Academic Writing: An Introduction – Fourth Edition

1. Introduction
What is communication?
Our first task is to create a common understanding for the
term communication.
Defining communication can be challenging of course.
We should note that there are many ways to interpret and
define communication.
 This is as a result of the complexity and richness of the c
ommunication discipline.
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2. Communication is a social process in which individuals employ
symbols to establish and interpret meaning in their environment.
let’s define five key terms in our perspective: social, process,
symbols, meaning, and environment.
Social
First, we believe that communication is a social process. When
interpreting communication as social, we mean to suggest that
it involves people and interactions, whether face-to-face or
online.
This necessarily includes two persons, who act as senders
and receivers. Both play an integral role in the communication
process.
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3.  When communication is social, it involves people who come t
o an interaction with various:
 intentions,
 motivations, and
 abilities.
Process
To suggest that communication is a process means that it is
ongoing and unending.
Communication is also:
dynamic,
complex, and
continually changing.
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4. With this view of communication, we emphasize the dynamics
of making meaning.
Therefore, communication has no definable beginning and
ending.
The process nature of communication also means that much
can happen from the beginning of a conversation to the end.
People may end up at a very different place once a discussion
begins
This is exemplified by the frequent conflicts that roommates, sp
ouses, and siblings experience.
Because the communication process is dynamic and unique it is
virtually impossible to study ( True/ False)
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5.  False
C. Arthur (1996) argues that because the communication
process is so dynamic, researchers and theorists can look for
patterns over time.
He concludes that “if we recognize a pattern across a large
number of cases, it permits us to ‘generalize’ to other
unobserved cases”
A third term associated with our definition of communication is
symbols.
A symbol is an arbitrary label or representation of phenomena.
Words are symbols for concepts and things—for example,
the word love represents the idea of love; the word chair
represents a thing we sit on.
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6.  Symbols are usually agreed on within a group but may not be
understood outside of the group.
 In this way, their use is often arbitrary.
 For instance, most college students understand the phrase “r
egistration is closed”; those outside of college may not under
stand its meaning.
Further, there are both concrete symbols (the symbol
represents an object) and abstract symbols (the symbol
stands for a thought or idea).
In addition to process and symbols, meaning is central to our
definition of communication.
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7.  Meaning is what people extract from a message.
In communication episodes, messages can have more than one
meaning and even multiple layers of meaning.
Without sharing some meanings, we would all have a difficult
time speaking the same language or interpreting the same
event.
The final key term in our definition of communication is
environment.
Environment is the situation or context in which communication
occurs.
 The environment includes a number of elements, including ti
me, place, relationship, and a speaker’s and listener’s cultura
l backgrounds.
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8. The environment can also be mediated.
By that, we mean that communication takes place with
technological assistance.
At one point or another, all of us have communicated
in a mediated environment, namely through email, chat rooms,
or social networking sites.
These mediated environments influence the communication
between two people in that people in electronic relationships
are (usually) not able to observe each other’s eye behavior,
listen to vocal characteristics, or watch body movement (Skype
would be an exception to this, however).
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9. Clearly, the mediated environment has received a great deal of
attention over the years as communication theory continues to
develop.
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11. Other definitions of communication
Communication can broadly be defined as exchange of :
ideas,
messages and
information
between two or more persons, through a medium, in a manner
that the sender and the receiver understand the message in the
common sense, that is,
they develop common understanding of the message.
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12. The word communication is derived from the Latin word
‘communicare’, which means to:
share,
impart,
participate,
exchange,
transmit or to make common.
It emphasizes on sharing common :
information,
ideas and
messages.
It is not merely issuing orders and instructions.
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13.  Communication is a process of transmitting and receiving ver
bal and non-verbal messages.
 It is considered effective only when it achieves the desired re
action or response from the receiver.
 The response may be positive or negative.
 In case of absence of any response, communication is inco
mplete.
 The Oxford dictionary defines communication as ‘the impartin
g or exchange of information by speaking, writing, or using so
me other medium.
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14. Process of Communication
Communication consists of the following eight components
which are inter-related.
1. Idea
2. Sender
3. Encoding
4. Message
5. Channel & Medium
6. Receiver/ Decoder
8. Feedback
7. Decoding
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15. 1. Idea
Every message, whether oral or written, has its origin in an idea
that germinates in the mind of the sender of the message. Every
idea refers to some context.
Thus the idea or information that the sender wants to convey to
the receiver is the source of the message in the communication
process.
2. Sender/ Encoder
The person who initiates the communication process is referred
to as the encoder.
The process of communication begins with the sender who
identifies the need to communicate.
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16. The sender must have a clear picture in his mind about what he
wants to communicate and should accordingly select symbols,
words, images, etc.
The sender must identify his audience and formulate the
message in such a way that the receiver understands fully what
he intends to convey and interprets it within the same context.
3. Encoding
Encoding takes place when the sender formulates his idea into a
message to be transmitted to the receiver, using a series of
symbols- verbal/ or non-verbal, written or oral.
The sender should encode the message keeping in mind the
purpose of communication and should select words orsymbols
that help the receiver understand the communication correctly and
to achieve the expected feedback.
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17. Encoding is a process of creating a message for transmission
by an addresser to an addressee.
4. Message
A message is an idea transformed into words.
It can be expressed in different ways depending upon:
the subject-matter,
purpose,
audience personal style and
cultural background of the sender.
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18.  5. Channel and medium
An appropriate medium chosen to send the message is known
as channel.
It is the vehicle which facilitates the sender to convey the
message to the receiver.
Channel is a system used to transmit a message, whereas
medium is one of the forms/ types used under that system.
For example oral communication is a channel and telephone
conversation is a medium.
There are three broad channels of communication and there are
several media under each.
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19. 2/8/2024 19

20. 6. Receiver/ Decoder
The person who receives the encoded message is referred to
as receiver.
The receiver may be an individual or a group of individuals.
As communication is a two-way process, the receiver is as
important as the sender of the message.
A receiver may be a listener or a reader or a viewer of
the message.
He not only receives the message but also tries to understand,
interpret and perceive the total meaning of the message.
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21.  7. Decoding
It is a process by which the receiver interprets the message and
translates it into meaningful information.
The meaning of the message is the sum total of the meanings
of the words ( symbols) together with the tone and the
attitude of the sender as reflected by his choice of words and
the structure of the message.
 8. Feedback
Feedback is the response given by the receiver of the message
to the sender of the message.
When the encoder receives feedback, he gets to know that
communication has been accomplished.
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22. Feedback can be immediate, later, can be positive or
negative. It can be verbal or non verbal.
In communication feedback plays an important role. It
ensures that the receiver has received the message
and understood it just as it was intended by the
sender.
Feedback is the most important component of
communication.
Without feedback, the communication process is
incomplete.
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23. 2/8/2024 23

24. 2/8/2024 24

25. What are the components (encoder, message, channel,
medium, decoder and feedback) which take place in the
following communication process?
A university student, whoX lives in the university
dorm, wants some money. She writes a letter to
her father asking him to send her money. The
father sends money, along with a letter. In both
cases (sending money and sending the letter), the
father is responding to the communication
initiated by his child.
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26. 1. who is the encoder?
Encoder: A university student/ child
2. what is the Message?
Message: needs money
3.what is the channel?
Channel: written communication
4. What is the medium?
Medium: a letter
5. Who is the decoder?
Decoder: the father
6. What is the feedback?
Feedback: sends money and letter
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27. Purposes of communication
Communication is a progress of action in which
the information,
ideas,
thoughts,
feelings,
opinions, and
knowledge are exchanged between two or more people.
This interaction comes in many forms of
speech,
signal writing, or
behavior.
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28. This two-way interaction is an essential process not only
on a daily basis but is also
significant at professional means because
it is a tool that aids people to connect with various individuals.
People communicate to others in order for them to
inform,
evoke,
entertain,
argue, and
persuade.
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29. Most of the time, effective communication is attained because
the messages being shared or transferred has a clear
purpose.
What are the purposes of communication?
Purposes Of Communication:
1. exchange information.
2. To persuade & influence.
3. To ensure understanding.
4. To convey feelings, opinions & perceptions & ideas.
5. To establish & enhance friendship.
6. To improve public relation.
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30. 7. To start action & implement activities.
8. To provide therapeutic effect
Criteria for good theory
DEVELOPING GOOD THEORIES (Paynton and Hahn, 2009)
There are three essential steps involved in developing
Communication theories:
1) Ask important questions,
2) look for answers by observing communicative behavior, and
3) form answers and theories as a result of your observations
(Littlejohn & Foss).
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31. Asking important questions is the first step in the process of
discovering how communication functions in our world.
However, simply asking questions is not enough.
It is important that we find meaningful answers to our
questions in order to continue to improve our
communication.
In the field of Communication, answers to our questions
have the potential to help us communicate better with one
another, as well as provide positive social change.
If you’ve ever questioned why something is the way it is,
perhaps you’re on your way to discovering the next big
theory by finding meaningful answers to your questions.
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32. When we find answers to our questions, we are able to form
theories about our communication.
Answering our questions helps us develop more sophisticated
ways of understanding the communication around us
You may have a theory about how to make friends.
You use this theory to guide your behavior, then ask questions to
find out if your theory works.
The more times you prove that it works, the stronger your theory
becomes about making friends.
But, how do we know if a theory is good, or not?
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33. CRITERIA FOR GOOD COMMUNICATION THEORY
What are the criteria for good communication theory?
The following ARE a list of criteria that can assist you to
systematically evaluate theories.
1/ Theoretical Scope
refers to how broad or narrow a theory is (Infante, Rancer &
Womack; Shaw & Costanzo).
Theories that cover various domains are considered good
theories, but if a theory is too broad it may not account for specific
instances that are important for understanding how we
communicate.
If it is too narrow, we may not be able to understand
communication in general terms.
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34. Narrow theories work well if the range of events they cover can
be applied to a large number of situations.
It is easier to understand some theories when we are given
examples or can see being played out.
2/Parsimony
refers to the idea that, _all things being equal, the simplest
solution takes _ precedence over a more complicated one .
Thus, a theory is valuable when it is able to explain, in basic
terms, complex communicative situations.
If the theory cannot be explained in simple terms it is not
demonstrating parsimony.
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35. 3/Heuristic Value
means that _a theory prompts other theorists to engage in further
_ study and theorizing about a given problem .
The Greeks used the term heurisko , meaning “I find” to refer to
an idea, which stimulates additional thinking and discovery.
This is an important criterion that facilitates intellectual growth,
development, and problem solving.
For most Communication theories, it would be quite easy to
track their development as more people weighed in on the
discussion.
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36. 4/Openness
the quality that a theory allows for, and recognizes, multiple
options _ and perspectives .
In essence, a good theory acknowledges that it is
tentative,
contextual,
qualified
and is open to refinement.
The openness of a theory should allow a person to examine
its multiple options and
perspectives in order to personally determine if the theory holds
up or not.
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37. 5/ Appropriateness
refers to _the fit between the underlying theoretical assumptions
_ and the research question .
Theories must be consistent with the assumptions, goals, and d
ata of the research in question.
Let’s say you want to understand the relationship between playi
ng violent video games and actual violence.
 One of your assumptions about human nature might be that pe
ople are active, rather, than passive agents, meaning we don’t ju
st copy what we see in the media.
 Given this, examining this issue from a theoretical perspective t
hat suggests people emulate whatever they see in the media wo
uld not be appropriate for explaining phenomenon.
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38. 6/Validity
refers to the worth and practical nature of a theory .
The question should be asked, “is a theory representative of
reality?”
There are three qualities of validity —
value,
fit, and
generalizability.
Is a theory valuable for the culture at large?
Does it fit with the relationship between the explanations offered
by the theory and the actual data?
Finally, is it generalizable to a population beyond the sample
size?
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39. Intrapersonal Communication Theories
As you review theories in the previous part, keep
in mind that a theory may focus on how
individuals perceive their own behavior.
At the root of this thinking is intrapersonal com
munication.
Intrapersonal communication theorists frequentl
y study the role that cognition plays in human be
havior.
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40. Intrapersonal communication is
communication with oneself.
It is an internal dialogue and may take place
even in the presence of another individual.
Intrapersonal communication is what goes on
inside your head even when you are with
someone.
Intrapersonal communication is usually more
repetitive than other communication; we engage
in it many times each day.
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41.  This context is also unique from other contexts in that it includ
es those times when you
 imagine,
 perceive,
 daydream, and
 solve problems in your head.
Intrapersonal communication is much more than talking to
oneself.
It also includes the many attributions you may make about
another person’s behavior.
 For instance, an employer may want to know why an employe
e arrives late to work and looks disheveled each day.
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42. The supervisor may believe that the worker’s tardiness and
demeanor are a result of some domestic problems.
In reality, the employee may have another job in order to pay for
his or her child’s college tuition.
We all have internal dialogues, and these internalized voices can
vary tremendously from one person to another.
Intrapersonal communication is distinguished from other contexts
in that it allows communicators to make attributions about
themselves.
People have the ability to assess themselves.
From body image to work competencies, people are always
making self-attributions.
You may have thought seriously about your own strengths and
shortcomings in a number of situations.
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43.  For example, do you find that you are an excellent PRESETE
R, but not so excellent as a statistics student?
 Are there times when you feel that you are a trusted friend, but
not so trusted in your own family?
Although some people may believe that talking to oneself is a bit
peculiar, Virginia Satir (1988) believes that these internal
dialogues may help individuals bolster their self-esteem—the
degree of positive orientation people have about themselves.
Often, intrapersonal communication is difficult; it requires
individuals to accept their accomplishments and confront their
fears and anxieties.
Looking in a mirror can be both enlightening and frightening. Of
course, mirrors can also be distorting.
Jenny Yamato, for example, may think that her world is over
once her daughter leaves for college.
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44. The reality for the vast majority of parents,
however, is that they survive the “loss.”
As a single parent, Jenny may think that she is
incapable of moving on without Lee.
Once Lee leaves, however, Jenny may find that
she is more empowered living alone.
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45. Our discussion of intrapersonal communication has
focused on the role of the self in the communication
process.
as individuals communicate with themselves, the
process may be either
intentional or
unintentional.
Intrapersonal communication is at the heart of a
person’s communication activities.
Without recognizing oneself, it is difficult to recognize
another.
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46. 2/8/2024 46

47. 1. List the purposes of communication.
2. What are CRETERIA FOR good communication
theory?
2. Write the nature Intrapersonal commutation.
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48. Interpersonal Communication?
What is Interpersonal Communication?
Put simply, interpersonal communication is the exchange of
information between persons. This Information can include
thoughts,
ideas,
feelings, and more.
This communication occurs both verbally — with words — and
non-verbally, encompassing facial expressions, gestures, body
language, and tone of voice.
In the workplace, interpersonal communication occurs in a variety
of forms: in team meetings, on client calls, in memos and emails,
during performance reviews, while giving employee feedback,
and even casually over lunch or during water cooler chats.
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49. Our individual interpersonal communication abilities are soft
skills that have been in development since we began
communicating as children, and
these skills vary from person to person.
Types of Interpersonal Communication
There are four types of interpersonal communication —
oral,
verbal,
nonverbal, and
listening — and mastering each of these is key to success in the
modern workplace.
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50. 1. Oral communication
This refers to any form of spoken communication, such as phone
calls, podcasting, or speaking up during purchase.
It involves your
word choice,
tone and pitch of your voice,
talking speed, and
even your use — or lack thereof — of filler words like “uh, “um,”
and “like.”
Research shows our ability to communicate orally is even more
important to helping us land a job than we may realize.
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51. 2. Written communication
This encompasses all types of written communication, including
emails,
reports,
Slack messages,
texts,
presentation slides, and more.
But it isn’t just words alone — it also entails the various methods
that we use to enhance verbal communication and make our
meaning clear.
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52. With today’s increasingly remote workforce, it’s more important
than ever for employees to possess strong verbal communication
skills.
The ability to write clearly can even help us land a job more easily
and get promoted faster. In fact, professionals with fewer
grammatical errors achieved higher positions and were more
likely to be promoted.
3. Nonverbal communication
This is any type of communication that doesn’t involve words.
It encompasses everything from body language and hand
gestures to eye contact and even what you’re wearing and what’s
visible in the background of your Zoom call.
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53. To get a sense of just how important nonverbal communication is,
consider how easily you can change the meaning of a message
by using air quotes or even simply saying “Have a nice day!” in a
friendly way versus with a sarcastic tone.
Communicating with a visual component, such as in a video call,
is a great way to ensure that nonverbal communication cues
aren’t lost during transmission.
4. Listening
Listening is a key part of communication that doesn’t involve just
hearing what someone says, but also actively understanding
what they say.
You’ll often hear people tout the importance of “active listening” or
showing a speaker that they have your attention and you’re
interested in what they have to say.
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54. Aspects of active listening involve
making eye contact,
nodding your head,
taking notes, and
saying things like “mm-hmm” to indicate understanding.
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55. 3. Organizational communication
Organizational communication refers to the communication that
takes place between people who are working towards common
goals within an organization or business.
It can flow in various ways and may be classified as either
internal or external communication.
It consists of the interactions that take place for the purpose of
working together towards these goals or conducting business in
general.
Organizational communication pertains to communication within
and among large, extended environments.
This communication is extremely diverse in that organizational
communication necessarily entails interpersonal encounters
(supervisor–subordinate conversations),
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56. public speaking opportunities (presentations by company
executives),
small group situations (a task group preparing a report), and
mediated experiences (internal memos, email, and
videoconferencing).
Organizations, then, are groups of groups.
Theories of organizational communication are generally
concerned with the functionality of the organization, including its
climate,
 rules, and
personnel.
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57. Importance of organizational communication
Organizational communication is important in business as it can
have a direct impact on its success.
Having clear instructions and expectations about the job can help
to create a more cohesive staff who can work towards the same
goals efficiently.
Group Communication
Group communication is the act of sending and receiving
messages to multiple members of a group.
In a business environment, groups often use this type of
communication to exchange ideas, determine goals and motivate
other members.
The size of groups can vary, but they typically comprise at least
three members and up to 20 members. Group communication can
be beneficial for groups of all sizes, from smaller focus groups to
entire departments.
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58. There are many types of group communication channels, and it's
important to choose a method that works for most members to
ensure everyone receives and understands the shared
messages.
Members of the group may have different styles of
communicating, so more than one type of communication may be
necessary to reach the group's mutual goals.
For example, a group leader may choose to hold a weekly
meeting to discuss the team's progress while also using emails to
communicate on a more regular basis.
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59.  Benefits of group communication
 Group communication has many benefits in the workplace, incl
uding:
 Providing a way for group members to generate ideas and solu
tions to achieve their common goal.
 Encouraging members to make decisions as a group.
 Creating a way for the team to build rapport with one another.
 Establishing mutual respect and understanding among group
members.
 To ensure clarity and transparency about goals and expectatio
ns.
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60. Mass Communication
Mass Communication involves communication with the mass
audiences and hence the name Mass Communication.
This would be called ‘Mass communication’ as the message is
reached to the masses through different media.
Mass Communication is defined as ‘ any mechanical device that
multiples messages and takes it to a large number of people
simultaneously’.
ELEMENTS OF MASS COMMUNICATION
We require a sender, a message, a channel and a receiver for
communication to occur.
Further there is feedback, which is the response or reaction of the
receiver, which comes back to the sender through the same or
some other channel.
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61. Another point, which plays an important role in communication, is
noise or the disturbances.
It is observed that the term mass communication must have at
least five elements:
Large audience
Fairly undifferentiated audience composition
Some form of message reproduction
Rapid distribution and delivery
Low cost to the consumers
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62. Assignment
Discuss the similarity and difference among
1 intrapersonal Communication
2. interpersonal Communication
3. organizational communication
4. Group Communication
5. Mass communication
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