Please write a general overview of the different ways that using phyl.pdf

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Please write a general overview of the different ways that using phylogenetic trees can inform our understanding of past evolutionary history. Then, give a detailed summary of ONE of the examples in the book. What is the problem? How would we have misunderstood or incompletely understood the evidence if we did not have the phylogenetic context, and how does using the phylogenetic relationships help to fill in our understanding? What does it mean to count nodes? How do you determine where the common ancestor of two taxa is on a phylogenetic tree? What is rotating a tree around a node? What is the significance of doing it? What does it mean for taxa printed next to one another on a tree? What is pruning a tree? s a pruned tree quivalent to an un- pruned one? Why? Solution Phylogeny represents the evolutionary relationships among a set of organisms or groups of organisms. The identity between different organisms is checked by Phylogenetic trees are constructed by using computational phylogenetics methods. Phylogenetic tree is a directed tree where nodes represent the most recent common ancestor of all the entities at the leaves of the tree..

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In phlogony tree, if taxa of polytomy rotate around nodes, do they still depict the same relationship? IL E Solution When a phylogenetic tree has more than two branches radiating from a node,it is called a polytomy.Polytomies arise when the relationships between a group of taxa are unresolved.It is important to understand that although sister taxa and polytomy do share an ancestor, it does not mean that the groups of organisms split or evolved from each other.Organisms in two taxa may have split apart at a specific branch point,but neither taxa gave rise to the other.The branches of a phylogeny can be rotated around a node without changing evolutionary relationships.If we want to determine how two or more taxa are related,it is important to look at the nodes and branches in a tree and not just the ordering of descendant taxa.Sometimes the evolutionary relationships between taxa cannot be determined..

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Lab 12 Building Phylogenies Objectives In this laboratory exercise, you will examine six species of agaricomycetes and predict the evolutionary relationships among them. After completing this exercise you will be able to • define ancestral characteristics, derived characteristics, branch point, and phylogeny. • predict ancestral and derived characteristics for agaricomycetes. • construct a phylogeny (phylogenetic tree). • support the phylogeny with data. • explain how evolutionary biologists discover evolutionary relationships. Introduction One of the most compelling pieces of evidence for evolution is that organisms have amazing similarities. An example that almost everyone has heard before is that the limbs of birds, bats, horses, moles, cats, frogs, humans, turtles, and other vertebrates have virtually the same skeletal plan. Furthermore, even snakes and whales show structural remnants of the limbs of their ancestors. The evolutionary interpretation of these similarities is that the vertebrate limb has been modified by natural selection to perform different functions (for example, running, digging, flying). Another commonly used example is that the embryos of turtles, mice, humans, chickens, and many other vertebrates are amazingly similar. Furthermore, the proteins and DNA of organisms are remarkably similar. Why, do you suppose, can human diabetics use insulin extracted from pigs to control their blood sugar levels? Well, the reason is that the chemical structure of human and pig insulin is very similar. In addition to these similarities, we discover that organisms that appear similar in one respect are often similar in other respects (we can say the patterns are “concordant”). For example, organisms that are similar morphologically (in shape) have similar protein structures. Organisms that are less similar morphologically have less similar protein structures. This pattern holds for traits that are not easily modified by evolution, but not so often by traits that are easily modified by selection. For example, flower color might not be a good trait to use when looking for concordance because it is easily changed genetically. The concordance of traits is an important support of evolution. Imagine that we saw that organisms similar in one set of characteristics were very different in a second set of characteristics and different again in a third set of characteristics. This situation would be chaotic and we would be forced to question the reality 1 of evolution. The development of methods of DNA and protein analysis has shown dramatically that organisms that are similar morphologically are also similar at the genetic level. So, similarity among organisms provides evidence for evolution. We can then turn around and use the similarities to try to reconstruct evolutionary relationships. That is the purpose of today’s lab: to construct a hypothes ...

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In this first module we have explored the historical ideas of the nature of the Universe. In the days of Ptolemy and Copernicus, the Universe was all things, so the question of the whether the Sun went round the Earth or the Earth went round the Sun was a question about the nature of the Universe. Of course today, being citizens of the 21st Century, the question is moot, the Earth goes round the Sun, and there is lots of stuff beyond the Solar System that makes up the Universe. But, where does this idea come from, and what is the evidence supporting it? For this first forum we will investigate this question in two parts. For the first post, due Friday, 1/22 by 11pm, try to organize a response to the questions: Does the Earth revolve around the Sun? How do you know? What is the evidence supporting your answer? Solution For some time after it was accepted that planets (including Earth) circle the Sun, there was no direct proof that it is Earth that moves, and not the Sun. Ancient astronomer Aristarchus thought that Earth goes around the Sun since he discovered that the Sun is much bigger than Earth. Copernicus (who is usually credited with the idea that planets go around the Sun) thought that Solar system centered on the Sun is more logical and beautiful, but had no definite proof. Kepler discovered that laws governing of orbits become much more simple if the Sun is in their center. Newton has shown that this is caused by the universal law of gravity. If gravity works, Earth and other planets have to go around the Sun, because it is much heavier. There was no straightforward proof for the motion of Earth until 1725 when James Bradley discovered stellar aberration. This is (apparent) yearly change in positions of all stars in the sky due to Earth\'s own motion. Aberration arises due to adding up of the speed of light coming from the star and Earth\'s own speed. This is a very complex phenomenon and its description requires some math. Another, much simpler, consequence of Earth\'s motion is stellar parallax. If Earth changes its position relative to the stars, then the stars should appear to change position in the course of the year. A common experiment illustrating parallax is just looking at a close object (a finger, a pencil etc) with one eye at the time. When you switch from one to the other eye, the object will appear to move against the background. Closer the object is to your eyes, more pronounced the effect is. Parallax should not be confused with aberration: parallax arises from the change of Earth\'s position and depends on the distance to the star, while aberration is caused by Earth\'s great speed and does not depend on how far the star is. Parallax of a star was first measured by Bessel in 1838. It was not measured before because this change of star\'s apparent position is very small (the stars are very far from us). This was a very important discovery because Aristotle himself mentioned the lack of observable stellar parallax as the.

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If someone says to you, \"I believe there might be planets around K-type stars\", how would you respond? Defend your answer with the formation of the solar system. Solution A K-type star is the main sequence star on an HR-digram because the they are hydrogen-burning stars. K-type stars usually weigh around 0.45 to 0.8 solar masses, and they have a surface temperature of 3,900 and 5,200 K, they live on the main sequence for a very long time approximately 15 to 30 billion years. Researchers believe that the solar system was formed from a cloud of gas and dust in space was perturbed, maybe by the explosion of a nearby star. This explosion made waves in space which compressed the cloud of gas and dust. Compressing made the cloud start to collapse under its on gravity, a, forming a solar nebula. Just like an Ice-skater that spins faster as she pulls in her arms, the cloud begins to spin as it collapses. Eventually, the cloud grows hotter and denser in the center, with a disk of gas and dust surrounding it that was hot in the middle but cool at the edges. As the disk got thinner and thinner, particles began to pile together and form clumps. Some clumps got bigger, as particles and small clumps stuck to them, eventually forming planets or moons. Near the center of the cloud, where planets likeEarth formed, the only rocky material could stand the great heat. Icy matter settled in the outer regions of the disk along with rocky material, where the giant planets likeJupiter formed. As the cloud continued to fall in, the center eventually got so hot that it became a star, the Sun, and blew most of the gas and dust of the new solar system with a strong stellar wind. By studying meteorites, which are thought to be left over from this early phase of the solar system, scientists have found that the solar system is about 4600 million years old. A K-type star will need similar conditions to form it self and the debris form the star formation can lead to the formation of planets..

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What could cause those issues? What could those issues cause? What are the issues usually happen in research process? Solution The issues which happen in research process are: These issues are caused to The problems these issues will cause I had this experience once when we were implementing quality improvement in an organization. Our organization has been recently merged with another entity. These two entities have different systems. When we designed a questionnaire to system owners, we devised it on the basis of systems of our original unit and for the other unit , we didnot put extra effort and devises standard questions for them. This led to incorrect results that investment of X amount is sufficient to improve performance by Y. In actually, the performance of our unit has improved by Y but the overall organization performance improved by 10% of Y only as other units performance reduced due to this recommendations..

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