Plants

1. Agronomic Practices of
Some Plants
Prof. Dr. GHAZALA H. RIZWANI (Meritorius)
B. Pharm, M. Pharm, Ph.D., DHMS,
MSCFPTN, MPPS, Post Doc. (Japan)
Professor of Pharmacognosy
Director of Dr. Hafiz Ilyas Institute of Pharmacology and Herbal Sciences
Faculty of Pharmacy,
Hamdard University ​

2. 2
Introduction
• Good agricultural practices are crucial to combat Production constraints
such as:
• Biodiversity loss
• Gene manipulation
• Unavailability of quality seed
• Cultivation on polluted soils in sub urban areas e.g. polyethylene
• Climatic change
• Irrigation by contaminated water
• Presence of excessive amount of heavy metals
• Lack of research and state regulatory system on field and marketing
operations

3. Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
• Family: Fabaceae (Leguminosae)
• English name: Fenugreek
• Cultivation in Pakistan: in the districts of Kasur,
Gujranwala, Sheikhupura and Faisalabad in Punjab
• Fenugreek is annual, quick growing and produces
erect shoots up to a height of one meter.
• Leaves: light to dark green with or without pink
margin
• Flower: produces 2-3 small white at the axil of each
leaf
• Pods: slender and straw coloured when ripe, beak
shaped and is about 8-10 cm long with 8-15
yellowish brown coloured and smooth surfaced
seeds.
3

4. 4
Climate
• Temperate climate with mild winters and cool summers
• In spite of its low temperature loving nature, it can be cultivated at the
temperature ranges of 30-35 ℃.
• Moderate or low rainfall
• Fairly drought resistant and fairly frost sensitive
• It can tolerate 10 ℃ of frost
• Winters are best suited for the leafy growth of the fenugreek plant.
• Altitude: 1300 - 2000 m AMSL

5. 5
Soil
• Grow best on well drained loamy soils
• Organic matter rich clay-loam soil may also be used
• Heavy and wet soils limit fenugreek growth
• For rainfed cultivation, black cotton soils are best suited
• Generally slightly alkaline soils are ideal
• Optimum pH 7.5 – 8.4
• Lime application in some strongly acid condition may be necessary
• Potash has been used to adjust soil pH to increase nutrients uptake
• At the time of sowing there should be good moisture in the soil for
better germination of seed.

6. Land Preparation
• A total of 3-4 ploughing are required.
• First ploughing should be done by soil turning plough
• 2-3 ploughing with harrow to bring the soil to a fine tilth
• Farm yard manure (FYM): 12-13 tones/acre must be added one month
before cultivation.
• Land must be well irrigated and properly leveled
• Phosphorus fertilizer applications positively affect growth
• Line to line spacing: 25-30 cm
• Later the plants are thinned to maintain 10-15 cm spacing within the lines.
• Pre-sowing treatments; paraquat, and glyphosate (non-selective
herbicides).

7. 7
• Fenugreek is a nitrogen fixing legume (283 kg/ha/year from the
atmosphere).
• Inoculation of seed with Rhizobium meliloti prior to sowing optimize
its growth potential.
• especially when the crop is sown in new field.
• Soak in water for 6-8 h and shade drying to accelerate the germination.
Seed Treatment
• Fenugreek can be sown either in lines or by broadcasting seeds
• Sowing in lines is better as it facilitates the intercultural operations,
like hoeing and weeding.
Sowing Method

8. 8
Sowing Time
• Fenugreek is sown from October and November
• First fortnight of November is the best time for sowing of fenugreek
• In hilly tracts, it is sown from March to May, depending on altitude.
• For higher yield, sowing time should be so adjusted that pod
development and seed maturity phase may coincide with dry and rain
free period.
• Sowing depth: 2-3 cm
• Seed rate: 20-25 kg/ha
• Seed germinates in about 5-7 days of sowing.

9. 9
Manures and Fertilizers
• Fenugreek crop removes N, P and K in the ratio of 2: 1:1 from the soil,
in the uptake order of 10, 3.5, 8.2 kg respectively.
• Basal- FYM 20 - 25 t/ha and N, P, K at 30:25:40 kg/ha.
• Top dressing- 20 kg of N at 30 days after sowing.

10. 10
Irrigation
• Irrigation stress either excessive application or drought conditions are
harmful
• Excessive moisture increases the incidence of root rot
• It requires light irrigations at frequent intervals
• First irrigation is given immediately after sowing (if the initial
moisture in the field at sowing is inadequate)
• Second irrigation on the third day and subsequently at 7 - 10 days
intervals.
• 6-7 irrigations are required in light soil
• 4-5 irrigations are needed in heavy soils.

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Weed Management
• Fenugreek needs proper soil aeration for the development of root system
• First 30-40 days are identified as a critical period with respect to crop weed
competition in fenugreek.
• Crop-weed competition reduced yield by 14.2 % during the 1st 30 days after sowing (DAS)
• Weeds emerging after 30 DAS caused a 12 % reduction in yields
• 69% reduction in yields due to weed competition during the entire cropping season
• Two weeding and hoeing
• First at 15-20 days after sowing, along with thinning of the plants
• Second weeding at 40-50 days after sowing
• Pre- emergence treatments; trifluralin, fluchloralin, chlorpropham, and
pendimethalin
• Post-emergence treatments; bentazon, MCPB, diclofop-methyl, and alloxydim

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Plant Protection
• Major insect-pests
• Aphids: the most common insect that attacks the fenugreek crop
• Plants turn yellow and results in shriveling of seeds and reduction in seed yield
• In severe condition two spray of imidachlorprid (0.005%) or dimethoate (0.33%) after
10 days interval help in management.
• Leaf eating caterpillar:Spilarcitia oblique and Spodoptera litura Fabricius
• Scrap out the green matter from the leaves, give the appearance of papery white
structure.
• Destroy the egg mass and gregarious young larvae by hand picking and killing.
• Spray neem seed kernel extract (5%) or neem oil 2% in the early stage of larvae
development.
continue

13. 13
Plant Protection
• Major insect-pests
• Pod borer (Helicoverpa armigera Hubner) : feed on leaves, flowers and pods.
• Spray of Endosulphan (0.05%) or quinalphos (0.05%) when population reaches at higher level.
• Jassids (Empoasea spp.): suck the leaf sap causing browning of leaves.
• Foliar spray of endosulphan (0.05%) for effective control of jassids is used.
• White fly (Bemisia tabaci): suck the sap of plant causes yellowing of plant and
subsequently plant dies.
• Spraying of imidachlorprid (0.005%) at initial stage of infestation by using 500 liters of
solution with water is sufficient to cover one hectare area.
• Leaf Minor (Empoasea spp.)
• Effective control of mites by foliar spray of phosphomidon (0.03%) using 400-500 liters of
water in one hectare.

14. 14
Plant Protection
• Diseases
• Root rot: caused by Alternaria alternata (Fr.)
• Deep summer ploughing of field and adoption of crop rotation can
minimize disease incidence.
• It can be controlled by:
• Soil application of Neem cake (150 g/ha)
• Seed treatment with Trichoderma viride (4g/kg of seed) and drenching
with Carbendazim 0.5 g/l or Copper oxychloride 2 g/litre.
• Powdery mildew: cause by Erysiphe polygoni DC and Leveilulla taurica
(Lev.)
• Dust Sulphur at 25 kg/ha or foliar spray with wettable sulphur 2 g/lit at the time of
appearance of disease.

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Plant Protection
• Diseases
• Damping off (Pythium aphanidermatum): caused by Rhizoctonia
solani.
• Lesions cause rotting of epidermal or vertical tissues at collar region
and result in seedlings topples down and withes off
• Infected seedlings appear water soaked, discoloured and soft, emitting
a bad odour.
• Control: Crop rotation and removal of diseased plants. Seed treatment
with Carbendazim (3g/kg seed) is very effective

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Plant Protection
• Diseases
• Downy mildew (Peronospora trigonella Gaum.) : cause
by Rhizoctonia trigonella Gaum.
• Symptoms include the presence of yellow patches on the
upper surface in the corresponding areas. In the advance
stage of infection, the leaves turn yellow and shed.
• Control: Spraying of Bordeaux mixture (1%) as
restricted use
• Two sprays of zineb (3 g / lit) at 15 days interval is also
recommended

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Harvesting
• Fresh green leaves and young shots in about 20- 25 days after sowing
• Other harvesting can be at 45 days interval.
• Crop after taking one cutting is left for seed production.
• Cutting is usually done with sharp knife by leaving stubs 3- 4 cm above the
ground level
• The harvested crop can be divided into small bunches
• Bunches must be kept in shady places, covered with wet fabric
• Fresh green leaf yield of 70-80 q/ha
• Post Harvest Management
• After harvesting, the yellow, diseased and damaged leaves are trimmed off

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Harvesting
• Crop must stands in field after two harvesting for the seed production.
• When 3⁄4 pods have been ripened, harvest them and sun dry.
• For spring sowing, ripens usually 3–5 months after planting
• For fall sowing, this time exceeded 7 months
• These can be threshed and stored for the next season.
• Seeds are separated manually or by thresher winnowing.
• Seed is dried up to 7-8% moisture, cleaned, graded and packed
• Seed yield:15-20 q/ha.

19. 19
Postharvest Processing
• Fenugreek leaves are sun-dried or dehydrated in a suitable dehydrator.
• During dehydration, chlorophyll is oxidized and ascorbic acid is lost
• Dehydration of fenugreek leaves in household microwave oven resulted in
better quality preservation in lesser time than sun drying
• To retain green color of leaves, blanching in boiling water for 3-6 minutes can
be practiced.
• Postharvest enzymatic treatment of fenugreek showed that growth
regulators have the potential to increase yield by 35 %.

20. 20
Packaging and Storage
• Leaves can be stored for about 24 hours after harvesting under ambient
conditions
• Storage period can be extended up to 10 days in cold stores at 0 temperature and 90-
95 % RH
• A study reported that double packed and cold stored samples of fenugreek leaves
retained significant amount of ascorbic acid, chlorophyll, β-carotene (67%).
• Well dried leaves can be stored for about 10-12 months.
• Vacuum gravity separator is used for cleaning fenugreek seeds.
• Seeds are packed in gunny bags lined with polythene film plastic bags,
vacume packages, CAP/MAP etc.
• Well packed seeds are stored in ventilated, dry and cool place under
ordinary conditions till sowing of next season crop.

21. • Family: Malvaceae
• English Name: upland cotton or Mexican
cotton
• It is an annual open field crop
• Cotton is being cultivated under diverse
climatic conditions across the globe.
• It is a semi-xerophytic species and grows
well in tropical and subtropical climate
conditions
21
Gossypium hirsutum L.

22. 22
Propagation
• Cotton is propagated from seed by planting directly in a prepared field
when growing conditions are favorable (suitable temperature, adequate
rainfall etc).
• Cotton should only be planted when the soil has warmed to at least
18.3°C (65°F). Generally, seeds should be sown at a depth of 0.25 cm
(1 in), with 3–6 seed sown in each hole. Ridging the soil is
recommended as it helps to drain the plant in wet conditions and also
to conserve water in dry conditions. Plant spacing depends on the
variety but generally 20–100 cm (7.9–39.4 in) should be left between
plants.

23. 23
Seed Treatment
• Lint is removed from the seed cotton to improve germination.
• Two methods for the removal of lint from cotton seed are acid
delinting and mechanical removal.
• Sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid are commonly used for the seed delinting.
• For washing the residue water is utilized.
• For neutralizing the seed lime, soda ash, or anhydrous ammonia is used and it
is called as wet acid method.
• Delinted seed is treated with fungicides.
• Germination of the cotton seed is poor without delinting

24. 24
Time of Sowing
• Starts in April and continues to end of May.
• The late planting affects the quality of cotton fiber.
• Date of sowing is important to explore the yield potential of a cultivar in the
specific region
• Cotton seed requires warm soil conditions - results in healthy seedling.
• Sowing date is preliminary factor in healthy plant growth and yield
potential
• Early sown crop (e.g. February) results in poor stand establishment, limited plant
growth and increased susceptibility to disease due to low soil temperature.
• Late planting can significantly reduce lint yield and induce low boll weight due to
delayed physiological maturity and carbohydrate deficiency

25. 25
Land Preparation
• Cotton requires a smooth soil surface with a very fine tilth to ensure uniform depth of
sowing.
• A deep soil is required for proper root growth.
• Land should be free of stubbles and clods.
• Green manuring/farm yard manures should be incorporated one month before sowing
• Green manuring crops should be buried into the soil at 3-4 weeks ahead of cotton planting for
timely decomposition and soil conditioning
• Soil should be first deep ploughed at least four times followed by two plankings to make
the soil fine, loose, and leveled.
• Over‐tilled soils may get compacted due to the traffic of the tractor, causing significant
decrease in root penetration and distorted root growth.
• Root hairs generally performed well in the non‐compacted soil as compared to compacted
soil.

26. 26
Land Preparation
• Cotton can grow on a variety of soils including sandy soil and heavy
clay as long as it is water permeable
• Optimal soil pH of 5.5–8.5.
• Soil should be first deep ploughed at least four times followed by two
plankings to make the soil fine, loose, and leveled.
• Over‐tilled soils may get compacted due to the traffic of the tractor,
causing significant decrease in root penetration and distorted root
growth.
• Root hairs generally performed well in the non‐compacted soil as
compared to compacted soil.

27. 27
Planting Methods
• In Pakistan three planting methods are commonly used, i.e. flat sowing
(locally known as wattar sowing), bed planting and ridge sowing
• Flat sowing method is mostly applied where canal water is scarce
• First irrigation after 35–40 days of sowing and subsequent irrigations
are dependent on crop and weather conditions.
• Disadvantages: low moisture level due to high temperature in the
cotton growing season, resulting in poor germination.

28. 28
Planting Methods
• Bed Sowing
• Bed planting increases germination percentage and eradicates the crust
formation.
• It provides higher average yield compared to the flat sowing of cotton
• It requires lower quantities of seed than flat sowing and
• Ridge Sowing
• Very important for improving physical properties of the soil.
• Increase moisture availability and decrease root penetration resistance and
increase the emergence and average yield potential
• It is not common due to limitations like weed control being very difficult

29. 29
Planting Methods
• Drilling on flat land, bed planting, and ridge sowing are the methods
that are usually followed in Pakistan.
• Drilling is mostly done by mechanical seed drill, bed sowing and ridge
sowing may be done by utilizing bed planter or by hand sowing
(locally known as choppa).
• Recommended row to row distance is 75cm and plant to plant distance
is 30–45 cm depending upon the structure of the plant.
• seed depth of drilled cotton should be 2.5–5 cm in the ground.
• Sowing methods enhance the yield of cotton, however, the fiber
quality of the cotton seed remains unaffected.

30. 30
Fertilizer Application
• Different requirements for different soil types.
• Deficiencies of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and occasionally
deficiency of potassium (K) have been recorded
• For weak soils 200kgN, 145kg P and 95kgK per ha is recommended.
• For medium and rich soils the doses for N and K are the same, but P
requirement is 114 and 87kg/ha, respectively.
• Major nutrients like P and K and minor nutrients like Zn and B should
be applied at sowing as basal dose.
• In case of the appearance of the symptoms of leaf curl virus 30 kg N
per ha should be applied weekly for three consecutive weeks.

31. 31
Irrigation
• Proper irrigation maintains the water availability to the roots of the
plant
• Low irrigation results in the accumulation of salts in the root zone
• Over‐irrigation increases the water table that causes upward movement
of the salts
• In a flat sown crop
• First irrigation after 35–40 days of sowing and subsequent irrigations with the
interval of 12–15 days.
• Last irrigation should be applied by the first ten days of October.

32. 32
Irrigation
• Bed planting method
• First irrigation should be applied after 3–4days of sowing
• second and third irrigation should be done weekly and remaining irrigations
should be done with 15 days interval depending upon the crop condition and
variety.
• 15 October is the terminating date for irrigation
• In the rainy season irrigation should be applied carefully
• There should be no water stress to the crop from 1st August to end of
September
• Irrigation water should be absorbed by the soil within 24 hours.
• Water standing in field even upto 24 hours causes shedding of the fruit

33. 33
Thinning
• To ensure proper germination, farmers plant more seeds per hole, but
after germination single seedling per hole is required to ensure proper
growth and development of plant.
• Usually the thinning should be completed after 15–20days of sowing.
• In case of viral attack, plants infected with virus should be thinned out.
• Thinning time and recommended number of plants in the hole is a very
important factor for ideal plant growth

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Weeds Management
• Cotton is highly susceptible to weeds due to their slow emergence and growth rate
• Weeds can also serve as a secondary habitat for cotton pests and viruses
• First 40-70 days after sowing are crucial and growth of weeds is faster than cooton
plant
• Weed control: at the initial stage through pre‐emergence herbicides such as
pendimethalin or S‐metolachlor, which can control the weeds for at least 35–
40days after sowing.
• Quizalofop‐p‐ethyl, quizalofop‐p‐ ethyl+lactofen, haloxyfop‐R‐methyl, and
fluazifop‐P‐butyl are some of the post‐emergence herbicides.
• After re‐emergence weeds are removed manually or through small hoeing
machines introduced to Pakistan from China.
• Process of weed removal must be extended till the plants develop a canopy which
shades the weeds

35. 35
Pest Management
• Subtropical environment supports the cotton pests (both native and invasive ones)
• Chewing insect pests: American bollworm, spotted boll- worm, pink bollworm,
and army worms.
• Sucking insects: Whitefly, jassids, and aphids
• Insecticides like cypermethrin, deltamethrin, imidachloprid, acetameprid,
thiamethoxon, and spinosad are commonly used
• Heavy use of pesticides in cotton results in severe environmental and health
issues.
• Insect pests have become resilient to the doses of previous years
• Around 10 thousand farmers are poisoned each year by the injudicious use of
insecticides in Pakistan

36. 36
Harvesting And Yields
• Cotton is still picked by hand in many areas of the world
• A marked dry season is essential for the proper boll opening and harvest.
• Cotton is harvested by several pickings (on an average 4–6 picks) during the
months of October, November, and December.
• Fields are usually picked once every 3 to 4 weeks to prevent the fibers remaining in
the field too long
• Average seed cotton yield is stagnant despite the adoption of recent
production technologies.
• Progressive fields: 3000–4000 kg/ha
• Small fields: 1000–2000 kg/ha.

37. • Family: Fabaceae / Caesalpiniaceae
• English Name: Fever nut, bonduc nut, nicker nut
• C. bonducella is a viny perennial shrub
• It can be found throughout Asia's tropical and
subtropical climates.
• C. bonducella grows inland in disturbed regions
and is usually found in beach vegetation,
on coastal dunes, and at better-drained borders of
mangrove forest.
• Generally found up to an altitude of 1,000 m in
Himalayas
37
Caesalpinia bonducella L.

38. 38
Botanical Characteristics
• C. bonducella has dark grey branches and yellow prickles that are very firm and
straight.
• Leaves: large (30 to 60 cm long) and often very leafy and branching. The petioles
on the dorsal side of the leaf are thorny. The leaf base has six to eight sets of
pinnae with a few stipulary spines and has decreased pinnae with elongated
mucronate point
• Flowers: dense blooms with axillary racemes that are narrow at the base and thick
at the top. This plant's flowers range in length from 15 to 25 cm. Buds have short
pedicles, flowers have nearly 5 mm pedicles, and fruits have around 8 mm
pedicles.
• Seeds: Because of the close squeezing of adjacent seeds, the seeds are hard-
coated, greenish or grey, and slightly compressed on one side, round, black, and
have vertical fissures running through them.

39. 39
Caesalpinia bonducella L. (a) Leaf, (b) stem, (c) flower, (d) fruits, (E)
fruit with seed, (F) seeds, (g) cotyledons

40. 40
Propagation
• Seeds are used to propagate C. bonducella.
• Planted at the beginning of the rainy season
• Seed are first soaked overnight before sowing
• Seed Pre-trearment to break the seed's dormancy :
• Mechanical scarification
• Acid scarification, light, and temperature treatments with concentrated
sulphuric acid for 30-90 minutes can be used
• Acid-treated seeds germinate 100% when exposed to blue light for 72
hours at 30°C.
• Biological agents (Pseudomonas nitroreducens) also improve germination percentage

41. 41
Cultivation
• Soil: sandy loam soil provides the best conditions for growth.
• It grows in a wide range of soil pH, from mildly acidic to alkaline.
• it tolerates salt spray, saline soils, and occasional flooding with seawater.
• Sow at 50 cm intervals to form a hedge.
• Sowing Deep: 2-4 cm
• Sowing Mix: Coir or sowing mix + sand or perlite
• Irrigation is required as soon as the seeds are planted.
• Irrigation is critical in the early stages, and plants should be pruned
every two weeks.

42. 42
Growth
• At all stages of development, C. bonducella grows quickly.
• The plants sprout after 3-4 weeks
• In 40 days after seeding, the seedlings will grow up to a height of
approximately 26 cm and reach their maximum height in 2 to 2½
years.
• It prefers full sun and is shade-intolerant, but it can tolerate moderate
shade.
• It thrives in grassy and herbaceous environments and scrambles onto
the tops of low trees and bushes.

43. 43
Major Pharmacological activity of Caesalpinia bonduc