Specific physicochemical parameters influence on the plankton structure in ag...Innspub Net
The continuous discharge of effluents into Warri River, impacts on its water quality parameters as well as plankton species which requires commensurate surveillance. This study focuses on its physicochemical characteristics and their influence on plankton composition and abundance. The surface water samples and plankton collected monthly from June to November 2014 were analyzed using standard methods. The physicochemical parameters showed variations among the stations. The ANOVA results revealed that water temperature, transparency, turbidity, TDS, conductivity, pH, acidity, Dissolved Oxygen and phosphate were significantly different (P <0.05) among the studied sites. A total of 849 plankton species identified; 814 species were phytoplankton consisting of four groups (Bacillariophyta> Chlorophyta> Euglenophyta> Cyanophyta, arranged in order of dominance. While zooplankton had 35 species grouped into 5 groups; Rotifera> Copepoda> Protozoa> Cladocera> Arachnida, in order of dominance. Pearson correlation revealed a significant correlation between different Plankton species population and some parameters (p<0.05). The principal component analysis labelled acidity, organic load, mineralization, nutrient, and organic pollution as influential factors governing plankton abundance in the studied area. These factors identify with materials from industries and human activities along the river, which results in the alteration of plankton composition, particularly Melosira granulata (Ehrenberg) Ralfs,1861. Inferred biological indicator of the water body. Diversity indices ranged from 0.28 to 1.39; Station 2 had the highest (1.39) and Station 1 the lowest species richness, a highly polluted river.
Utilization of Multiple Habitat Sampling Protocol for Macroinvertebrates as Indicators of Water
Quality in Stream Ecosystem in Lawis,
Buruun, Iligan City
Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) of Bivalves in Northwestern Bohol, PhilippinesAI Publications
Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) is a measure of status of marine resource in a given area. In this study, bivalve fishery information was gathered using the self-structured questionnaire. There were 61 respondents who were the registered fishermen of Calape, Tubigon and Clarin. Among the three towns it was Clarin where highest mean CPUE was observed with 1.2kg/hr/man. This was followed by Calape with 0.8kg/hr/man and lowest mean CPUE was recorded in Tubigon with 0.6kg/hr/man. High CPUE value means that there are still enough bivalve resources in the area and lowest CPUE means that these resources are endangered. Considering that, the result of this study showed that there is a need to regulate the collection of bivalves with lower wild stocks to avoid loss of these natural resources.
Ecosystem Services and Perception of Water Quality of Lake Barombi Kotto, Cam...ijtsrd
This study carried out in BarombiKotto was aimed at assessing ecosystem services provided by Lake BarombiKotto and its riparian vegetation and to determine the level of awareness of this community to threats to degradation of water quality and riparian vegetation. Two hundred semi structured questionnaires were administered to the inhabitants of BarombiKotto village using the purposive sampling method. The Likert rating method was used to derive quantitative data that was further analysed using SPSS version 17. Results revealed that, respondents depended on the lake and vegetation for the provision of water for drinking, domestic purposes, irrigation, transport, recreational and cultural activities and also on forest benefits like wood for fuel, construction and medicinal plants. Significant associations were found between age group, level of education and respondentsawareness about the threats to water quality and sustainable practices. Agriculture, harvest of wood for construction, high fishing rates, increasing abundance of aquatic weeds were identified as major threats to Lake BarombiKotto and its surrounding vegetation. Water quality attributes like reduced transparency, lake depth, and other parameters such as aquatic weeds and fish stocks have changed in Lake BarombiKotto. The absence of conventional waste management facilities in BarombiKotto community and poor sanitary conditions of toilets could be responsible for the contamination of this lake and hence the high prevalence of typhoid, dysentery and other gastrointestinal infections among respondents. Awo Miranda Egbe | Beatrice Ambo Fonge | Pascal Tabi Tabot ""Ecosystem Services and Perception of Water Quality of Lake Barombi Kotto, Cameroon"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23529.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/ecology/23529/ecosystem-services-and-perception-of-water-quality-of-lake-barombi-kotto-cameroon/awo-miranda-egbe
Specific physicochemical parameters influence on the plankton structure in ag...Innspub Net
The continuous discharge of effluents into Warri River, impacts on its water quality parameters as well as plankton species which requires commensurate surveillance. This study focuses on its physicochemical characteristics and their influence on plankton composition and abundance. The surface water samples and plankton collected monthly from June to November 2014 were analyzed using standard methods. The physicochemical parameters showed variations among the stations. The ANOVA results revealed that water temperature, transparency, turbidity, TDS, conductivity, pH, acidity, Dissolved Oxygen and phosphate were significantly different (P <0.05) among the studied sites. A total of 849 plankton species identified; 814 species were phytoplankton consisting of four groups (Bacillariophyta> Chlorophyta> Euglenophyta> Cyanophyta, arranged in order of dominance. While zooplankton had 35 species grouped into 5 groups; Rotifera> Copepoda> Protozoa> Cladocera> Arachnida, in order of dominance. Pearson correlation revealed a significant correlation between different Plankton species population and some parameters (p<0.05). The principal component analysis labelled acidity, organic load, mineralization, nutrient, and organic pollution as influential factors governing plankton abundance in the studied area. These factors identify with materials from industries and human activities along the river, which results in the alteration of plankton composition, particularly Melosira granulata (Ehrenberg) Ralfs,1861. Inferred biological indicator of the water body. Diversity indices ranged from 0.28 to 1.39; Station 2 had the highest (1.39) and Station 1 the lowest species richness, a highly polluted river.
Utilization of Multiple Habitat Sampling Protocol for Macroinvertebrates as Indicators of Water
Quality in Stream Ecosystem in Lawis,
Buruun, Iligan City
Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) of Bivalves in Northwestern Bohol, PhilippinesAI Publications
Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) is a measure of status of marine resource in a given area. In this study, bivalve fishery information was gathered using the self-structured questionnaire. There were 61 respondents who were the registered fishermen of Calape, Tubigon and Clarin. Among the three towns it was Clarin where highest mean CPUE was observed with 1.2kg/hr/man. This was followed by Calape with 0.8kg/hr/man and lowest mean CPUE was recorded in Tubigon with 0.6kg/hr/man. High CPUE value means that there are still enough bivalve resources in the area and lowest CPUE means that these resources are endangered. Considering that, the result of this study showed that there is a need to regulate the collection of bivalves with lower wild stocks to avoid loss of these natural resources.
Ecosystem Services and Perception of Water Quality of Lake Barombi Kotto, Cam...ijtsrd
This study carried out in BarombiKotto was aimed at assessing ecosystem services provided by Lake BarombiKotto and its riparian vegetation and to determine the level of awareness of this community to threats to degradation of water quality and riparian vegetation. Two hundred semi structured questionnaires were administered to the inhabitants of BarombiKotto village using the purposive sampling method. The Likert rating method was used to derive quantitative data that was further analysed using SPSS version 17. Results revealed that, respondents depended on the lake and vegetation for the provision of water for drinking, domestic purposes, irrigation, transport, recreational and cultural activities and also on forest benefits like wood for fuel, construction and medicinal plants. Significant associations were found between age group, level of education and respondentsawareness about the threats to water quality and sustainable practices. Agriculture, harvest of wood for construction, high fishing rates, increasing abundance of aquatic weeds were identified as major threats to Lake BarombiKotto and its surrounding vegetation. Water quality attributes like reduced transparency, lake depth, and other parameters such as aquatic weeds and fish stocks have changed in Lake BarombiKotto. The absence of conventional waste management facilities in BarombiKotto community and poor sanitary conditions of toilets could be responsible for the contamination of this lake and hence the high prevalence of typhoid, dysentery and other gastrointestinal infections among respondents. Awo Miranda Egbe | Beatrice Ambo Fonge | Pascal Tabi Tabot ""Ecosystem Services and Perception of Water Quality of Lake Barombi Kotto, Cameroon"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23529.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/ecology/23529/ecosystem-services-and-perception-of-water-quality-of-lake-barombi-kotto-cameroon/awo-miranda-egbe
FLORAL DIVERSITY OF MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM FROM COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF URAN (RAIG...Prabhakar Pawar
Mangrove forests are among the world’s most productive ecosystems and are the only forests situated at the confluence of land and sea in tropical and subtropical latitudes.Mangroves are one of the biologically diverse ecosystems in the world, rich in organic matter and nutrients and support very large biomass of flora and fauna. With continuing degradation and destruction ofmangroves, there is a critical need to understand the biodiversity of the mangrove ecosystems.Mangroves represent spirit of Mumbai and NaviMumbai - they are plucky survivors. Each day, millions of citizens in Mumbai pass these hardy plants imaging they are little more than dirty, muddy weeds growing pointlessly along the shoreline. Overexploitation and unsustainable demand has resulted in considerable degradation of mangrove areas and it is feared that the area under mangroves around Mumbai areas has dwindled by 35% in the last 25 years and only about 20 Km2 of mangroves exist today. During this study, 4 species of true
mangroves representing 3 genera and 3 families, 10 species of mangrove associates belonging to 8 genera and 6 families and 1 species of non-mangrove halophytes were recorded from the mangrove ecosystems of Uran (Raigad), Navi Mumbai,Maharashtra.At present, coastal environment of Uran shows moderate mangrove density but in coming few years, area around Uran coast will be dominated by intense industrialization and urbanization. In such circumstances, pollution of Uran coast cannot be ignored. Therefore, data presented in this paper can be taken as a base line data for better management of these natural resources.
Key words: Mangroves diversity, Uran, Navi Mumbai,Maharashtra
Species Diversity of Polychaete Worms from Some Selected Freshwater Environme...ijtsrd
The number of freshwater species in the world is quite small when compared with the vast number of marine species. There are several marine forms which are penetrated brackish and freshwater but remain unable to breed there while others have adapted sufficiently to remain for their entire life span. Polychaetes are commonly found in Indian estuaries, among 152 species recorded, 119 species from the east coast, 10 species from both east and west coasts. A total of 8 species were identified along Thenkasi District. Macro benthic polychaetes highlighted the presence of indicator species at all stations. Most of the benthic studies explored that Nereididae is the dominant species. The polychaetes observed throughout this study were a similar size and this is a clear indication of extreme disturbance imposed on the sediment. The present findings show macrobenthic polychaete diversity rich all along the Thenkasi District of Tamil Nadu. S. Balasubramanian | T. Citarasu | S. Lazarus | A. Renu "Species Diversity of Polychaete Worms from Some Selected Freshwater Environment of Thenkasi District, Tamil Nadu" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd26516.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/zoology/26516/species-diversity-of-polychaete-worms-from-some-selected-freshwater-environment-of-thenkasi-district-tamil-nadu/s-balasubramanian
Macrobenthic Invertebrate assemblage along gradients of the river Basantar (J...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— A limnological investigation was carried out in River Basantar in the Jammu province of Jammu & Kashmir (India) during the period from December, 2009 to November, 2011 in order to analyse the effect of industrial pollution on the diversity and population density of Macrobenthic invertebrate fauna along the longitudinal profile of the river. A total of 27 macrobenthic invertebrate taxa inhabited the river; among these Arthropoda dominated the macrobenthic community (81.48%, 22 species) followed by Annelida (11.11%, 3 species) and Mollusca (7.41%, 2 species). The Discharge Zone (St II) had the highest mean standing crop of macrobenthic population while the lowest species number. Oligochaetes (Annelida) and Dipterans (Arthropoda) exhibited their abundance at polluted sites whereas Odonates, Ephemeropterans, Hemipterans, Coleopterans (Arthropoda) and Molluscs were abundant at least polluted sites. Tubifex tubifex, Branchiura sowerbyi, Limnodrillus hoffmeisteri, Chironomus, Tubifera, Psychoda and Physa acuta were identified as pollution indicator taxa while Progomphus, Cloeon, Baetis and Gyraulus as sensitive taxa.
Analyses of Community Attributes of Meiofauna Under A Pollution Regime in the...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
— Meiofauna community attributes of the lower Bonny estuary was investigated under a pollution regime. This is germane because of the strategic importance of meiofauna in the food chain and the sustenance of any aquatic ecosystem. Five stations representing diverse land based activities such as refuse dump site, fuel depot, fishing-landing areas, residential housing and a station located upstream (control) were chosen for investigation. The meiofauna samples were collected from sediments in three replicate spots per station per sampling months at low tide. Sediment samples were stirred through (63-212nm) meshes to separate meiofauna and organic debris. Meiofauna samples were processed by first washing Meiofauna through a sieve of fine mesh size made of silk material, in order to wash off formation and excess silt or mud. Meiofauna samples were sorted out and identified using standard keys. Result from field studies indicate that meiofauna population abundance and diversity varied slightly between stations and seasons. There was however, no established trend. Meiofauna were generally more abundant in the rainy season than in the dry season. In general, pollution indicator meiofaunal taxa were more in all stations except the control station; the increasing impact of pollutants in the river led to a rise in the relative abundance of r-strategist genera like Chromadora. We conclude that the application of meiofaunal indices can be a useful tool for assessing the environmental quality of estuarine ecosystems.
FLORAL DIVERSITY OF MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM FROM COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF URAN (RAIG...Prabhakar Pawar
Mangrove forests are among the world’s most productive ecosystems and are the only forests situated at the confluence of land and sea in tropical and subtropical latitudes.Mangroves are one of the biologically diverse ecosystems in the world, rich in organic matter and nutrients and support very large biomass of flora and fauna. With continuing degradation and destruction ofmangroves, there is a critical need to understand the biodiversity of the mangrove ecosystems.Mangroves represent spirit of Mumbai and NaviMumbai - they are plucky survivors. Each day, millions of citizens in Mumbai pass these hardy plants imaging they are little more than dirty, muddy weeds growing pointlessly along the shoreline. Overexploitation and unsustainable demand has resulted in considerable degradation of mangrove areas and it is feared that the area under mangroves around Mumbai areas has dwindled by 35% in the last 25 years and only about 20 Km2 of mangroves exist today. During this study, 4 species of true
mangroves representing 3 genera and 3 families, 10 species of mangrove associates belonging to 8 genera and 6 families and 1 species of non-mangrove halophytes were recorded from the mangrove ecosystems of Uran (Raigad), Navi Mumbai,Maharashtra.At present, coastal environment of Uran shows moderate mangrove density but in coming few years, area around Uran coast will be dominated by intense industrialization and urbanization. In such circumstances, pollution of Uran coast cannot be ignored. Therefore, data presented in this paper can be taken as a base line data for better management of these natural resources.
Key words: Mangroves diversity, Uran, Navi Mumbai,Maharashtra
Species Diversity of Polychaete Worms from Some Selected Freshwater Environme...ijtsrd
The number of freshwater species in the world is quite small when compared with the vast number of marine species. There are several marine forms which are penetrated brackish and freshwater but remain unable to breed there while others have adapted sufficiently to remain for their entire life span. Polychaetes are commonly found in Indian estuaries, among 152 species recorded, 119 species from the east coast, 10 species from both east and west coasts. A total of 8 species were identified along Thenkasi District. Macro benthic polychaetes highlighted the presence of indicator species at all stations. Most of the benthic studies explored that Nereididae is the dominant species. The polychaetes observed throughout this study were a similar size and this is a clear indication of extreme disturbance imposed on the sediment. The present findings show macrobenthic polychaete diversity rich all along the Thenkasi District of Tamil Nadu. S. Balasubramanian | T. Citarasu | S. Lazarus | A. Renu "Species Diversity of Polychaete Worms from Some Selected Freshwater Environment of Thenkasi District, Tamil Nadu" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd26516.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/zoology/26516/species-diversity-of-polychaete-worms-from-some-selected-freshwater-environment-of-thenkasi-district-tamil-nadu/s-balasubramanian
Macrobenthic Invertebrate assemblage along gradients of the river Basantar (J...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— A limnological investigation was carried out in River Basantar in the Jammu province of Jammu & Kashmir (India) during the period from December, 2009 to November, 2011 in order to analyse the effect of industrial pollution on the diversity and population density of Macrobenthic invertebrate fauna along the longitudinal profile of the river. A total of 27 macrobenthic invertebrate taxa inhabited the river; among these Arthropoda dominated the macrobenthic community (81.48%, 22 species) followed by Annelida (11.11%, 3 species) and Mollusca (7.41%, 2 species). The Discharge Zone (St II) had the highest mean standing crop of macrobenthic population while the lowest species number. Oligochaetes (Annelida) and Dipterans (Arthropoda) exhibited their abundance at polluted sites whereas Odonates, Ephemeropterans, Hemipterans, Coleopterans (Arthropoda) and Molluscs were abundant at least polluted sites. Tubifex tubifex, Branchiura sowerbyi, Limnodrillus hoffmeisteri, Chironomus, Tubifera, Psychoda and Physa acuta were identified as pollution indicator taxa while Progomphus, Cloeon, Baetis and Gyraulus as sensitive taxa.
Analyses of Community Attributes of Meiofauna Under A Pollution Regime in the...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
— Meiofauna community attributes of the lower Bonny estuary was investigated under a pollution regime. This is germane because of the strategic importance of meiofauna in the food chain and the sustenance of any aquatic ecosystem. Five stations representing diverse land based activities such as refuse dump site, fuel depot, fishing-landing areas, residential housing and a station located upstream (control) were chosen for investigation. The meiofauna samples were collected from sediments in three replicate spots per station per sampling months at low tide. Sediment samples were stirred through (63-212nm) meshes to separate meiofauna and organic debris. Meiofauna samples were processed by first washing Meiofauna through a sieve of fine mesh size made of silk material, in order to wash off formation and excess silt or mud. Meiofauna samples were sorted out and identified using standard keys. Result from field studies indicate that meiofauna population abundance and diversity varied slightly between stations and seasons. There was however, no established trend. Meiofauna were generally more abundant in the rainy season than in the dry season. In general, pollution indicator meiofaunal taxa were more in all stations except the control station; the increasing impact of pollutants in the river led to a rise in the relative abundance of r-strategist genera like Chromadora. We conclude that the application of meiofaunal indices can be a useful tool for assessing the environmental quality of estuarine ecosystems.
Diversity and abundance of Macrobenthos in a subtropical estuary, BangladeshAbdullaAlAsif1
Soft bottom macrobenthos are important component of the marine and coastal trophic chain. There has been sparse information regarding the distribution of soft bottom macrobenthos form the coastal water of Bangladesh. Consequently, the present study was an effort to reveal the diversity and abundance of macrobenthos in the Feni Estuary in a seasonal pattern together with the hydrological factors. A total of 17 taxa families of soft-bottom invertebrates were found over the two sampling seasons. The current study yielded a total number of 34,726 ind./m 2 (mean 2480ind./m 2) including 18,909ind./m 2 in wet season (mean 2682ind./m 2) and 15,817 ind./m 2 in dry season (2259ind./m 2). The highest density of soft-bottom invertebrates was in the wet season while the lowest number in the dry season. A total of 5 groups of macrobenthos were found over the two sampling seasons. The dominant group was Polychaeta that contributed 43.60% of the total soft-bottom invertebrates. The values of biodiversity indices were higher in dry season compare to the wet season in most of the sampling station during the study period.
Physico-chemical parameters and macrobenthic invertebrates of the intertidal ...Angelo Mark Walag
Physico-chemical parameters and macrobenthic invertebrates of the intertidal zone of Gusa, Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines were assessed from March to May 2014. Water temperature, pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand, and type of substrate were determined in the study were within the normal range. A modified transect-quadrat method was used in an approximately 14,000 m2 of study area. Seven hundred twenty seven individuals belonging to 15 species were found in the area. These organisms belong to four phyla namely: Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, and Annelida. The three most abundant organisms found were Coenobita clypeatus, Ophiothrix longipeda, and Cypraea poraria with relative abundance of 73.86%, 4.13% and 3.71% respectively. Most of the macrobenthic fauna identified exhibited a clumped pattern of distribution, while the rest are randomly distributed. The species diversity of the area is 1.19 which is very low compared to reports from related studies.
Trends in Macrophyte Diversity in Anthropogenic Perturbed Lentic Ecosystems w...Premier Publishers
Aquatic macrophytes hold several niches within the ecosystem, including inter alia water purification, carbon sequestration and serve as microhabitats for aquatic insects. These dynamic roles make macrophytes good indicators of current environmental conditions. Hence assessing their abundance in line with wetland ecosystem dynamics and function is essential. Frequency of occurrence and density values were estimated, using twenty (20) 2 m x 2 m quadrats for each macrophyte encountered. The results of the study revealed twenty-one (21) macrophytes belonging to 16 families. These ponds varied markedly in terms of species composition and in numerical strength such that Polygonum lanigerum (1143+175st/ha), Setaria verticillata (337.5+ 32.8st/ha), Azolla pinnata (337.7+ 16.4 st/ha) recorded high density values while Lagenaria breviflora (18.7±2.19), Sida acuta (18.75±5.30), Ludwigia erecta (18.7±0.15) and Milletia aboensis (18.7±0.03) were the least abundant species. Pond A and D with 11 taxa each had the higher Shannon-Wiener (2.192, 2.214) and Simpson (0.8699, 0.8787) diversity indices respectively when compared to the other ponds. On the contrary, pond C with four taxa had the least Shannon-Wiener and Simpson diversity indices (1.253, 0.6782) respectively. Equitability and evenness ranged between 0.914 - 0. 952 and 0.814 - 0.900 respectively. Bray and Curtis cluster analysis showed that pond B was the most dissimilar compared to other ponds in terms of the taxa composition.
Seaweeds are taxonomically diverse group of marine plants from which the land plants diverged over fifty crore years ago, which are found in the coastal region between high tide to low tide and in the sub-tidal region up to a depth where 0.01 % photosynthetic light is available. Plant pigments, light, exposure, depth, temperature, tides and the shore characteristic combine to create a different environment that determines the distribution and variety among seaweeds. It contains photosynthetic pigments and with the help of sunlight and nutrient present in the seawater, they photosynthesize and produce food which have several health benefits and uses. The important to know about the ecology and distribution of seaweed and to distinguish the different algal groups based on their characteristics. In recent, the utilization of seaweed increased due to various available properties. The different usages are food, beauty enhancer, organic manure, fertilizer, feed complement, medicines, water treatments. This review is an attempt to highlights the seaweed with all the relevant application and uses.
Status of Phytoplankton Community of Kisumu Bay, Winam Gulf, Lake Victoria, K...theijes
Lake Victoria has undergone remarkable and diverse ecological perturbations which are as a result of physical, chemical and biological processes, together with human activities that take place in the watershed area and within the lake itself. The most observed effects include increases in phytoplankton biomass and frequent algal blooms. In this study species composition, abundance, spatial and temporal distribution of phytoplankton as well as total phytoplankton biomass of Kisumu Bay, (Winam Gulf), Lake Victoria, Kenya was studied for six months in the wake of climate change. Sampling was done every two weeks using a Van Dorn Water sampler to take water samples and algal cells were counted under an inverted microscope with the help of a Sedge-Wick Rafter Cell in order to determine density. Phytoplankton biomass indicated by chlorophyll-content was determined through cold extraction in acetone and subsequent quantification by spectrophotometry. Physicochemical parameters were measured in situ using respective meters, while plant nutrient levels were determined by spectrophotometric methods following standard methods of APHA 1985 and Gems (1992) Handbook. ANOVA test was used to determine any temporal and spatial variability in the biological factors. Regression and Pearson’s correlation analyses were done to establish relationships between these factors. LSD test was done to determine means which were significantly different. The results indicated that a total of 36 genera of algae belonging to Cyanophyta, Bacillariophyta, Chlorophyta and Pyrrophyta were present, with dominance of the classes in terms of number of species being in that order. Chroococcus species was the most abundant and its density was significantly different from all the others. Most algal species were more or less homogenously distributed in the bay (p=1.0000) and over the study period (p=1.0000), but their densities varied significantly between different species (p<0.0001). From these results, it can be concluded that the phytoplankton community within the bay is becoming very dynamic and could possibly portray the status in the whole lake. Diatoms are becoming increasingly dominant. There is continual increasing trend in physico-chemical factors. The information obtained from this work contributes to the understanding of ecological changes in the bay in response to climate change and variability and thus the threat to biodiversity. This information is therefore important for ecological and management purposes of the lake and understanding effects of climate change on ecosystem structure, functioning and productivity.
Ecosystem Services and Perception of Water Quality of Lake Barombi Kotto, Cam...ijtsrd
This study carried out in BarombiKotto was aimed at assessing ecosystem services provided by Lake BarombiKotto and its riparian vegetation and to determine the level of awareness of this community to threats to degradation of water quality and riparian vegetation. Two hundred semi structured questionnaires were administered to the inhabitants of BarombiKotto village using the purposive sampling method. The Likert rating method was used to derive quantitative data that was further analysed using SPSS version 17. Results revealed that, respondents depended on the lake and vegetation for the provision of water for drinking, domestic purposes, irrigation, transport, recreational and cultural activities and also on forest benefits like wood for fuel, construction and medicinal plants. Significant associations were found between age group, level of education and respondentsawareness about the threats to water quality and sustainable practices. Agriculture, harvest of wood for construction, high fishing rates, increasing abundance of aquatic weeds were identified as major threats to Lake BarombiKotto and its surrounding vegetation. Water quality attributes like reduced transparency, lake depth, and other parameters such as aquatic weeds and fish stocks have changed in Lake BarombiKotto. The absence of conventional waste management facilities in BarombiKotto community and poor sanitary conditions of toilets could be responsible for the contamination of this lake and hence the high prevalence of typhoid, dysentery and other gastrointestinal infections among respondents. Awo Miranda Egbe | Beatrice Ambo Fonge | Pascal Tabi Tabot ""Ecosystem Services and Perception of Water Quality of Lake Barombi Kotto, Cameroon"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23529.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/ecology/23529/ecosystem-services-and-perception-of-water-quality-of-lake-barombi-kotto-cameroon/awo-miranda-egbe
Diversity and dispersion patterns of echinoderms in Babanlagan, Talisayan, Mi...Angelo Mark Walag
Echinoderms are fundamentally good indicators of health and status of coralline communities in marine waters. In this study, the diversity and distribution of echinoderm species were determined in Babanlagan, Talisayan, Misamis Oriental. In total, 387 individuals were collected coming from classes Echinoidea, Holothuroidea, Asteroidea, and Ophiuroidea. The majority of individuals collected were Protoreaster nodusus, which is a good indicator of reef health while the least abundant echinoderm species was Acanthaster planci. The pattern of distribution of majority of echinoderms was a clumped distribution while the other groups followed regular/uniform distribution, which may be due to limited dispersal ability and availability and available food sources. Moderate species diversity was also observed and species were rather similar in abundance, shown by the evenness index. This suggests good marine health, even under the threat of gleaning activities, active fishing, and habitat destruction. It is recommended that follow-up studies are conducted especially regarding monitoring of echinoderm species, to further assess the health of the intertidal zone in Babanlagan, Talisayan, Misamis Oriental.
Aspects of the Geomorphology and Limnology of some molluscinhabited freshwate...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology (IOSR-JESTFT) multidisciplinary peer-reviewed Journal with reputable academics and experts as board member. IOSR-JESTFT is designed for the prompt publication of peer-reviewed articles in all areas of subject. The journal articles will be accessed freely online
The effects of different water quality parameters on zooplankton distribution...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology (IOSR-JESTFT) multidisciplinary peer-reviewed Journal with reputable academics and experts as board member. IOSR-JESTFT is designed for the prompt publication of peer-reviewed articles in all areas of subject. The journal articles will be accessed freely online
Key Trends Shaping the Future of Infrastructure.pdfCheryl Hung
Keynote at DIGIT West Expo, Glasgow on 29 May 2024.
Cheryl Hung, ochery.com
Sr Director, Infrastructure Ecosystem, Arm.
The key trends across hardware, cloud and open-source; exploring how these areas are likely to mature and develop over the short and long-term, and then considering how organisations can position themselves to adapt and thrive.
Accelerate your Kubernetes clusters with Varnish CachingThijs Feryn
A presentation about the usage and availability of Varnish on Kubernetes. This talk explores the capabilities of Varnish caching and shows how to use the Varnish Helm chart to deploy it to Kubernetes.
This presentation was delivered at K8SUG Singapore. See https://feryn.eu/presentations/accelerate-your-kubernetes-clusters-with-varnish-caching-k8sug-singapore-28-2024 for more details.
Software Delivery At the Speed of AI: Inflectra Invests In AI-Powered QualityInflectra
In this insightful webinar, Inflectra explores how artificial intelligence (AI) is transforming software development and testing. Discover how AI-powered tools are revolutionizing every stage of the software development lifecycle (SDLC), from design and prototyping to testing, deployment, and monitoring.
Learn about:
• The Future of Testing: How AI is shifting testing towards verification, analysis, and higher-level skills, while reducing repetitive tasks.
• Test Automation: How AI-powered test case generation, optimization, and self-healing tests are making testing more efficient and effective.
• Visual Testing: Explore the emerging capabilities of AI in visual testing and how it's set to revolutionize UI verification.
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Potentially harmful algae along the kenyan coast a norm or threat.
1. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol. 3, No.9, 2013
1
Potentially Harmful Algae along the Kenyan Coast: A Norm or
Threat.
Linet. Kiteresi1
, (Corresponding author)
Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute, P.O. Box 81651, Mombasa, Kenya.
Email: lyn81ke@yahoo.com or lyn81ke@gmail.com
Okuku, Eric. Ochieng,
Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute, P.O. Box 81651, Mombasa, Kenya.
Soil and Water Management Division, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Katholike Universiteit Leuven,
Kasteelpark Arenberg 20, B-3001, Heverlee, Belgium
Email: ochiengokuku2003@yahoo.com
Mwangi, Stephen
Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute, P.O. Box 81651, Mombasa, Kenya.
Mkonu. Mary
Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute, P.O. Box 81651, Mombasa, Kenya.
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms are known to cause mortalities of aquatic organisms when in high biomass through
formation of anoxic conditions or production of marine biotoxins (that ultimately reach humans through food
web transfer). Only a few studies of phytoplankton communities have been carried out along the Kenyan coast.
Of these studies, very few have focused on potentially harmful algae. Due to the increasing economic
importance of harmful algal blooms, there is need to carry out an inventory of potentially harmful algal species
that are present in the Kenyan coastal waters. Phytoplankton samples were collected along the Kenya Coast from
2009-2010 and analyzed for species abundance. A total of 39 taxa of potentially harmful algae were encountered
over the study period. Potentially harmful algal taxa with high abundance were Chaetoceros sp., Nitzschia sp.,
Coscinodiscus sp., Pseudo-nitzschia sp., Rhizosolenia sp., Anabaena sp., Protoperidinium sp., Oscillatoria sp.
and Trichodesnium sp. whereas the taxa with lowest abundances were Fibrocapsa sp., Chrysochromulina sp.,
Umezakia sp., Dinophysis sp. and Aphanizomenom sp. Taxa such as Dinophysis sp. that is generally known to be
toxic at low cell densities occurred in most sampling stations. Highest cell densities of potentially harmful algae
(39.51x102
cells/L) were recorded in the estuarine systems as compared to the creeks (22.83x102
cells/L) and
near-shore (2.86x102
cells/L) ecosystems. Compared to previous studies, this study registered increased number
of potentially harmful algae species, an indication of potential threat of future bloom occurrences with the risks
of phycotoxins contamination in the expected scenarios of increased eutrophication and climate change.
Keywords: Phycotoxins, Abundances, Oceanic, Estuarine, Phytoplankton.
INTRODUCTION:
Phytoplankton form the food base of most aquatic organisms both in the wild and cultured areas. Proliferation of
phytoplankton therefore is beneficial for aquaculture and wild fisheries. However, proliferation of some
phytoplankton species (commonly referred to as Harmful Algal Blooms - HABs) have been detrimental to
aquatic organism and higher animals Fish kills are usually the first direct effect with most deleterious impacts
that occur when HABs affect entire ecosystems, causing death of phytoplankton, zooplankton, seaweeds, and
shellfish.
HABs have increased worldwide in waters ranging from fresh to coastal estuarine and marine waters (Anderson,
1989; Hallegraeff, 1993; Smayda, 1990; Van Dolah, 2000), causing enormous impacts in such aquatic
ecosystems (Granéli and Hansen, 2006) resulting into severe economic losses to aquaculture, fisheries and
tourism operations as well as major environmental and human health impacts. These harmful algae species are
known to cause mortalities of aquatic organisms when in high biomass through development of anoxic
conditions or production of toxins (phycotoxins). Marine phycotoxins or biotoxins are responsible for more than
60,000 intoxication annually, with an overall mortality of about 1.5% (van Dolah, 2000). Human intoxications
are due to consumption of seafood and respiratory exposure to aerosolized phycotoxins. Phycotoxins are also
responsible for extensive die-offs of fish and shellfish, as well as mortality in seabirds, marine mammals and
other animals depending on marine food web(van Dolah, 2000).These phycotoxins are produced by two major
phytoplankton groups namely dinoflagellates and diatoms, that represent about 2% of known phytoplankton
species (60-80 out of 3400-4000 species) and can reach humans directly (via consumption of shellfish) or
through food web transfer to higher trophic levels (zooplankton and herbivorous fish).The fact that some species
are highly toxic to humans and some other animals has extensively been reported, though most accounts relate to
bloom-forming species in freshwaters and shallow coastal waters (Codd et al., 2005).
2. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
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Harmful algae species are greatly influenced by local and regional environmental changes by inducing harmful
algae proliferation, thus increasing toxins concentrations (van Dolah, 2000). For instance, the magnitude and the
timing of inflows influence the physicochemical environment and bring about variations in salinity, nutrient
availability, stratification and hydraulic flushing. In turn, these affect plankton community composition and
productivity (Buyukates and Roelke, 2005; Miller et al., 2008). In bays and estuaries, inflows from rivers and
tidal waters can stimulate system-level productivity and alter community composition by influencing essential
nutrients, hypersaline conditions and connectivity between habitats (Cloern, 2001; Fejes et al., 2005; Heinsch et
al., 2004; Miller et al., 2009). This has affected the incidence of HABs observed over a wide range of taxa that
include cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates, diatoms and prymnesiophytes (Jacoby et al., 2000; Roelke et al., 2010;
Spatharis et al., 2007).
Phytoplankton studies along the Kenya Coast have received minimal attention in the past. Even though a number
of fish deaths in Kenya (in Kiunga and Shimoni) have been attributed to HABs incidences, there have been no
dedicated studies on potential harmful algae species occurrences. This study was therefore, undertaken so as to
come up with an inventory of potential harmful algal species along the Kenya Coast on a spatial scale.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Sites
The Kenyan coast runs in a southwesterly direction from the Somalia border in the north, at 1o
41’S to 4o
40’S at
the border with Tanzania. Kenya has about 574-km coastline running from Kiunga in the North to Vanga in the
south. It is influenced by the northeast monsoon and southeast monsoon winds of the Indian Ocean. The Kenyan
coast experiences semi-diurnal tides. River systems create conditions of low salinity and high turbidity in
estuaries and deltas that are characterized by extensive mangrove forests in some areas.
The study was carried out in estuarine systems of rivers Sabaki (S1, S2 and S3), Ramisi (R1, R2 R3 and R4),
Mwena (M1, M2, M3 and M4) and Umba (U1, U2, U3, U4 and U5) that play key ecological function in the
nearshore areas along the Kenya coast in terms of river flow discharge and water quality. The nearshore areas in
this study in the southern part of the coast were Wasini (WN, WI, WJ, WCM), Kibuyuni (KBI, KBL, KBM and
KIMA), Shimoni (SJ and MW), and Sii Kiromo (SK) areas whereas in the northern part were Malindi (MDJ,
MDP, MDN and MAM). The creeks of interest were Mtwapa (MTM, MTB, MTP and MTF), Tudor (FJ, NB,
KMC, MIK, MAD and CG) and Makupa (MKC, MKM, MKB and MKD) respectively that are influenced by
anthropogenic activities due to urban growth. The creeks and nearshore areas are mainly influenced by tidal
movement and wave actions whereas the estuarine systems are influenced by both tidal movement and river flow
discharge. The rivers that form part of the estuarine systems are greatly influenced by upland anthropogenic
activities such as agricultural practices and human settlement that greatly impact on the natural ecosystem
downstream that is characterized by mangrove forests.
Sample collection and analysis
Phytoplankton samples were collected by filtering 20 litres of water (surface water) through a 20 µm
phytoplankton net. For numerical analysis and species identification, 250 ml of water samples were fixed in 5%
Lugol's solution and kept undisturbed for three to four days till complete sedimentation was achieved (Utermöhl,
1958). The samples were further concentrated to a volume of about 100 ml after which one ml (in triplicate) of
the concentrated sample used to determine Cell density using an inverted microscope(Leica DMIL) and a
Sedgewick Rafter Chamber. The results were expressed as ‘number of cells per litre’. The cell counts were used
to compute the cell density using the Striling, (1985) formula where the plankton density was estimated by:
N = (A x 1000 x C) / (V x F x L)
Where N = No of plankton cell per litre of original water,
A = Total No. of plankton counted,
C = Volume of final concentrate of the sample in ml;
V = Volume of a field in mm3
F = No. of fields counted
L = Volume of water filtered in litre.
Phytoplankton cells were identified using identification keys by Botes, (2003) and Carmelo, (1997). Whenever
possible, identification was carried out to the species level, although in some cases identification was only
possible to genus level.
Data analysis and reporting
Phytoplankton data was analyzed for mean cell densities and abundance. The identified harmful algae species
were reported in three groups depending on the effect of bloom formed (more or less dangerous to humans and
/or animals, Andersen, 1996); i) Blooms of species that produce basically harmless water discolorations resulting
in decreasing recreational value and eventually, under exceptionally weather conditions in sheltered bays, the
blooms grow so dense that they cause escape reactions and indiscriminate benthic invertebrates and fish kills due
3. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
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to oxygen depletion, ii) Blooms of species that produce potent toxins which accumulate in food chains and cause
a variety ofl illnesses in humans and other higher animals; iii) Blooms of species that are non-toxic to humans
but harmful to fish and invertebrates (especially in intensive aquaculture systems) through intoxication,
damaging or clogging of the gills or other means.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Potentially harmful algae
A total of 39 taxa of potentially harmful algae species were identified along the Kenya coast during the study
period (Table 1).The taxa with high cell densities were Chaetoceros sp, Nitzschia sp, Coscinodiscus sp, Pseudo-
nitzschia sp, Rhizosolenia sp, Anabaena sp, Protoperidinium sp. Oscillatoria sp. and Trichodesmium sp. while
Fibrocapsa sp. Chrysochromulina sp. Umezakia natana watanabe, and Aphanizomenom flos-aquae had the least
cell densities. Some of the potentially harmful algae recorded during this study such as Dinophysis sp. are
usually toxic at low cell densities (<3 x 102
cells/L) whereas the bloom forming species are only toxic during
bloom occurrences as they cause discoloration and anoxic conditions in the aquatic system resulting into fish die
offs (Table 1).
During this study, higher numbers of potentially harmful cell densities (39.25 x 102
cells/L) were recorded in the
estuarine systems (rivers Ramisi, Mwena, Umba and Sabaki) compared to numbers recorded in the creeks (22.95
x 102
cells/L) and nearshore areas (2.86 x 102
cells/L) as seen in Table 2.
Table 1a: Potentially harmful Diatoms species and their harmful effect (Modified from LIFEHAB Report, 2001)
Taxa Toxicity status Harmful Effect
Chaetoceros sp. Toxic as Blooms Fish Kills
Corethron sp. Toxic as Blooms Fish Kills
Corethron criopilum Toxic as Blooms Fish Kills
Corethron cenofemus Toxic as Blooms Fish Kills
Coscinodiscus sp. Toxic as Blooms Bird mortality, mucilage
Rhizosolenia sp. Toxic as Blooms Shellfish kills; gives bitter taste
Thalassiosira sp. Toxic as Blooms Mucilage on gills kills shellfish
Cerataulina sp. Toxic Shellfish and finfish kills
Nitzschia closterium Toxic as blooms Shellfish and finfish kills
Nitzschia sp. Toxic Shellfish and finfish kills; Domoic acid
Nitzschia sigma Toxic as blooms Shellfish and finfish kills
Nitzschia longisigma Toxic as blooms Shellfish and finfish kills
Pseudo-nitzschia sp. Toxic Domoic acid
Guinardia sp. Toxic as Blooms Mucilage clogs fish nets
Guinardia striata Toxic as Blooms
Guinardia delicatula Toxic as Blooms Mucilage clogs fish nets
Leptocylindrus sp. Toxic as Blooms Fish Kills
Skeletonema sp. Toxic as Blooms High biomass
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Table 1b: Potentially harmful Dinoflagellates species and their harmful effect (Modified from LIFEHAB Report,
2001)
Taxa Toxicity status Harmful Effect
Alexandrium sp. Toxic PSP, Ichthyotoxic, Spirolide, discoloration.
Dinophysis sp. Toxic DSP
Dinophysis caudata Toxic DSP
Gambierdiscus toxicus Toxic Ciguatera,
Gambierdiscus sp. Toxic Ciguatoxin-/maititoxin- like toxins
Gonyaulax sp. Toxic Saxitoxin
Gonyaulax sp. cysts Toxic
Gymnodinium sp. Toxic PSP, Ichthyotoxic
Gyrodinium sp. Toxic Ichthyotoxic
Ostreopsis sp. Toxic Ovatoxin, ostreotoxin, ostreocine/palytoxin
Peridinium sp. Toxic Ichthyotoxin
Prorocentrum sp. Toxic DSP, Ichthyotoxic
Ceratium fusus Toxic as Blooms Discolouration, anoxia
Ceratium furca Toxic as Blooms Discolouration, anoxia
Ceratium sp. Toxic as Blooms Discolouration, anoxia
Noctiluca sp. Toxic as Blooms Discolouration, anoxia
Noctiluca scintillans Toxic as Blooms Discolouration, anoxia
Protoperidinium sp. Toxic as Blooms Azaspiracid
Scrippsiella sp. Toxic as Blooms Discolouration, anoxia
Scrippsiella trochoidea Toxic as Blooms Discolouration, anoxia
Table 1c: The other potentially harmful algae species and their harmful effect (Modified from LIFEHAB Report,
2001)
Taxa Toxicity status Harmful Effect
Cyanobacteria
Lyngbya sp. Toxic Lyngbyatoxin-A,Debromoaplysiatoxin,
aplysiatoxins
Oscillatoria sp Toxic Debromoaplysiatoxin
Fischerella epiphytica Toxic as Blooms
Anabaena sp. Toxic Anatoxin-A, Homo Anatoxin-a, Anatoxin-a(s),
Neurotoxin
Nodularia spumigena Toxic Nodularians
Umezakia natans Toxic Cylindrospermopsin
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae Toxic as Blooms Cylindrospermopsin
Microcystis aeruginosa Toxic as Blooms Microcystins
Trichodesmium sp Toxic as Blooms Saxitoxin
Flagellates
Dictyocha sp. Toxic as Blooms
Eutreptiella gymnastica Toxic as Blooms Discolouration, anoxia
Haptophytes
Chrysochromulina sp Toxic Ichthyotoxic
Prymnesium sp Toxic as Blooms Toxic to Artemia, Ichthyotoxic, haemolytic
Raphidophytes
Chattonella sp Toxic Ichthyotoxic
Fibrocapsa japonica Toxic Ichthyotoxic
In the estuarine system, River Ramisi had the highest number of potentially harmful algal cell densities (>70 x
102
cells/L) characterized by high cell densities of Nitzschia sp. (61.39 x 102
cells/L), Coscinodiscus sp. (49.5 x
5. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
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102
cells/L) and Anabaena sp. (49.62 x 102
cells/L) as shown in Table 3. River Umba had cell densities of 16.85
x 102
cells/L with high harmful algal densities in U5 sampling site (>100 x 102
cells/L). Nitzschia sp. was the
most abundant taxa in R. Umba (9.34 x 102
cells/L). Cyanobacteria such as Trichodesmium sp., Microcystis sp.
and Lyngbya sp. were the least encountered in river Umba (Table 3). Alexandrium sp. that is usually toxic at low
cell densities was present in U5 sampling site.
Table 2a: Harmful algae species abundances (cells/L) in the estuarine systems
Estuarine systems
Ramisi Abundance Mwena Abundance Umba Abundance Sabaki Abundance
R1 8589.01 M1 547.55 U1 521.47 S1 85.14
R2 6067.95 M2 607.71 U2 1276.71 S2 146.67
R3 3246.28 M3 905.15 U3 1604.98 S3 177.50
R4 15084.25 M4 1525.42 U4 752.30
U5 4782.52
Mean 7631.67 820.51 1685.92 136.44
Table 2b: Harmful algae species abundances (cells/L) in the Creeks
Creek systems
Makupa Abundance Tudor Abundance Mtwapa Abundance
MKT 2615.56 NB 2238.58 MTM 1890.69
MKC 392.83 CG 925.15 MTP 4870.71
MKD 960.67 FJ 1036.88 MTB 3802.37
MKB 604.44 MAD 997.78 MTF 5474.55
MKM 666.94 KMC 771.89 MTJ 641.39
MIK 662.08 MTM 493.83
NP 341.67
Mean 1074.61 1020.14 3510.63
Table 2c: Harmful algae species abundances (cells/L) in the Nearshore system
Nearshore systems
Kibuyuni Abundance Sii Kiromo Abundance Wasini Abundance Shimoni Abundance Malindi Abundance
KBL 364.05 SK1 189.50 WJ 288.21 MW 1920.73 MDJ 86.25
KBM 22.50 SK2 17.50 WCM 265.98 SJ 528.26 MDP 162.92
KBI 20.00 SK3 256.35 WN 201.86 MDN 154.58
KIMA 220.94 SK4 278.68 WI 52.50 MAM 74.17
SK5 60.00
SK6 33.75
Mean 242.57 213.37 265.75 713.92 119.48
The three creeks sampled in this study recorded the second highest harmful algae abundance with 35.1 x 102
cells/L recorded in Mtwapa, 10.7 x 102
cells/L in Makupa and 10.2 x 102
cells/L in Tudor (Table 2). Within
Makupa creek, MKT had the highest densities (26.16 x 102
cells/L) (Table 2).The dominant taxa in Makupa
creek were Leptocylindricus sp. (2.13 x 102
cells/L and Pseudo-nitzschia sp. (2.03 x 102
cells/L) as shown in
Table 3. Tudor creek had the lowest harmful algae densities and was dominated by Trichodesmium sp. (7.71 x
102
cells/L) and Oscillatoria sp. (4.31 x 102
cells/L). High cell densities of Oscillatoria sp. (26.77 x 102
cells/L)
in Tudor creek were encountered at NB whereas high cell densities of Trichodesmium sp. were encountered at FJ
(16.91 x 102
cells/L) and CG (10.96 x 102
cells/L). Mtwapa creek was dominated by Chaetoceros sp. (24.67 x
102
cells/L) and Pseudo-nitzschia sp. (8.29 x 102
cells/L).
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Dinophysis sp. were encountered in most sampling sites in this study at low cell densities (<70 cells/L). R.
Mwena recorded the highest cell densities of this species (67.57 cells/L). Trichodesmium sp. being an oceanic
cyanobacterium was found in Mtwapa and Tudor creeks at high cell densities compared to rivers Ramisi and
Umba that are continually influenced by freshwater input via river discharge (Table 3).
Most of the potential harmful algal taxa encountered in this study have the potential to form blooms while in
high densities (i.e. only toxic when in high cell densities even though threshold of toxicity effect is specific for
each taxon in relation to other physicochemical characteristic of the aquatic system they proliferate). For
example, Gyrodinium sp, is known to kill fish and benthic fauna at cell densities higher than 107
cells/L
(Andersen, 1996). On the contrary, Dinophysis sp. that was among harmful algal taxa with low cell densities in
this study is capable of causing harm at low cell densities, with no visible discoloration in the water. The low
Dinophysis sp. counts encountered in this particular study are similar to those reported elsewhere (Maestrin,
1998; Okaichi et al., 2003).
Harmful algae species known to cause water discoloration and anoxic conditions when found in high cell
densities (such as Eutreptiella sp., Ceratium sp., Noctiluca scintillans, and Skeletonema sp. recorded in this
study) were found to be present at low cell densities in the three studied systems. In the estuarine system, the low
cell densities could be attributed to the high turbidity levels due to river inflow and tidal movement resulting in
sediments flocculation and sinking (with the attached algal cells) thus altering photochemistry (Meyer, 1979;
Pierce et al., 2004; Seitzinger et al., 1991; Shirota, 1989). For the creeks and nearshore stations, the low cell
densities of this group of harmful algae may have been due to the flushing out of the cells during tidal
movement.
Apart from causing discoloration and anoxic conditions in aquatic systems, some of the potential harmful algal
taxa produce toxins that can accumulate in the food chain causing toxicity to humans and other higher animals.
In this study, such taxa included Alexandrium sp., Gymnodinium sp., Dinophysis sp., Pseudo-nitzschia sp.,
Gamberidiscus toxicus, Anabaena sp. and Nodularia spumigena (Table 1). Anabaena sp proliferation in R4 and
U5 stations depicts their freshwater nature and this explains their low cell densities in the sampling stations that
are influenced by oceanic waters. The wide distribution (but in low cell densities) of Alexandrium sp. and
Dinophysis sp. observed in this study could be explained by the fact that these taxa are less affected by coastal
nutrient enrichments (UNESCO, 2004).
It has been observed that very low Dinophysis sp. concentrations (~ 50 cells/L) could lead to mussels’
contamination and toxicity (Kat, 1983; Marcello-Le Abut et al., 2001). Some stations in this study reported mean
cell densities of Dinophysis sp. that were above this threshold implying that some sort of contamination may be
present in seafood. The wide spatial distribution of Pseudo-nitzschia sp.(described elsewhere as cryptic
bloomers, Trainer et al., 2009) could be attributed to its ability to grow over a wide range of salinities (Thessen
et al., 2005) and the ability of its blooms to arise from shifts in population rather than the appearance of a
fundamentally different assemblage.
The high cell densities of toxic benthic Gambierdiscus toxicus observed in the shallow estuarine system in
comparison to the creek and nearshore systems could be attributed to the resuspension of benthic matter in the
water column through tidal and river inflow (see Trobajon and Sullivan, 2010). The presence of Nodularia
spumigena only in Makupa and Tudor creeks could be attributed to the ability of these taxa to utilize dissolved
organic matter as a nutrient source (Panosso and Granéli, 2000; Põder et al., 2003) and their tolerance to wide
ranges in salinity levels (0-35 PSU) (Lehtimäki et al., 1997; Mazur-Marzec et al., 2005). These two creeks are
characterized by high organic matter inputs from both, human, garbage and slaughterhouse wastes as detailed in
findings by Okuku et al., (2011).
Some of the HABs known to be directly toxic to fish but not necessarily to human were Chaetoceros sp.,
Gyrodinium sp., Prymnesium sp., Chattonella sp., Leptocylindricus sp. Rhizosolenia sp. (Table 1). The inverse
relationship observed between Leptocylindricus sp and Gymnodinium sp. in this study could be attributed to
allelopathic exudates produced by Gymnodinium sp as reported elsewhere by Chan et al., (1980) and Gentien
and Arzul, (1990) thus totally inhibiting Leptocylindrus sp. growth (Clément et al., 2002) in most stations in this
study.
Tropical waters are generally oligotrophic and blooms which develop are usually reduced in frequency as seen in
this study having low cell densities of harmful algal species and their extent may have only localized impacts.
These blooms can form a mosaic in close areas in which some zones are toxic while some are not. In such
ecosystems, organisms feeding on algae are responsible for toxins transfer (Bourdeau et al., 2001).
Potential Phycotoxin effects
The bloom causative taxa harmful effect is most commonly seen with the massive die off of fish. The anoxic
conditions result from the high cell densities of Skeletonema sp., Noctiluca scintillans, Eutraptiella sp. and
Ceratium sp. although this study recorded low cell densities of these taxa. The chain forming Chaetoceros sp.
which was abundant in most of the stations is known to cause mucus production in the gill tissue. Other taxa
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such as Thalassiosira sp., Skeletonema sp. and Dictyocha sp., which were recorded at low cell densities in this
study, are equally effective in stimulating excess mucus production in fish gills when present in dense
concentrations and may lead to fish deaths (UNESCO, 2004). Harmful algal species (such as Nitzschia sp.,
Alexandrium sp., Dinophysis sp., Gambierdiscus toxicus, Ostreopsis sp., Prorocentrum sp. and Protoperidinium
sp.) produce different categories of toxins which accumulate in the food chain leading to specific syndromes in
the predators. were also encountered in this study. For instance, Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) causative
organism are dinoflagellates (Alexandrium sp., Gymnodinium sp.,) that produce saxitoxins and is characterized
by gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms, with nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, tingling or numbness around
lips with gradual and more severe paralysis, respiratory difficulty, death through respiratory paralysis.
Potentially toxic Dinophysis sp. and Prorocentrum sp. presence in this study is indicative of the potential of a
possible Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) with consumption of contaminated seafood by this taxa. This
poisoning is caused by a group of toxins, represented by okadaic acid, and is characterized by gastrointestinal
symptoms (nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain) which follow chronic exposure that may evolve into
digestive system tumors. Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) is caused by domoic acid and main sign of this
syndrome is loss of short term memory, accompanied by gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms. The
commonly known causative taxon is the Pseudo-nitzschia sp. whereas the benthic Gambierdiscus toxicus and
Ostreopsis sp. are known to cause Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP). This syndrome is due to ciguatoxin.
Together with tetrodotoxin, this is the only toxin transmitted by fish and not by shellfish. Typical symptoms are
diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and lots of neurological signs. Anabaena sp. and Nodularia
spumigena are known to produce microcystin and nodularin, respectively, and the discrepancy in hepatotoxin
concentrations (Pattanaik et al., 2010). N. spumigena is capable of producing significant amounts of nodularin, a
pentapeptide hepatotoxin that acts as a tumour promoter and have been reported to harm wild and domestic
animals (Nehring, 1993).The cyanobacteria Oscillatoria sp. are known to produce debromoaplysiatoxin
(Mynderse et al., 1977). These toxins are highly inflammatory and are potent skin tumour promoting
compounds.
Economic impact
Local communities living along Kenya coast depend on coastal fisheries as source of livelihood through
mariculture, artisanal fishing and offshore fishing. Increase in occurrence of potential harmful algae is expected
to lead to fish die offs destroying most fishing grounds. This may also result into closures of fishing areas with
harmful algae occurrence to allow for fish to depurate. It is also a requirement in some export destination
countries that fish toxin levels in fish products be reported, in such cases, Kenya as a country is bound to suffer
losses resulting from rejection of fish by the international market. Complementing the coastal fisheries is
mariculture/aquaculture that has been on the rise for the last two decades in Kenya. Aquaculture can greatly be
impacted by harmful algae through massive fish deaths. This can lead to serious economic losses.
Phycotoxins are capable of accumulating in shellfish and finfish causing great concern on seafood safety.
Consumption of contaminated seafood put at risk the human consumers of shellfish and fish through a number of
illnesses and in extreme cases leading to death.
Though this has not be reported in Kenya, harmful algal blooms are known to reduce the aesthetic nature of
areas of economic values (frequently visited by tourist) such as beaches, sport fishing, snorkeling and diving.
Blooms that cause water discoloration reduce the visibility of these areas rendering snorkeling and diving
activities impossible. Beaches can be rendered inhabitable from foul smell of hydrogen sulphide from bacteria
acting on dead organism due to anoxic condition of harmful algal blooms. This may lead to reduced influx of
tourist visit to these areas thus reduced economic activities (revenue generation).
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
There is a significant increase (nearly twofold) in the number of potential harmful algal species recorded along
the Kenya coast in the last decade. A total of twenty four species of potentially harmful microalgae were
recorded along the Kenyan coast in 2001(UNESCO, 2001).These included four serious species of Alexandrium
(A. affine, A. leei, A. tamarense and A. tamiavanichii) known to cause Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP). Some
fish kills have been reported in Kiunga and Shimoni areas. Such fish kills were attributed to toxic algae in
Kiunga (UNESCO, 2001) and Shimoni (KMFRI SEED report 2008). The observed increase in number of
species and cell densities serves as an early warning of future bloom occurrences with subsequent potential
impacts.
Continuous increase in toxic algae species as well as their cell densities, as observed and reported in this study
underlines the urgent need to:
1. put in place a monitoring programme and management strategies for harmful algal species at a local and
regional levels to compliment the international efforts already in place,
2. conduct further studies on toxins profiles both in phytoplankton and shell fish to assess their potential
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toxicity
3. determine the environmental drivers that trigger the development of potential harmful algae blooms and
their toxin in order to inform future development of shell fish aquaculture
4. Create public awareness on seafood safety (in relation to harmful algal toxins) as well as on early
warning signs with an aim of developing strategies of avoiding contamination related deaths and
illnesses.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was funded through IAEA funded RAF 7007 Project, WIOMSA funded MASMA Cholera Project
and KMFRI SEED research funds. The authors are grateful to the Directors of these institutions for their support.
We are also indebted to KMFRI support staff who in one way or the other contributed to the success of this
study.
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