
toxicologist Dr David Williams, who is
‡ Mark holds a young
saltwater crocodile
(Crocodylus porosus),
Uma Boot Aldeia, Luca
Suco, Viqueque
Subdistrict, Viqueque
District, Timor-Leste
Phase III 2010.
ˆ Mark examining a new
species of Toxicocalamus,
Museum of Comparative
Zoology, Harvard Univ.,
Cambridge, Mass., USA.
‡ Mark photographing specimens, Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii 2014.

SEPTEMBER 2015 | 13
FEATURE | DEFENCE MECHANISMS IN REPTILES
Effective communication can play a vital
role in staying alive, as far as animals
generally are concerned. Here Paul
Donovan considers the different ways in
which snakes and lizards in particular
communicate and protect themselves
from predators.
C
ommunication in its various forms
is used in the animal kingdom to
convey intentions or disquiet. As
humans, we tend to do this
verbally. When confronted by someone
who feels annoyed at us, we usually try
and talk the situation through, to
prevent it from turning into something
more serious.
Nevertheless, you can only
understand what is being said if
you speak the same language.
When we pick up a snake or
lizard, we often talk to it as
though it understands
what we are saying -
which of course it
doesn’t! However, when
inreptiles
a snake or lizard adopts a particular
posture, it is saying something to us. But
how do we understand what it is saying?
This is easier in the case of some pets
than others, and we have to rely largely
on body language to understand what
an animal is saying to us. In certain
instances, this is more clear-cut than
others. For example, a dog wagging its
tail is a sure sign that it is happy to see
you. If it keeps its tail down between its
legs, this is an indicator that it is nervous
and uncertain. However, should your
snake suddenly begin slapping its tail
against the ground when you approach
it, does it mean that it is happy to see
you? Or is it trying to say something
else?
Defensive mechanisms in reptiles are
many and varied, and have evolved over
millions of years. Some of these signs are
subtle, while others more obvious. In this
article, I hope to convey some of the
methods by which reptiles in general
defend themselves, and how you can
read their intentions first from their body
language.
Warn first, bite second
Biting is one of the most common
defence mechanisms seen throughout
the animal world. And I am sure we all
know what the snake/lizard is trying to
tell us as a consequence of that action!
However, an individual seldom simply
bites without giving an indication of its
intentions. Sometimes though, this
warning may be missed.
Before launching into a strike, the
† A bearded dragon in a
defensive pose, with its
beard erect, and its body
inflated.
‡ An Australian frilled
lizard
inreptiles ‡ Prior to biting, lizards
as well as snakes may
open their mouth as a
warning geature.
Photo courtesy the author.inreptilesinreptiles
DEFENCE MECHANISMS

reptile may open its mouth to expose
the interior, which is often glossy black.
This behaviour is exhibited by a wide
range of species, and by some
amphibians too. The display is usually
sufficient enough to deter a would-be
predator, but obviously some of us
ignore this warning, and do so at our
peril.
During the transition phase between
displaying and biting, the individual may
also hiss loudly, as an additional warning
of its intentions. The snake or lizard
draws in air and forcibly expels it. This
causes the body to inflate and the reptile
also then looks more threatening than is
really the case.
Puff adders (Bitis arietans) are a good
example. It is a similar gesture to us
putting up our fists, and is effectively
saying:‘come any closer and be prepared
for the consequences’! Many amphibians
use a similar approach when confronted
by a potential predator. Make yourself
look too big to be eaten, and a predator
will go off looking elsewhere for its prey.
As well as hissing, many snakes and
lizards will inflate or expand their necks.
Undoubtedly, the most famous
exponents of this are cobras (Naja
strike, compared with the venomous bite
that a cobra can give.
When you pick a chameleon up, it
immediately puffs its throat out and
opens its mouth. As it does so, it exposes
a bright flash of colour from the skin
between the scales. Equally, the bearded
dragon (Pogona vitticeps) will puff its
throat out to convey the same message.
Frills
I think possibly one of the most effective
of all displays – and not just in the case
of lizards – must surely be that of the
Australian frilled lizard (Chlamydosaurus
kingii). When threated, this lizard erects a
ruff of skin around the neck, similar to
opening an umbrella, making the
individual appear much larger and more
intimidating than is really the case. It will
also gape its mouth to put on a very
convincing display of aggression.
Dewlaps
Iguanas and anoles have adopted a
slightly different approach. They have a
flap of skin beneath the throat called a
dewlap, at the front edge of which is a
hinged bone. When required, this bone
can be flipped forwards erecting the
dewlap like the main sail of a sailing
boat.
Interestingly, dewlap displays can have
two connotations. When accompanied
by gaping of the mouth, this serves as a
species), although there are some mimics
as well. As the snake rears up from the
ground and flattens its neck, it is
indicating that you should be prepared
to back off or be bitten.
This behaviour is not confined to
snakes either, but can also be seen in a
number of lizards as well. The humble
chameleon uses a similar approach –
although it is effectively bluffing,
possessing little in the way of a defensive
† The frilled lizard has a
very intimidating display.
8 | Practical Reptile Keeping
A green anole
displaying its striking
and contrasting red
dewlap.
ˆ It is no coincidence
that green is a colour
often seen in snakes in
snakes living off the
ground, especially in
tropical areas where
there is dense vegetation.

FEATURE | Defence mechanisms in reptiles

‡ A gaboon viper (Bitis
gabonica) concealed very
effectively amongst
leaves on the ground. Its
appearance aids this
ambush hunter to catch
prey, and also protects it
in the open.
SEPTEMBER 2014 | 9
distinctive warning display. If the mouth
is kept closed though, and the raising of
the dewlap is associated with head
bobbing, this has a different meaning: it
may be either part of a mating display or
a territorial declaration. No matter how
big you may be, to the iguana, if you are
invading its territory, it will let you know!
Colouration
This feature also plays a part in defensive
strategy. Many snakes show disruptive or
procryptic colouration that is usually
aligned to the environment in which
they occur. This is a passive method that
depends on concealing their presence,
so you cannot see them.
Lizards show disruptive colouration
too, but many have the ability to change
colour according to their state of mind or
the threat level facing them. The inflated
neck of the bearded dragon may turn jet
black, for example, as can the entire
body of an enraged chameleon.
Once again though, there can be two
meanings to this shift in colour. Aside
from what has just been mentioned,
many lizards turn black in the morning as
a means of absorbing heat quickly into
their body to get it up to functional
temperature, particularly in desert areas
where it can become very cold
overnight. This change may also be used
to show unrest towards another male in
the vicinity.
Many harmless snakes will also mimic
venomous snakes, to foil predators into
thinking they are dangerous. The subject
of mimicry will featured next month – it
is a very intriguing topic.
Coiled like a spring
In order for reptiles to appear even more
intimidating, they may adapt their body
posture accordingly. In the case of many
snakes, they adopt an‘S’or sigmoid
shape, while lizards can coil the body
into a broad arch, often standing up off
the ground and puffing themselves up
too.
This approach again gives the
individual the appearance of being
much larger and intimidating than it
really is. But it also adds extra impetus
because the tail can be brought back
around and used like a whip for
defensive purposes if required, allowing
the lizard to lash out and defend itself, if
this passive deterrent fails.
In snakes, the S-shaped posture is
adopted with the head well to the rear of
the pose. This can be seen to great effect
in rattlesnakes (Crotalus species), but is
also demonstrated by a host of
non-venomous snakes. This warning will
be accompanied by hissing, gaping of
the mouth and the neck will be inflated
‡ A harmless mimic of
the deadly coral snake
(Micrurus species) – a
central plains milk snake
(Lampropeltis triangulum
gentilis).

when vibrated rapidly, create a
distinctive buzzing sound. This is often
associated with coiling of the body into
that characteristic S-shape, combined
with a slow and deliberate up-and-down
movement of the tongue.
It is interesting that tail rattling has
been adopted as a warning by species
whose geographical distribution is far
away from that of the rattlesnake, with
many African species of snake displaying
this aptitude as well. What this confirms
is that the evolution of tail audibility can
be a powerful weapon in a snake’s
armoury.
as well, with the tongue being flicked in
and out of the mouth.
Again, however, tongue flicking can
have two meanings. Firstly, when it is
moved up and down rapidly the snake is
smelling, or in effect tasting the air as a
way of gaining an insight into its
surroundings. The tips pick up airborne
particles that come into contact with the
vomero-nasal or Jacobson’s organ in the
roof of the mouth, from where nerve
impulses are sent to the brain for
analysis. This can serve as a means of
detecting the chemical messengers
known as pheromones that will indicate
a receptive female may be nearby, quite
apart from potentially assisting the
detection of prey.
When the tongue is moved up and
down in a slow purposeful manner, this
shows that the snake is truly infuriated
and a bite, if the warning is not heeded,
is imminent. Should you be confronted
by a snake behaving in this way, the
general advice is to leave it well alone,
because otherwise, you will be bitten.
It is interesting that juveniles will
instinctively display this behaviour from
the moment they emerge into the world.
Yet as time progresses and they become
accustomed to their surroundings, this
behaviour soon abates. By this stage,
their larger size means that they will be
less vulnerable to predators. As
youngsters, striking early when
confronted by potential danger offers
the best chance of survival.
Use of the tail
An interesting behaviour adopted by
many species of snakes is to use the tail
to forewarn you of the threat that they
pose. The most famous architects of tail
talk are the rattlesnakes. At the end of
their tail are interlocking scales which,
The tail of the unusual
shingleback lizard (Tiliqua
rugosa) is extraordinary,
being broad and rounded at
its tip. This, combined with its
threat display, can deter a
would-be predator.
… Some lizards such as
the blue tegu (Tupinambis
merianae) have powerful,
muscular tails that they
can use to defend
themselves.
‡ The rattle of a
rattlesnake is an
advanced warning
system.
Photo courtesy the author.

‡ A number of lizards
can shed their tails as a
defence mechanism.
used as a weapon.
If you see this
behaviour, it means the
lizard is about to lash out,
and a whack from a large
individual can be very painful. As
big and as powerful as they are,
crocodiles and alligators will also rely on
their tail to defend themselves, in a
similar way. Male alligators are known to
use their tails to communicate with rivals
as well, seeking to intimidate them by
slapping it down hard on the water,
causing splashing and vibrations.
Tail autotomy
An extreme form of defence is autotomy.
A number of lizards, geckos, skinks and
the tuatara (Sphenodon species), (plus a
few amphibians also) have the capacity
to shed their tails. Tail autotomy can take
two forms: intervertebral autotomy,
where the tail breaks between the
vertebrae, and intravertebral autotomy
where there is a fracture line in the
vertebra itself. Once discarded,
muscles in the tail contract around
the caudal artery to minimise
blood loss.
Shedding the tail creates
the illusion that the
perpetrator has firm hold of
the lizard, when in fact, all it
has is a mouthful of tail, and
the animal itself has escaped.
Fortunately the lost portion of
the tail can be regenerated
over a period of time, although
this tends to be darker in
colouration. The regenerated portion
will also not contain bone, but is
comprised of cartilage, and may not
attain the full length of the original tail.
Even though it has survived, having
lost its tail, the lizard will subsequently
be ranked lower in the social hierarchy
when it meets others of its kind. This can
put it at a disadvantage, in terms of
having the best basking sites and
hunting opportunities.
If all else fails, act dead!
It may seem a bizarre thing to do, but
many reptiles feign death. This causes
them to appear to die suddenly if
handled. It is a reflection of the fact that
many hunters will not scavenge, and so
if the snake appears dead, this can
confuse the predator, which leaves it
alone, allowing the reptile to escape.
Such behaviour can be seen in both
venomous and non-venomous species
of snakes such as garter snakes (Natrix
species), hognose snakes (Heterodon
species), rinkhals (Hemachatus
haemachatus) and some other cobras as
well.
Typically the individual will flip over
on to its back, and drapes its tongue
from its mouth. It will remain in that
position until the threat has passed. And
should you try and turn the snake the
right way up again, it simply flips over on
to its back again. I had this happen to
Nevertheless, the rattlesnake is the
only snake with a true rattle. These
mimic-takers recreate a similar noise by
rapidly vibrating the tail against the
ground. And should there be any dry
leaves around, then this will greatly
amplify the sound.
A good slap
The use of the tail as a form of body
language to show disquiet is widely seen
in lizards as well. I am sure that if you
have even kept monitors or iguanas, you
will know what I mean. When the tail is
arched to the side of the body, and the
individual raises itself proud of the
ground, this is a sign that it is going to be
… The tail of this gecko
has regenerated virtually
to its original size.
‡ If all else fails, act
dead!.
SEPTEMBER 2015 | 11
vertebrae, and intravertebral autotomy
where there is a fracture line in the
vertebra itself. Once discarded,
muscles in the tail contract around
the caudal artery to minimise
blood loss.
Fortunately the lost portion of
the tail can be regenerated
over a period of time, although
this tends to be darker in
colouration. The regenerated portion
will also not contain bone, but is
individual can be very painful. As
big and as powerful as they are,
crocodiles and alligators will also rely on comprised of cartilage, and may not

me when I released a snouted cobra
(Naja annulifera).
Scale rubbing
Vibrating the tail and hissing are two
audible forms of defence, but a third
can result from scale rubbing. The
venomous saw-scaled vipers
(Echis species) have a distinctive
threat display whereby they
coil their body into a series
of concentric C-shapes.
As the snake moves,
scales arranged at oblique
angles to each other rub to
produce a rustling sound.
The more agitated the snake
becomes, the louder the
resulting noise will be. Just as in
other cases too, there are mimics
in this area as well. In Botswana,
similar behaviour of this type is
exhibited by the common egg-eating
snake (Dasypeltis scabra).
Colourful lips
Another snake that employs a
convincing distracting feature to create
confusion in the mind of a predator is
the herald snake
(Crotaphopeltis
hotamboeia). When it feels
threatened, it flattens its head
to expose a sudden bright flash
of orange or flame red on its
upper lip. Such swift exposure to vivid
flashes of colour are immediately
startling to many animals and highly
effective in deterring a strike.
Spines
A great many species of lizards are
adorned with an array of spines. Some
may cover the entire body, as in the
girdled lizards (Cordylus species), the
horny devil (Moloch horridus), and
bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps), or just
on the tail, as in the case of uromastyx.
They may also be present along the line
of the spine.
The lizard can use its spines in various
ways. It may puff itself up, creating what
is in effect an erect barrier of spines,
making it difficult for a predator to take
the lizard into its mouth, let alone
swallow it. Alternatively, those on the tail
can be used like a mediaeval mace and
swung from side to side as a weapon. In
addition, the mere presence of a
pin-cushion of spines is enough of a
deterrent for many predators to look
elsewhere for their next meal.
Chemical defences
Throughout the animal kingdom, the use
of chemicals as a defensive measure is
widespread. And amphibians and
reptiles are no exception. Many
amphibians use skin secretions, in the
form of toxins as a first line of defence.
These may not necessarily kill a
would-be predator that attempts to eat
the amphibian, but it could certainly
make the animal sick, and think twice
about attempting to eat prey of that
type again. Handling such amphibians
carelessly, causing the toxin to come into
contact with the skin, can lead to
irritation, and it will be particularly
painful if it gets into the eyes.
Venom from reptiles can be especially
potent. Although venom is most
typically associated with snakes, some
lizards do possess venom too. The two
members of the genus Heloderma – the
Vibrating the tail and hissing are two
audible forms of defence, but a third
can result from scale rubbing. The
species) have a distinctive
resulting noise will be. Just as in
other cases too, there are mimics
in this area as well. In Botswana,
similar behaviour of this type is
exhibited by the common egg-eating
the herald snake
(Crotaphopeltis
hotamboeia
threatened, it flattens its head
to expose a sudden bright flash
of orange or flame red on its
upper lip. Such swift exposure to vivid
flashes of colour are immediately
‡ An up-close view of
the distinctive scales of a
saw-scaled viper.
‡ The aptly named
blue-tongued skink
(Tiliqua species), whose
vibrant tongue can shock
would-be predators as
well as prey when flung
out of its mouth.
An armadillo girdled lizard (C.
cataphractus), can even roll up
in a ball, as shown here, making
it harder for a would-be
predator to attack, thanks to its
covering of spines.

SEPTEMBER 2015 | 19
FEATURE | Defence mechanisms in reptiles
Mexican beaded lizard (H. horridum) and
gila monster (H. suspectum) are
well-known in this regard, but recently,
findings have revealed that some
monitor lizards, such as the Komodo
dragon (Varanus komodoensis) also have
venom glands in their mouths. This
enables them to bite large quarry, and
wait for the venom to take effect,
without having to overpower the animal
directly.
In snakes that possess venom, if the
warning that they give is not observed,
then their second line of defence is to
bite, although venom is primarily
intended to overcome prey. While
venomous snakes can deliver dry bites
where no venom is injected into the
wound, this is relatively unusual and
Tail end
It is in the reptile’s interest to deter a
possible attack through its body
language, because simply to inflict a bite
could put it at risk of retaliation from an
aggressor. Over the course of time, many
of these warning signs will diminish in
vivarium surroundings, as the occupants
come to realise that they are not in
danger, with young, captive-bred
individuals adapting most quickly.
Therefore, just because your snake or
lizard does not display warning gestures
that you might expect, this is no
indication that there is something wrong,
but rather, it is an indication of the
adaptable nature of reptiles. In fact, even
the most irate individual can tame down
over time with regular handling, as it
establishes a bond with its owner. Such
behaviour will have the added advantage
of lowering its stress levels as well. ✥
ˆ The gila monster is
unusual in being a
venomous lizard.
A western diamondback
rattlesnake (Crotalus
atrox) striking.
debilitating if not deadly after-effects are
likely to result following a bite. Some
snakes, notably spitting cobras, can even
spray venom from their fangs in the
direction of the eyes of the would-be
predator, where it will cause intense pain
and temporary blindness.
‡ Venom on the fang of
a prairie rattlesnake
(Sistrurus catenatus). In
the case of a dry bite, no
venom is injected. A Mozambique spitting cobra (Naja mossambica) spitting its
venom, which can enter the eyes, generating intense pain.

VeterinaryphotographscourtesyofJoannaHedley,exceptcoccidialooycysts.
VETERINARY
CASEBOOK
There can be particular difficulties when it
comes to dealing with internal parasites in
reptiles. The first step will be to determine
those parasites that are present though,
and how many of them there
are… Joanna Hedley
explains more.
Anoff-colourbeardeddragon
P
arasites in patients are a common
problem faced by reptile veterinary
surgeons. Their presence raises a
particular issue. The challenge in
such cases is not how to identify the
problem - most parasites can in fact be
identified very easily from a fresh faecal
sample - but how to determine the
significance of any that are detected.
Many reptiles in the wild appear to
carry parasites without any obvious issues,
and some parasites may in fact possibly
play a useful role in hindgut fermentation,
effectively aiding the digestive process. In
vivarium surroundings too, many reptiles
also appear to cope well with a certain
level of parasites.
However, in small enclosures, parasites
with a direct life cycle that allows them to
spread without having to pass through an
intermediate host such as an invertebrate
can become a serious issue, especially if
environmental hygiene is poor. The
resulting rapid build-up in the numbers of
such parasites means that treatment may
then be required, to safeguard the reptile’s
health at this stage.
and how many of them there
VeterinaryphotographscourtesyofJoannaHedley,exceptcoccidialooycysts.
effectively aiding the digestive process. In
ˆ Jupiter was bright and
lively when he was
brought into the clinic.
Getting the balance right
Jupiter, a bearded dragon who was a year
old, was a typical example of this dilemma.
Recently rehomed from suboptimal
surroundings, his new owners were
making great efforts to correct his
husbandry and diet. Previously he had
been fed only on live food, but now they
were beginning to introduce him to fresh
vegetables and fruit.Yet in spite of being
given a better diet, his appetite was picky
and his faeces were particularly wet at
times. He was therefore brought into the
clinic for a general check-up.
On clinical examination, Jupiter was
bright, active and in good bodily
condition, but he resented a close
examination though. No foreign bodies,
impaction or other abnormalities could be
palpated, however, but then he helpfully
deposited a sample of loose faeces on the
examination table.
A fresh faecal sample is a great starting
point for investigating a sick reptile, being
completely non-invasive and offering a
cheap and easy way to provide rapid
results that could confirm or rule out a
parasitic problem. Fresh samples are
always best, as protozoal parasites may be
inactive in older samples and worm eggs
may have hatched, resulting in young
larvae that are difficult to identify.
Simple investigations
Parasitology can be performed on site
at the veterinary clinic with minimal
equipment. There are various types of test
that may be carried out to screen for
parasites in a faecal sample. The most

REGULAR | REPTILE HEALTH
SEPTEMBER 2015 | 21
common test simply entails examining a
direct smear or wet preparation. This
usually involves mixing a small amount of
faeces with a similar volume of warmed
saline and applying a coverslip on top,
before placing it under a microscope.
This technique is particularly
useful for identifying motile
(moving) protozoa that
could otherwise be
difficult to spot. It will
also detect
moderate to heavy
worm egg burdens.
For less severe
parasite burdens,
flotation methods
may be used to
concentrate the eggs,
making them easier to
observe. The principle is
that eggs should be less
dense than the flotation medium in
which they are suspended, so they should
float to the top and cluster here. Finally,
samples may also be stained and
examined for Cryptosporidium, which is a
fairly common intestinal parasite
especially in snakes and lizards.
Jupiter’s situation
In Jupiter’s case, neither the wet
preparation nor the Cryptosporidium stain
of his faeces revealed any parasites, but
the saturated salt flotation revealed that a
few coccidia were present. Coccidia are
small protozoal parasites commonly
found in many reptiles, and particularly
bearded dragons. A low level of these
parasites may cause no clinical signs but
numbers can rapidly escalate in young
animals, especially where there is poor
hygiene and overcrowding.
Clinical signs may include anorexia (loss
of appetite), lethargy, weight loss,
diarrhoea, straining to defaecate,
prolapses and even death. Juvenile
reptiles or those with moderate to high
numbers of coccidia should therefore be
treated at an
early stage.
Trimethoprim
sulphonamide
drugs have been
used with success, as
has a treatment called
toltrazuril.
Jupiter could not be classed
as a juvenile bearded dragon, however,
and nor was he carrying coccidia at high
levels. He was passing loose faeces at
times but had not lost any weight. X-rays
were taken to look for any other
underlying problems but no
abnormalities were seen. The decision was
therefore made not to treat him for
parasites at this stage, as long as he was
maintaining weight and still eating.
It was decided to limit Jupiter’s fruit and
vegetable intake, and by the following
week, his diarrhoea had resolved, with his
appetite starting to improve. Although
plant matter should definitely make up
part of a bearded dragon’s diet, any
dietary changes should always be gradual
and sugary fruits such as strawberries, for
example, should be limited to the
occasional treat.
Treatment?
In Jupiter’s case, we suspected that the
sudden change in his husbandry and diet
was the cause of his loss of appetite and
diarrhoea, although ultimately, a more
Joanna Hedley, BVM&S, DZooMed (Reptilian),
DipECZM (Herpetology), MRCVS has had a
varied clinical background since graduation.
Her work has included developing a first
opinion and referral service for exotic pets in
clinical practice and involvement in a number
of wildlife charities both in the UK and
abroad. She completed a residency in Exotic
Animal andWildlife Medicine at the Royal
(Dick) School ofVeterinary Studies in 2011
and worked there as a Rabbit, Exotic Animal
andWildlife Clinician, before moving to take
up her current post at the RoyalVeterinary
College. Jo holds a RCVS Diploma in Zoological
Medicine (Reptilian).
varied diet would be beneficial for him. His
owners were requested to bring in
another fresh faecal sample a month later.
The results were encouraging, as only one
coccidial parasite could be seen at this
stage, confirming that in Jupiter’s case,
treatment had not been necessary.
Deciding not to treat a reptile
diagnosed with parasites can be a difficult
decision, however, thanks to the
significant problems that a high parasitic
burden can cause. However, all drugs do
potentially have side effects and although
most of the commonly used treatments
are very safe, we always try to avoid
unnecessary medication. There are also
increasing concerns about parasite
resistance to drugs across many species,
including reptiles, and so their use should
be restricted whenever possible only to
cases where treatment is required.
Not treating an adult reptile therefore is
a reasonable decision, based on
appropriate testing, but to be successful,
this approach will rely on the owner
maintaining their pet in a clean
environment. This will entail frequent spot
cleaning when faeces are produced,
removal of any uneaten live food which
may be spreading infection around the
enclosure and regular disinfection of the
whole environment.
When parasites have proved to be an
issue, so regular weight and faecal checks
can be advisable to ensure that number of
parasites remain low. By following this
approach, both your reptile and its
parasites can live in perfect balance. ✥
‡ X-rays were also
taken as a precaution, to
screen for any other
underlying problems,
given Jupiter’s resistance
to being examined
closely. Luckily, bearded
dragons are normally
very co-operative
patients, and do not
require sedation for this
purpose.
… Coccidial oocysts
seen under the
microscope in a faecal
flotation. Passed out in
the droppings, ooycysts
can survive well in the
environment, and build
up in numbers, which is
why good vivarium
hygiene is so vital to
prevent their spread.
Photo courtesy Joel Mills.
before placing it under a microscope.
This technique is particularly
useful for identifying motile
(moving) protozoa that
difficult to spot. It will
concentrate the eggs,
making them easier to
observe. The principle is
that eggs should be less
dense than the flotation medium in
Trimethoprim
sulphonamide
drugs have been
used with success, as
has a treatment called
toltrazuril.
Jupiter could not be classed
A ‘wet’ preparation of
faeces being prepared
to examine under the
microscope.

A
lthough I have worked with reptiles,
amphibians and invertebrates for
over 30 years, it is always exciting to
stumble across a species that you
have only ever previously seen in pictures,
when you are out walking in the bush here
in Botswana. One of my most memorable
finds was actually a creature almost 20cm
(8in) in length with 20 pairs of legs.Yes - it
was a giant centipede!
An instant flashback
I can remember many years ago buying a
large Scolopendra centipede at the
Kempton Park bug show, and during the
process of transferring it from its small
travelling container into larger, permanent
housing, I said to my friend:“these things
move darn quick!”Just as I finished the
sentence, the centipede shot out of the box
and scurried across the floor towards my
friend. Well, my friend was a big, heavy guy,
but that day, he reacted just like a natural
sprinter!
This encounter in Africa took my
thoughts back to the show, because while I
was there, I saw young teenagers being
sold giant centipedes. They are unlike giant
millipedes. These invertebrates are not just
big, but they have a very nasty bite and as I
say, they can move at a remarkable pace.
I had experience keeping all manner of
bugs, and was well aware of what these
multi-legged creatures could be like, but as
the centipede raced out from the container,
Centipedes
Paul Donovan describes the remarkable
lifestyles of these little-known invertebrates
and what is involved in their care, as well as
their unusual breeding habits.
it still surprised me. I wonder how many of
those sold on that day actually made it
straight into a larger tank rather than
charging off into the room first?
The mystery of its identity
If it’s neither an insect nor an arachnid, then
what is a centipede? Well, centipedes are
actually distant relatives of crustaceans
(lobsters, crayfish, shrimps and the like) and
they belong to a class called Chilopoda. The
† A colourful
red-headed
centipede
(Scolopendra
heros).
A giant tiger centipede
(Scolopendrahardwickei).
Centipedes
Out ofAfrica

the first body segment are
modified into a pair of
large claws (called
maxillipeds) and these
are linked with a pair of
venom glands. The
venom varies from
species to species, but
is powerful enough in
the case of larger species
to kill small rodents. There
are also four single eyes on
either side of the head,
though these can be assumed
to have quite a primitive structure,
and play significantly less of a role in prey
detection than the very tactile antennae
that are present on the head as well.
Respiration is via the tracheal system.
This is where a small hole on each body
segment called a‘spiracle’leads to a
network of tubes that transport oxygen
within the body and remove carbon
dioxide.
Another interesting feature, as
arthropods go, is that centipedes can be
quite long-lived. Although it is difficult to
give life expectancy figures for the smaller
‡A centipede’s
maxillipeds in close-up,
seen from below.
OUT OF AFRICA | CENTIPEDES
†
reason that they are not classified in either
of these better-known invertebrate groups
is that they have multi-segmented bodies,
whereas insects have three segments and
an arachnid’s body is made up of two.
Depending on the species, centipedes
can have anywhere between 15 and 177
pairs of legs; one for each body segment.
This compares to the 6 pairs of legs for an
insect, and 8 pairs for an arachnid. So in
spite of their name suggesting that
centipedes have 100 legs, this is a myth, just
as it is to say that millipedes have 1000!
A very large group
Centipedes occur virtually worldwide, in a
wide range of habitats, and there are some
3000 species divided up into five orders,
and 15 families. Of these, members of the
genus Scolopendra (order
Scolopendromorpha), accounting for some
30 species, are the most frequently available
Centipedes can climb well, as shown
by this species from Thailand.
in the pet trade, thanks to
their truly impressive sizes.
For an invertebrate that
spends most of its time
hidden beneath rocks or
fallen logs, and is nocturnal by
nature, these centipedes can be
surprisingly colourful, ranging from
subdued browns to shades of green,
orange and purple, and some are even dual
coloured. Unfortunately however,
classifying them accurately down to a
particular species is exceedingly difficult,
because they are not a well-studied group.
Centipedes can be found in a range of
biotypes that can range from moist to dry
areas, although their surroundings are
never bone dry. They occur beneath stones,
logs and cracks in rocks where the humidity
and temperature remain pretty constant.
In appearance, they are typically long,
spindly-bodied arthropods whose legs on
‡ A house centipede in close-up, showing its
eyes. Photo courtesy of the author.
SEPTEMBER 2015 | 23
Centipede or millipede?
Centipedes have one pair of legs per body
segment – whereas millipedes, (which belong
to the separate class Diplopoda) have two
pairs of legs per body segment, meaning that
they can have anywhere from 26 to 300 legs
on their bodies.
A brightly coloured red
centipede from Botswana.
Photo courtesy of the author.
‡An unidentified centipede from Morocco.
the first body segment are
modified into a pair of
large claws (called
maxillipeds) and these
is powerful enough in
the case of larger species
to kill small rodents. There
are also four single eyes on
either side of the head,
though these can be assumed
to have quite a primitive structure,
and play significantly less of a role in prey
fallen logs, and is nocturnal by
nature, these centipedes can be
surprisingly colourful, ranging from
subdued browns to shades of green,
orange and purple, and some are even dual
‡ A house centipede in close-up, showing its
eyes. Photo courtesy of the author.

species, the larger Scolopendra species can
certainly live for around eight years.
Care requirements
Providing that you can give them the
correct conditions, centipedes are relatively
easy to maintain in captivity. At the outset,
before I get on the specifics of husbandry,
let’s talk about accommodating them. A
conventional glass or acrylic aquarium can
be used for housing, and this should - at the
very least - be twice the length of the body
and also as wide as the centipede’s length.
Bear in mind that although centipedes
may spend their time hidden away, when
they are active, they will put not just a
sprinter but also a mountaineer to shame!
So, when considering the height of the
aquarium, this should be at least one-and-
a-half to two times the length of the
centipede. Remember, a centipede is
capable of standing vertically in the corner
of a cage and can even gain a foothold on
the silicone sealant that holds the glass
together, using this to climb up the sides
without difficulty.
This then leads us to a lid; it must be
tight fitting. Be under no illusion, if there is
the slightest gap here - no matter how
small it is - even the largest centipede will
manage to squeeze through this space. So,
when I say‘tight fitting’, I mean just that!
Also, be aware that if the roof has any form
of zinc or mesh for ventilation, then if the
centipedes can reach it, they will hang off it,
which is not to be recommended. A plastic
lid can be a better option for this reason.
So once you have secure quarters set up,
how do you furnish the enclosure itself? The
basic substrate should be a mixture of
sandy soil and peat, or leaf mould to a
depth of 4-5cm (1.5-2in). On this, add
retreats such as scattered rocks, logs, broken
flowerpots and the like, which need to be
firmly supported, so there is no risk of the
centipede being crushed when it ventures
into a gap beneath.
Lighting and heat
Lighting in the enclosure should be quite
subdued, as centipedes in general are not
light-loving arthropods. Although
predominantly nocturnal, a number of the
larger species can nevertheless be active
during daylight hours. I used to keep my
centipedes in quite a dark corner of the
room with a low wattage red lamp for
lighting. A more modern option these
days would be a nocturnal vivarium light,
which may help to maintain the
A large Scolopendra
species from Botswana.
‡Scolopendra
centipedes such as this
megarian banded
centipede (S. cingulata)
are highly cannibalistic
by nature.
It is vital that care is taken to maintain
the correct humidity in the enclosure,
as incorrect levels are the biggest
killer of captive centipedes. If the
reading is allowed to drop
below 40%, the centipede’s soft
skin will begin to shrivel, and the
individual will die as a result. Equally, a saturated wet
substrate that gives a higher humidity than required is
likely to result in the growth of harmful moulds, as well
as favouring a build-up of mites as well. This too will
adversely impact on the centipede’s health.
BEWARE
temperature as well.
As far as temperature is concerned, this
will depend largely on where the centipede
originates from, but as a general guide, I
would say a figure of between 23-30°C
(73-86°F) during the day, dropping to 17°C
(62°F) at night would suit most individuals.
Use a heat mat under thermostatic
control for this purpose, attaching it to the
back of the enclosure rather than beneath.
The heat pad will otherwise tend to dry out
the substrate, threatening the centipede’s
survival. As for humidity, 50-70% is a good
average. The substrate should be lightly
sprayed as and when required, in order to
maintain acceptable humidity levels, but
don’t forget to monitor this with a
hygrometer.
Feeding
Centipedes are highly carnivorous and prey
upon virtually anything that moves. So this
is a good enough reason for not trying to
keep several together, as they can prove to
be cannibalistic. However, if not eating one
another, centipedes will take just about any
insect as food, up to the size of an adult
locust.
Some of the larger species of centipede
will also accept dead pinkies, rat pups and
even adult mice. These should only be fed
occasionally though, as if offered too often,
the centipede will quickly become
overweight, and this can shorten its
lifespan. When I kept my centipedes, I fed
them on a dead rat pup once a month and
a few insects (such as crickets, grasshoppers
and anything else that I could find) each
week.
Sexing
If your intention is to attempt to breed
these interesting creatures, then clearly,
firstly you have to sex them. And this is not

OUT OF AFRICA | Life in the sand

areas, where the populations vary naturally
in size. There are simply too many variables
to make size a reliable characteristic when it
comes to sexing.
There are much more reliable ways of
distinguishing the sexes though, in the case
of centipedes. Although it is sometimes
difficult to see, a male has an enlarged
segment between the rear legs whose
function is to produce the web upon which
his spermatophore (sperm capsule) is set
down. The best way to determine this can
be to put the centipede in a clear box with
a secure lid, allowing you to view it in
close-up from all angles.
Breeding
I have only attempted mating the
Scolopendra centipedes that I find here in
Botswana once, and it was a nail-biting
event! These invertebrates are as about
cannibalistic as they come! I gave my pair
the best chance of survival that I could, and
accommodated them in a 120cm (4ft)
aquarium.
The female was placed in the enclosure
that was well decorated with plants and
had plenty of cover, allowing her to settle
down, before the male was introduced a
week later. As mating takes place under the
cover of darkness, I cannot describe the
complexities of their courtship from
personal observations, but generally the
male approaches the female, and spins a
web on the ground, upon which he
deposits the spermatophore.
This is then picked up by the female and
passed back to her genital opening. Mating
can take several hours, although as
indicated, there is no direct contact
between the centipedes, and once the
process is complete, the pair should be
separated.
On the other hand, do not be surprised if
you keep a single centipede and then
unexpectedly find lots of eggs in its
quarters one day. Do not discard them
either, simply assuming they will be infertile.
A number of species of centipede are
parthenogenic – meaning that they can
breed without the aid of a male. The young
in this case are in effect clones of the
female.
Maternal care of the eggs
When mating does occur, however, then
several weeks later, the female will wrap her
body into a circle in a shallow depression in
the ground and, depending on the species,
will lay up to 50 or so eggs here. The female
displays strong maternal feelings towards
her eggs, and will not only defend them
from predators, but also lovingly cares for
them. She protects them from mould and
SEPTEMBER 2015 | 25
as easy as it seems! I find it amusing when
people sex animals by adopting the
approach that‘adult males are larger than
adult females’.
How do you know that what you have
are adults in the first place? They could be
an adult female and a sub-adult male, or an
adult male and sub-adult female. Sexing
using size as the criterion is a very
haphazard approach. Furthermore, the
centipedes may even come from different
ˆGiant millipedes, as
seen here, are much
more variable in terms of
their number of legs than
centipedes.
‡The antennae far
surpass the visual
capabilities of the
centipede in detecting
prey. Photo courtesy of the
author.

infection by, among other things, licking
them to keep them clean.
Throughout the period of incubation,
she exudes a disinfectant that is used to
cleanse the eggs. The importance and
effectiveness of this can be seen very
clearly if she is removed from the eggs,
which will then quickly turn mouldy. As a
rough rule of thumb, the incubation period
lasts around 60 days, with the offspring
remaining with the female in the
depression for three or four days before
moving off to start an independent
life.
Whatever you do, if you are
fortunate enough to persuade
your centipedes to breed, do
not disturb the female, because
otherwise, this may cause her
to eat the eggs and/or any
young. A number of the larger
members of the group are
actually described as
‘matriphagic’– which means that
the young may kill and eat their
mother. This is a behaviour also seen
in various species of spider, and is
probably a way of ensuring the young do
not struggle to find food at the outset, so
they can get off to a good start in life.
The young centipedes are usually
creamy-white at birth and should be
removed and cared for individually, to avoid
cannibalism. Interestingly, when the young
centipedes shed their skin, they will eat this
too, as it contains important nutrients.
Sexual maturity takes place within 12 – 14
months.
Painful bites
Be under no illusion about this; a large
Scolopendra centipede is capable of
delivering a very, very painful bite, the
effects of which should not be under-
estimated. A bite can give rise to swelling of
the affected area, skin discolouration,
headache, nausea, and fever. Breathing
difficulties and an irregular heart-beat are
also not unknown either.
Fortunately, these symptoms are
generally short-lived, and normally subside
within two to three days with no lasting
effects, but clearly, if you are concerned in
any way, seek medical advice without
delay. If you suffer a bite, start by cleaning
the wound with soap
and apply an
antiseptic cream as
soon as possible.
Care should also be
taken to avoid contact
with the legs of
centipedes as well,
because they produce a
secretion that can result in an
allergic reaction, leading to a nasty,
itchy rash. An antihistamine cream should
help to alleviate the itching under these
circumstances.
In exceptional cases, people who are
allergic to any type of insect venom could
be at risk of anaphylactic shock from a
‡Even centipedes have
their enemies though,
such as this African
black-headed centipede
eater - a snake with highly
specialised feeding habits.
Photocourtesyoftheauthor.
lasts around 60 days, with the offspring
remaining with the female in the
depression for three or four days before
moving off to start an independent
‘matriphagic’– which means that
mother. This is a behaviour also seen
in various species of spider, and is
probably a way of ensuring the young do
not struggle to find food at the outset, so
the wound with soap
soon as possible.
taken to avoid contact
with the legs of
centipedes as well,
because they produce a
secretion that can result in an
allergic reaction, leading to a nasty,
itchy rash. An antihistamine cream should
ˆ The head of a
Scolopendra centipede.
centipede bite, so be aware of this
possibility and act accordingly. As
interesting as centipedes are, they are
definitely and emphatically not suitable for
children.
Handling
There may come a time when it is
necessary to relocate your centipede from
one enclosure to another, for whatever
reason. However, never even contemplate
trying to pick it with your hands! Although
there are people who are quick enough to
grasp a centipede behind the head and at
the base of the tail to neutralise the threat
of a bite, they are exceptionally few and far
between; if you miss, you are going to get
ˆ Although centipedes
normally feed on
invertebrates, even their
defences can be
overwhelmed by
aggressive swarms of ants.

SEPTEMBER 2015 | 27
bitten very badly. I wouldn’t attempt to pick
up a large Scolopendra directly for love or
money!
In order to move one of these
centipedes, you can place a container or a
length of piping which has been blocked
oﬀ at one end, (into which the individual
can crawl), into its quarters.You can
encourage it to enter here by using a straw
to steer it in this direction. Once the
centipede is inside, secure the other end, to
prevent it coming straight back out again.
You can also pick these centipedes up
individually using a pair of long forceps, and
this can sometimes be a better option. The
forceps should have foam wrapped around
the tips, however, so that as you grasp the
centipede, this will cause no injury. Be
prepared for the centipede to wriggle
around wildly under these circumstances
though, and listen carefully, because you
are likely to hear it chomping on the metal
as well.
When using forceps, do not be tempted
to lift an individual from its quarters directly
in this way, because if you drop the
centipede, it will disappear very rapidly,
before you can do anything! Have a
container inside the cage ready to transfer it
into, and once it is secure here, you can lift it
out.
Even this is not easy though, because
you will ultimately have to let it go while at
the same time trying to secure the lid. Be
patient and do not crush the centipede – if
it clambers up and out, you may simply
have to be prepared to catch it again with
the forceps. A deep container will make the
task of moving it easier though, giving you
more time to get the lid safely in place.
Tail end
For all their shortcomings, centipedes can
be fascinating invertebrates to keep, quite
apart from the fact that a number of species
are very attractive, and there is still much
that we need to learn about their biology. I
ﬁnd them fascinating, if not a bit scary. They
are very much creatures to observe and
study, rather than suitable invertebrates to
interact with directly, so please don’t even
consider giving a centipede to your son or
daughter as a pet! ✥
‡Not all centipedes are
dull in colour. This is a
multicoloured species
from Botswana.
ˆ The tail of a
Scolopendra centipede.
Fancy a
Paul Donovan is a biologist
specialising in the reptiles,
amphibians and invertebrates of
Botswana. He also operates a
specialist motorcycle business. If you
fancy joining him on a herping tour to
the remoter areas of Africa, email him
at paul.motorcycleadventures
@gmail.com for details.
… Scolopendra species
may look attractive, but
their bright colouring
serves as a warning. Their
bites are potentially
serious. This is a Peruvian
species.
herping safari?

T
here are a number of possibilities
when it comes to selecting a pet
tortoise that can be allowed to roam in
secure surroundings out of doors
when the weather is fine over the summer.
Horsfield’s tortoises (Agrionemys horsfieldii)
are quite commonly offered, and free from
paperwork restrictions, in terms of requiring
an Article 10 certificate from the vendor,
which you will have to keep in a safe place.
But Horsfield’s do tend to be great
burrowers and climb very readily too,
making them harder to contain.Their
activity period is also relatively short, as in
the wild, they may spend up to six months
of the year concealed underground.
Then there is the marginated tortoise
(Testudo marginata), which is not bred in
such large numbers as the other species,
making it relatively rare. It also grows up to
45cm (18in) long, which can cause
accommodation issues.
The Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise
(Testudo graeca) has long been kept as a pet,
dating back nearly four centuries in the UK,
but today, this species seems to be less
widely bred than Hermann’s, and those of
North African descent may not
be quite as well-suited to
our climate.
Distribution
Hermann’s tortoise is confined to parts of
southern Europe, with the western
subspecies (T. h. hermanni) extending from
northeastern Spain and southern France to
southern and central parts of Italy. It is also
to be found on various islands in this area of
the Mediterranean, including the Balearics,
Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily.
The central subspecies (T. h.
hercegovinensis) occupies an area along the
eastern coast of the Adriatic, extending from
Bosnia and Herzegovina to Croatia and
Montenegro.
The most easterly of the three currently
recognised subspecies (T. h. boettgeri) can be
found in Serbia, Kosovo and Macedonia,
extending to Albania and Greece, as well as
into parts of Romania and Bulgaria.This is
also the largest of the three subspecies,
growing up to 28cm (11in), whereas the
western race typically grows no bigger than
18cm (7.5in).
Mixed up
Unfortunately, the widescale captive-
breeding of Hermann’s tortoises that has
taken place over the past 30 years, since the
importation of wild specimens was
banned in 1982, has resulted in
differences between the various subspecies
becoming less apparent, as the result of
random crossings in many cases in the past.
However, there are still older individuals
around, given the life expectancy of these
reptiles, which can exceeds our own!
Breeders are becoming increasingly aware of
the need to pair these individuals carefully
with members of their particular subspecies,
rather than encouraging cross-breeding.
Help with identity
There are several characteristics that set
Hermann’s apart from other tortoises, but
the most evident is the shape of the tail. In
the case of mature males in particular, this is
long, and in both sexes, there is what can be
described as a hook, known technically as a
xiphiplastron, at its tip.
Males in general grow to a slightly smaller
adult size than females, and also have a
slight concave plastron – the area of the
underside of the shell.This helps the male to
maintain his balance resting on the female’s
shell when they are mating.
Aside from the issue of size, it is possible
to use the shell markings as a guide to
determining the subspecies to which an
This species ranks as one of the most popular choices as a
pet. David Alderton discusses its appeal, and things that
you need to consider when acquiring a pet tortoise of
this type.
‡ The current ranges of
the three recognised
subspecies of Hermann’s
tortoise. Map courtesy
Mkljun.
Hermann’stortoise
†
… Some Hermann’s
tortoises have shells that
display few black areas.
This can be a feature of
those from more westerly
areas of the species’
range.
Testudo hermanni hercegovinensis
Testudo hermanni boettgeri
Testudo hermanni hermanni

SEPTEMBER 2015 | 29
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cause – is more serious than in
an adult, because of the risk
of fluid loss and the
associated issue of
dehydration. A tortoise in
this state will be disinclined
to feed, marking the start of
what will be a downward
cycle without intervention
on your part.
Check the tortoise’s eyes,
which should be bright and clear.
The nostrils need to be of even size,
and free from any signs of blockage or
discharge. A young tortoise will not display
the shell rings seen in older animals,
although it is a myth that each ring
represents a year in the tortoise’s life.Young,
healthy tortoises will grow rapidly, and will
be displaying a number of rings on their
shell before they are a year old.
Look for any evident signs of any injury or
damage. On occasions, the scutes making
individual belongs. In the case of the
western race, look on the plastron (which is
the underside of the shell).There will be two
broad blackish bands on the sides, with a
yellowish-horn coloured stripe separating
them. In the case of Boettgeri’s tortoise, the
black stripes are broken into more evident
blotches here.
DNA studies carried out over recent years
suggest that the last Ice Age, around 15,000
years ago, had an impact on the distribution
of these tortoises, notably in eastern parts of
their range. The dramatic fall in temperature
seems to have triggered localised
extinctions in the vicinity of the Balkan
region, causing the surviving populations to
become isolated, creating more variance as
a result.
Nevertheless, there is still some
controversy surrounding T. h. peloponnesica,
a population that is found along the
southwestern part of Greece’s Peloponnesus
coast. It is thought that these tortoises may
form a valid subspecies, but this has not yet
been proven.
The shell itself may vary slightly in shape,
with some individuals having a shell that
appears more elongated than rounded. A
potential health issue that alters the shape of
the carapace and can arise in young
Hermann’s tortoises, however, is pyramiding.
As its name suggests, the vertebral scutes
along the back can grow abnormally, as may
the adjacent costals, so they start to look like
miniature pyramids.The cause is unclear, but
both a dry atmosphere and an unsuitable
diet have been implicated. Providing
retreats where the humidity is higher than in
other areas of the tortoise’s enclosure, and
offering a high fibre weed-based diet should
help to prevent this condition arising.
A friendly companion
Hermann’s tortoises have been bred
increasingly commonly in recent years, and
they can be relatively prolific.The fact that
they do not grow to a large size means that
they are quite easy to accommodate, and
they can become very tame, although
hatchlings may be rather shy at first.
Nevertheless, a young Hermann’s tortoise
can soon be persuaded to start taking food
from the hand, and will rapidly form a strong
bond with you. These reptiles are very
responsive, with observations suggesting,
that they can soon learn to recognise their
owners, and will come over to you to be fed,
particularly when being housed indoors.
A health check
When buying a young tortoise, try to ensure
that it is eating at the time of purchase, as
this can give peace of mind. In any event,
check around the mouth for signs of green
staining, for example, around the jaws, as
this shows a healthy appetite. Look
underneath as well, in case there are
any signs of faecal matter around
the tail, and if in doubt, look
around in the tortoise’s
quarters as well.
As in all young animals,
diarrhoea – whatever the
‡ Male Hermann’s
tortoises have a long tail.
This individual is showing
clear signs of the irreversible
condition known as
pyramiding. In extreme
cases, this can seriously
curtail the tortoise’s
life.
ˆ The typical
smooth-shelled
appearance of a
Hermann’s tortoise.
Hermann’s tortoise is named after
Johann Hermann (1738-1800), who
was professor of medicine at the
University of Strasbourg. He was
also a keen naturalist, and his
zoological collection helped to
create the basis of what became the
Strasbourg Zoological Museum after
his death.
Did you know?
cause – is more serious than in
an adult, because of the risk
on your part.
which should be bright and clear.
The nostrils need to be of even size,
and free from any signs of blockage or
discharge. A young tortoise will not display
check around the mouth for signs of green
staining, for example, around the jaws, as
this shows a healthy appetite. Look
underneath as well, in case there are
any signs of faecal matter around
† A male of the nominate
western race of
Hermann’s tortoise.
Photo courtesy Adele L..
† A contrasting
photograph showing a
female of the eastern
race, sometimes called
Boettgeri’s tortoise. Note
the difference in the
markings here on the
plastron. Photo courtesy
Adele L. .

Practical reptile keeping september 2015

Practical reptile keeping september 2015

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