This document summarizes key aspects of environmental justice. It defines environmental justice as the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to environmental laws, regulations, and policies. It also defines environmental racism as racial discrimination in environmental policy making and unequal enforcement of environmental laws that deliberately target communities of color for toxic waste facilities and pollution. The document discusses three aspects of environmental justice: distributive justice around fair allocation of benefits and burdens, procedural justice through open decision-making, and corrective justice to address past harms.

1. Pest Control
Part 3
Biology 140
Instructor: Dr. Franklin Quarcoo
Office Location: 115 Henderson Hall
Phone: 727-8792
Office Hours: MWF 3.00 – 5.00 pm
Email: [email protected]
Pest Control -- Outline
• Pests (in Part 1)
• Pesticides (in Part 1)
– Benefits (in Part 1)
– Problems (In Parts 1 & 2)
– Categories (In Part 2)
– Chemical types (In Part 2)
– Regulation of Pesticides
• Alternatives to Pesticides
• Reducing Pesticide Exposure
Regulation of Pesticides
• Pesticides regulated by EPA, USDA, and FDA (Food and Drug
Administration)
• Laws regulating pesticides:
– Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA).

2. • Allows EPA to set limits for the amount of pesticides that
remain in
food.
– Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA).
• Requires registration and licensing of all pesticide products
with
EPA.
– Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) -- 1996.
• Amended both FFDCA and FIFRA.
• Cost-benefit analysis replaced hard standards for approving or
banning pesticides.
• More protection for children.
Alternatives to Pesticides -- Outline
• Cultivation practices.
• Biological control -- natural enemies.
• Genetic control:
– Conventional genetics.
– Biotechnology.
• Hormonal control.
• Integrated Pest Management (IPM)..
Cultivation Practices
• Burning or plowing under crop residues.
– Disrupts insect life cycles.
• Crop rotation -- changing crops each year.
– Different crops have different pests.

3. – Prevents long-term build-up of pest populations.
– e.g. Tomato wilt (fungus) -- once it strikes, spores
remain in soil and infect new plants next year.
• Maintaining strips of natural vegetation between
strips of crops (e.g. British Isles).
– Maintains populations of natural enemies of pests in
uncultivated strips.
• Vacuuming insects off of crops (“salad vac”)..
Salad Vac Removing Insect Pests
Cultivation Practices
• Planting trap crops:
– Small area of same/different plant as main crop.
– Planted 1-2 weeks earlier than main crop.
– Serves as magnet for pests.
– Spray trap crop heavily; few survivors.
– Destroy trap crop (not harvested).
Cultivation Practices
• Elimination of alternative hosts.
– Some pests require two hosts to complete life
cycle.
– Removal of the non-crop host breaks the life
cycle.
– Example:

4. • Wheat rust alternates between wheat and barberry
(introduced shrub).
• 1918-1981 -- U.S. government campaign to eradicate
barberry from wheat-producing regions greatly
reduced wheat rust outbreaks.. ICA
Question
• Which cultivation technique helps maintain natural
enemies of farm pests?
• (a) Crop rotation
• (b) Elimination of alternative hosts
• (c) Strips of natural vegetation next to field
• (d) Trap crops
• (e) Vacuuming pests off of crops
Answer
• Which cultivation technique helps maintain natural
enemies of farm pests?
• (a) Crop rotation
• (b) Elimination of alternative hosts
• (c) Strips of natural vegetation next to field
• (d) Trap crops
• (e) Vacuuming pests off of crops
Biological Control
• Many pests are imported species.
• Natural enemies were not imported with the
pest.
• Natural enemies can be located and imported,

5. BUT…
– Natural enemies must be tested first to see if they will
attack other, desirable, native species in their new
range.
• USDA has released 1000 insects to control pests.
– Most results favorable.
• Worldwide, more than 30 weed species are now
controlled by introduced insects..
Biological Control- Successful Examples
• Cactus moth -- introduced to control prickly pear
cactus in Australia.
• Brazilian weevils -- introduced to control water
hyacinth (introduced plant that covers lakes) in
Africa.
• Fungus spores -- sprayed to control swarming
locusts in Africa.
• Rabbits in Australia -- now controlled by an
introduced infectious virus.
• Ladybug beetles -- commonly used to control
pests in gardens and greenhouses..
Cactus-Eating Moth Controls Prickly
Pear Cactus in Australia
Before Cactus Moths After Cactus Moths

6. Ladybug Control of Cottony Cushion
Scale in Orange Groves
Parasitic Wasp Control of Tobacco
Hornworm
Wasp cocoons
Parasitoid Wasp Control of Mealybug
Biological Control- Problem Cases
• 16% of 313 parasitoid wasp species
introduced by USDA have attacked native
species.
• Cactus moth (introduced into a Caribbean
island) has invaded the U.S. and now
threatens native cacti in western U.S..
Conventional Genetic Control:
Selective Breeding
• Many crops are selectively bred for resistance to
pests.
• Potato and late blight (fungus):
– 1845-1847 -- Ireland -- potatoes devastated by blight.
– One million starved; one million emigrated.
– Potato varieties developed that are resistant to blight.
• Wheat and Hessian fly:
– Hessian fly introduced to U.S. by Revolutionary soldiers
(Hessians).

7. – Hessian fly devastated wheat.
– Wheat varieties developed that produce a chemical
that kills fly larvae when they feed on wheat leaves..
Conventional Genetic Control:
Sterile Males
• Some female insects mate only once, lay eggs, then die.
• Males are raised in lab; irradiated to make sterile.
• Sterile males are released into natural populations in large
numbers.
• Most wild females mate with sterile males; fail to
reproduce.
• Developed to control screwworm fly in 1950s.
– Screwworm fly lays eggs in open wounds of cattle.
– Leads to infections that cause death.
– Devastated cattle industry in south in 1940s.
• Screwworm fly eradicated in U.S. in 1982 and in several
Central American countries in 1994-1996.
• Sterile males now being used to control tsetse fly in Africa..
Conventional Genetic Control:
Limitations
• Pests continue to evolve and develop ways
to overcome crop resistance.
– Wheat and Hessian fly -- new varieties required

8. seven times.
• Sterile male technique only works on
certain species.
Pest Control through Biotechnology
• Biotechnology -- introduce genes from other
organisms into crops.
• New crops called transgenic or genetically
modified organisms (GMO).
• Transgenic crops:
– 60 approved.
– 220 million acres planted worldwide.
– Most important: soybeans, corn, cotton.
• Some transgenic crops have greater resistance to
pests; require less pesticide..
Pest Control through Biotechnology:
Bt Crops
• Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) -- a bacterium that
produces a protein that kills some common plant-
eating insects.
• Protein is harmless to mammals, birds and most
other insects.
• Bt gene has been put into a number of crops --
esp. cotton, potatoes, corn.
• In 2004, 32% of corn and 46% of cotton acreage
in U.S. was planted with Bt varieties.

9. • Benefits: reduced pesticide use, greater food
production..
Bt Gene Protects Potatoes from
Colorado Potato Beetle
Bt PotatoesNon-EngineeredPotatoes
Non-Engineered
Potatoes
Pest Control through Biotechnology:
Roundup Ready Crops
• Roundup -- an herbicide that kills all plants; non-
toxic to all animals.
• Genes for resistance to Roundup have been
introduced into cotton, soybean and corn.
• Farmers plant roundup resistant (“Roundup
Ready”) varieties.
• Then spray once with Roundup to kill all weeds
(but not crop).
• Uses less herbicide than traditional method of
repeated applications of more specific herbicides.
• 90% of U.S. soybean crop is Roundup Ready..
Pest Control through Biotechnology:
Potential Problems

10. • Costly seeds -- poorly suited for developing
countries.
• Pests likely to develop resistance to transgenic
defenses (like Bt protein).
• Resistant genes from transgenic crops may be
shared with close relatives (weeds), leading to
“Superweeds” that are resistant to herbicides.
– A few weeds have become “Roundup ready”.
ICA
Question
• Round-up ready soybeans:
• (a) Are not affected by Round-up
• (b) Are not affected by the Bacillus thuringiensis
(Bt) bacterium
• (c) Contain a gene that causes them to make
Round-up
• (d) Produce a chemical that kills weeds growing
nearby
• (e) Contain the Bt gene
Answer
• Round-up ready soybeans:
• (a) Are not affected by Round-up
• (b) Are not affected by the Bacillus thuringiensis
(Bt) bacterium

11. • (c) Contain a gene that causes them to make
Round-up
• (d) Produce a chemical that kills weeds growing
nearby
• (e) Contain the Bt gene
Hormonal Control: Pheromones
• Pheromones -- chemicals secreted by one
individual of a species to influence the behavior
of other individuals of the same species.
– e.g. ant trail pheromones.
– e.g. mating pheromones -- secreted to attract mates.
• Pest control by pheromones:
– Trapping technique -- pheromones in traps used to
capture pests or lure them into eating poisonous bait.
– Confusion technique -- spray field with pheromone;
males can’t locate females; no mating.
• Natural chemicals -- totally safe for crop and non-
target species.
• Used on boll weevil (affects cotton), codling moth
(affects pears and apples), Japanese beetles.
Japanese Beetle
Pheremone Trap
Hormonal Control: Juvenile Hormone
• Juvenile hormone -- decrease triggers

12. pupation in insect caterpillars (larvae).
• Spray juvenile hormone on caterpillars,
pupation does not occur.
• Caterpillar keeps feeding; grows overly large;
dies.
• Caterpillar never becomes adult; never
reproduces..
Hormonal Control: Ecdysone
• Ecdysone -- triggers molting in insect
larvae.
• Insecticide based on ecdysone = Mimic.
• Mimic causes moth and butterfly larvae
(caterpillars) to start molting, but then
stop.
• Larva is trapped in old skin; starves to
death.
• Used on gypsy moth (introduced moth of
northeastern U.S. forests)..
Hormonal Control: Drawbacks
• Pheromones are species-specific.
– Each pest requires its own pheromone
pesticide.
– Costly and time-consuming to develop.

13. • Juvenile hormone and Mimic only work on
certain groups of insects.
ICA
Question
• Juvenile Hormone is used to:
• (a) Lure male insects into poisoned traps
• (b) Prevent insect larvae from molting
completely.
• (c) Prevent insect larvae from pupating.
• (d) Prevent male insects from locating
females.
Answer
• Juvenile Hormone is used to:
• (a) Lure male insects into poisoned traps
• (b) Prevent insect larvae from molting
completely.
• (c) Prevent insect larvae from pupating.
• (d) Prevent male insects from locating
females.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
• Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
combines a variety of pest control

14. techniques.
• Goals of IPM:
– Minimize (not eliminate) use of synthetic
pesticides without jeopardizing crops.
– Maintain pest populations below economic
threshold (not totally eradicate)
– Economic threshold = point at which the
economic loss to pest damage exceeds the cost
of pesticide application..
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
• Components of IPM:
– Set action thresholds -- points at which pest
populations indicate that action is needed (economic
threshold).
– Monitor and identify pests.
– Prevention -- Use cultivation, biological, genetic and
hormonal controls as appropriate.
– Control -- Use pesticides (brands and quantities) that
do the least damage to the natural enemies of the
pests, and to the environment.
• Massachusetts apple farmers who used IPM:
– Cut pesticide use by 43%.
– Maintained yields equal to conventional farmers..

15. IPM in Indonesia
• Indonesia depends on rice.
• Pesticides used heavily to control brown
planthopper (up to 3 times a week).
• Planthoppers developed resistance to almost
every insecticide.
• 1986: Conversion to IPM.
– 56 of 57 pesticides banned.
– Program to educate farmers about IPM.
• 1987-1992: IPM program a success.
– Pesticide use cut by 65%.
– Rice production rose by 15%..
Pesticide Use and Rice Production in
Indonesia
IPM Started
Reducing Pesticide Exposure: Food
• Wash fruits and vegetables.
– Reduces (does not eliminate) pesticide residues.
• Choose fruits and vegetable that are low in pesticide
residues (see next slide).
• Tolerate minor blemishes on fruits and vegetables.
• Choose organic foods.
– “Organic” now defined by law:
• No conventional pesticides or chemical fertilizers.
• No antibiotics or growth hormones (livestock).
• No genetically-engineered foods.

16. • No irradiated foods.
• No fertilization with sewage sludge.
– Usually more expensive..
Aquatic Ecosystems
Reducing Pesticide Exposure: Lawns
and Gardens
• Mow grass no shorter than 3 inches.
– Reduces weeds through competition.
• Allow a diversity of plants in lawn
– Don’t try and kill every “weed”.
• Eliminate plants that attract pests (roses).
• Grow plants that naturally repel pests (marigolds,
chrysanthemums, basil, peppermint, garlic).
• Maintain hedgerows and fencerows of natural
vegetation.
– Habitat for natural predators.
• Buy and release ladybug (ladybird) beetles.
– Natural predators..
Reducing Pesticide Exposure: Homes
• Install or repair screens to keep out insects.
• Caulk around windows, doors, plumbing
entry points, etc. to keep out roaches, ants,
mice, etc..
• Identify ant entry points; sprinkle with

17. ground cinnamon.
• Drain stagnant water (buckets. etc.) where
mosquitoes might breed.
Reducing Pesticide Exposure: Homes
• Keep food in sealed containers.
• Put few bay leaves in containers of flour to
discourage flour weevils.
• Clean spilled food and take out garbage regularly.
• Use flypaper to catch flies (instead of bug sprays).
• Tolerate spiders (insect predators).
• Remove aphids, scales, mites from house plants
by:
– Washing stems and leaves with rubbing alcohol, or
– Spraying plants with dilute solution of dish soap and
water..
Reducing Pesticide Exposure: General
• Buy the pesticide that is appropriate for the pest and
situation that you want to control -- Read the label
before you buy.
• Use the pesticide only as directed -- Read the label
before you use.
• Use only the minimum amount of pesticide to get the
job done -- Read the label.
• Use eye protection and a respirator, if suggested --

18. Read the label.
• When applying the pesticide, be aware of how
children and pets might come in contact with the
treated area.
• Wash your hands (or other exposed skin) after
contact with pesticides.
END
2/22/13
1
» Chapter 13: Pages 312
» Chapter 15: Pages 354-359
What is Environmental
Justice?
scheme or system of law in which every person
receives his/her/its due from the system,
including all rights, both natural and legal.
" environment n.
" 1. The circumstances or conditions that
surround one; surroundings.

19. " 2. The totality of circumstances surrounding an
organism or group of organisms, especially:
- a. The combination of external physical conditions
that affect and influence the growth, development,
and survival of organisms.
- b. The complex of social and cultural conditions
affecting the nature of an individual or community.
“ the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all
people regardless of race, color, national origin, or
income with respect to the development,
implementation, and enforcement of environmental
laws regulations, and policies”.
» Benjamin J. Chavis defined Environmental
racism as “Racial discrimination in
environmental policy making and the unequal
enforcement of environmental laws and
regulations. It is the deliberate targeting of people
of color communities for toxic waste facilities
and the official sanctioning of a life-threatening
2/22/13
2
presence of poisons and pollutants in

20. people of color communities. It is
also manifested in the history of
excluding people of color from the
leadership of the environmental
movement.”
1. Distributive justice calls for the fair allocation of the
benefits and burdens of natural resource exploitation
among and within nations.
2. Procedural justice requires open, informed and inclusive
decision-making processes.
3. Corrective justice imposes an obligation to provide
compensation for historic inequities and to refrain
from repeating the conduct that caused the harm.
4. Social justice recognizes that environmental struggles
are inextricably intertwined with struggles for social
and economic justice.
Branches of U.S. Government:
» 1. Legislative (Congress)- Makes Laws
» 2. Executive (President)- Enforces the Law
» 3. Judiciary (Courts)- Interprets the law
write regulations which are used to enforce the
laws.

21. Legislative Activities, i.e. they act as if they are
writing laws.
based on the Law (ACT) e.g. regulations for
the Clean Water Act are based on the Act which
is passed by Congress.
Register.
» 1. The largest commercial hazardous waste
land fill in the United States is located in
Emelle, AL
» 2. Ketlleman, CA, was chosen as the site for
the state’s first commercial hazardous-
waste incinerator
2/22/13
3
» 3. A Chocktaw reservation in Philadelphia,
MS, was chosen to become the home of a
466-acre hazardous–waste landfill

22. » 1. They are considered to be appropriate
locations for hazardous waste disposal
» 2. They are predominantly populated by
people of color.
» African Americans make up 90% of Emelle’s
population
» Hispanic make up 95% of Kettleman’s
population.
» The Chocktaw nation is entirely native
American
Warren County, NC when they protested over a
landfill intended to hold PCB-contaminated
soil. Those arrested included the Washington,
D.C. delegate to Congress
waste bias: Analysis of GAO found three of the
four largest hazardous waste site in black
communities.
“environmental racism” a national problem.

23. - Study showed that minorities represents the major
groups in communities with hazardous waste sites
2/22/13
4
EPA administration in Bush administration
establishes the Environmental Equity
Workgroup.
Environmental Leadership Summit was held in
Washington, D.C.
» Attracts more than 650 grass-roots and
national workers representing about 300
groups
Case in Louisiana filed by Tulane University
Law Clinic.
Advisory Council. This a group of activists, local
officials, and industry experts intended to serve
as advisers.
n signs environmental
justice executive order 12898.

24. “Guidance”
» The executive order 12898 directed 17 federal
agencies develop environmental justice
strategies to aid federal agencies identify and
address disproportionately high and adverse
human health or environmental effects of their
programs, policies or activities on minority and
low income populations.
» Learn culture of each special stakeholder group.
» Use local-community based leadership for entry
into affected communities
» Resist temptation to do business as usual
» Create real partnerships with people in affected
area
» Mainly African American
» CFEJ educates , organizes and mobilizes
community
» Serves as an information clearinghouse
Justice

25. 2/22/13
5
" The global economy is currently exceeding ecological
limits, producing a variety of destructive impacts
" i.e.-climate change, desertification, deforestation,
degradation of
arable land, freshwater shortages, depletion of fish stocks,
unprecedented species extinction, and widespread chemical
contamination of air, land, and water.
" The United Nations Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
human economic activity has produced more rapid and
severe ecosystem degradation than in any comparable
era.
" The loss of ecosystem services intensifies poverty and
exacerbates inequality. Ecosystem degradation will also
impact future generations’ use of natural resources.
" Global North vs. Global South
" 20 percent of the world’s population consumes
approximately:
" 85% of the planet’s timber, 70% of its energy, and
60% of its food, > 90 percent of the world’s annual
production of hazardous waste, some of which is
exported to Southern countries
" Who foots the bill?
" Environmental Justice: North and South

26. " We utilize a four-part conception of environmental
justice consisting of:
" distributive justice, procedural justice, corrective
justice, and social justice.
- Distributive justice calls for the fair allocation of the
benefits and burdens of natural resource exploitation
among and within nations.
" Procedural justice requires open, informed and inclusive
decision-making processes.
" The North dominates decision-making in the International
Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, the World Trade
Organization (WTO), and multilateral environmental treaty for
as a consequence of its greater economic and political clout.
" Corrective justice imposes an obligation to provide
compensation for historic inequities and to refrain from
repeating the conduct that caused the harm.
- Corrective injustice is evident in the plight of small island
states
whose very existence is threatened by climate change, but who
possess no legal mechanism to obtain compensation or cessation
of the harmful conduct.
" Social justice recognizes that environmental struggles are
inextricably intertwined with struggles for social and
economic justice.
" In addition, North-South environmental conflicts reflect
broader
social injustice because they are inextricably intertwined with

27. colonial and post-colonial economic policies that impoverished
the global South and facilitated the North’s appropriation of its
natural resources.
" Environmental injustice is intricately tied to the ideas of
economic inequality, race and gender subordination, as
well as colonial and post-colonial oppression of the
global South
" Mining in South Africa, Burkina Faso,
Ghana…
" Disappearing Islands-Carterel (Sun
Come Up-HBO Documentary)
2/22/13
6
reconfiguring businesses and infrastructure to deliver
better returns on natural, human and economic capital
investments, while at the same time reducing
greenhouse gas emissions, extracting and using less
natural resources, creating less waste and reducing
social disparities.1
1. Green Economy Initiative of the United Nations
Environmental Progamme. http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/
- solar, wind, geothermal, marine and fuel cell

28. - Renewable energy, water management, clean
transportation, green building land
management, and waste management
Biology 140
Instructor: Dr. Franklin Quarcoo
Office Location: 103 Morrison-Mayberry Hall
Phone: 727-8792
Office Hours: MWF 3.00 – 5.00 pm
Email: [email protected]
Pests (in Part 1)PesticidesBenefits (in Part 1)Problems (some in
Part 1)CategoriesChemical typesRegulation of
PestitcidesAlternatives to PesticidesReducing Pesticide
Exposure
Effects on non-target species (in Part 1)Pesticide resistance and
pest resurgence (in Part 1)Creation of new pests (in Part
1)Concentration in food chainsPersistence and mobility in the
environmentHuman health problems

29. Bioaccumulation:Occurs in individual organisms.Many
pesticides are fat-soluble.Small, harmless amounts of pesticide
ingested .Pesticides bind with body fats (lipids).Pesticide not
excreted or broken down.Over time pesticide builds up to high
levels in body -- higher than what is in it’s food source =
bioaccumulation.May or may not reach toxic levels..
BiomagnificationOccurs in food chains.Each organism in food
chain concentrates pesticide in its body through
bioaccumlation.Next organism up the food chain has more
contaminated food; concentrates pesticide to a greater
level.Concentration of pesticide in organisms increases as you
move up the food chain = biomagnification.Top carnivores most
susceptible to pesticide poisoning..
DDT = dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane.1874 -- first
synthesized by Othmar Zeidler1939 -- Paul Müller discovered
insecticidal properties of DDT.1943 -- DDT marketed as first

30. commercial synthetic pesticide.Highly toxic to insects, but
relatively non-toxic to humans.Heavily used in 1940s and 1950s
on crops, livestock, homes and people.Very effective in
controlling insect pests.1948 -- Müller wins Nobel prize..
DDT very persistent -- half life in soil of decades.Biomagnifies
in food chains.High concentrations in top predator birds (eagles,
hawks, falcons, pelicans).Inhibits deposition of calcium
carbonate in eggshells.Thinner eggshells break easily -- reduced
reproduction.Bald eagles reduced to about 400 pairs (lower 48
states).Peregrine falcons reduced to 120 birds (lower 48 states)..
DDT Use

31. 1962 -- Rachel Carson wrote Silent Spring.Book described
harmful effects of pesticides on environment, especially
birds.Helped trigger start of environmental movement.1972 --
DDT banned in U.S.Now banned world-wide for agricultural
use.But still allowed for use for control of disease vectors in
tropical countries (e.g. mosquitoes for malaria control)..
Banning of DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons has led to
recovery of populations of top predator birds.Peregrine falcons
have recovered from 120 to 1400 birds (lower 48 states).Bald
eagles have recovered from 400 to 9800 pairs (lower 48
states).Both birds were removed from the endangered species
list in 1994..

32. DDT
Some pesticides persist for decades before breaking
down.Persistent pesticides move by wind, water and animals far
from original application site.Pesticides tend to evaporate in
warm areas and accumulate in polar regions.Inuits of northern
Canada have highest levels of pesticide residues of any human
population.Inuit breast milk contains 5 times as much pesticide
residues as the breast milk of women from Canada’s industrial
cities to the south..
ICA
In the food chain: Plankton --> Fish --> Seal --> Killer Whale,
the greatest concentration of pesticide residue is expected in the
Killer Whale. This is due to the process of:
(a) Bioaccumulation(b) Biomagnification(c) Biomass
accumulation(d) Biopersistence and Mobility(e) Bioremediation
In the food chain: Plankton --> Fish --> Seal --> Killer Whale,
the greatest concentration of pesticide residue is expected in the
Killer Whale. This is due to the process of:
(a) Bioaccumulation(b) Biomagnification(c) Biomass

33. accumulation(d) Biopersistence(e) Bioremediation
Acute effects:Short-term illness.One or a few exposures (often
accidental).High doses.Chronic effects:Long-term
illness.Repeated exposure.Low-level doses.Cancer, sterility,
birth defects, neurological problems, immune system problems,
Parkinson’s disease..
Acute poisoning (WHO and EPA):3 million cases of acute
poisoning per year (300,000 in U.S.).18,000 deaths per year (25
in U.S.).Highest risk = agricultural workers, children.In U.S.,
250,000 people per year become ill from household pesticides
(bait boxes, pest strips, bug bombs, flea collars, pesticide pet
shampoos, weed killers)..
Chronic Poisoning:Hard to separate pesticides from other
causes.Estimates of 2,000-10,000 premature deaths per year due
to legal pesticide residues in food..
Mothers who ate lake Michigan fish (high levels of PCBs)
regularly had children with learning and attention problems
(lower IQ scores, below average reading, poor

34. memory).Missouri children from homes with “no-pest strips”
had higher rates of leukemia and brain cancer than similar
children from homes without “no-pest strips”..
Foothill ranches:Low pesticide use.Valley ranches:High
pesticide use.Valley children:Decreased memory, physical
stamina, hand-eye coordination; greater irritability..
Low
Pesticide
Use
High
Pesticide
Use
Insecticides kill insectsHerbicides kill plantsFungicides kill
fungiRodenticides kill rodentsMiticides kill mitesNematocides
kill nematodes (roundworms)

35. InorganicBotanicalsChlorinated hydrocarbons
(organochlorides)OrganophosphatesCarbamatesPyrethroids
First pesticides:~3000 BC -- Sumarians -- sulfur (insects,
mites)~500 BC -- China -- arsenic, mercury (body lice)~1400
AD -- arsenic, lead, mercury applied to crops~1920 -- most use
discontinued due to increasing fatalities and
poisonings.Currently-used inorganic insecticides:Boric acid
(roaches).Lime sulfur (tree spray for bacteria, fungi, insects)..
Extracted from plants.Plants’ natural defenses against
insects.Commonly used before 1940 (when synthetic pesticides
were first developed).Examples: pyrethrum (chrysanthemum),
nicotene (tobacco), rotenone..
Also called organochlorides.First synthetic pesticides.Kills by
disrupting signal transmission along nerve cells.Widely used
from 1940s into 1970s.Many now banned; few still used
today.Toxicity to mammals: relatively low.Persistence: high
(years); biomagnified in food chains.Examples: DDT,
toxaphene, dieldrin, chlordane, lindane, mirex,
paradichlorobenzene (mothballs)..

36. Similar to nerve gas.Highly toxic, but short-lived.Kills by
blocking signal transmission between nerve cells.Toxicity to
mammals: highPersistence: low (days). Examples: malathion,
parathion, diazinon..
Kills by blocking signal transmission between nerve
cells.Toxicity to mammals: moderate.Persistence: low
(days).Examples: carbaryl (Sevin), aldicarb (Temik)..
Synthetics based on pyrethrum (botanical).Fastest developing
group.Very effective and safe.Kills by disrupting signal
transmission along nerve cells.Toxicity to mammals:
low.Persistence: low (days).Examples: allethrin (Raid),
bifenthrin..
ICA
The first group of synthetic pesticides that was widely used
was:
(a) Botanicals(b) Chlorinated hydrocarbons(c) Inorganic
compounds(d) Organophosphates(e) Pyrethroids

37. The first group of synthetic pesticides that was widely used
was:
(a) Botanicals(b) Chlorinated hydrocarbons(c) Inorganic
compounds(d) Organophosphates(e) Pyrethroids
Which group of insecticides has the highest toxicity to
mammals?
(a) Carbamates(b) Chlorinated hydrocarbons(c)
Organophosphates(d) Pyrethroids
Which group of insecticides has the highest toxicity to
mammals?
(a) Carbamates(b) Chlorinated hydrocarbons(c)
Organophosphates(d) Pyrethroids
Biology 140
Instructor: Dr. Franklin Quarcoo
Office Location: 103 Morrison-Mayberry Hall
Phone: 727-8792
Office Hours: MWF 3.00 – 5.00 pm

38. Email: [email protected]
PestsPesticidesBenefitsProblemsCategoriesChemical
typesRegulation of PesticidesAlternatives to PesticidesReducing
Pesticide Exposure
*
Everything we study in this segment of the course has a direct
impact on environmental quality, QUALITY OF LIFE and
sustainability. That means it affects you, your family, friends
and all animal and plant life forms.
*
*What is a pest? There are several definitions …Any organism
that competes with man for resources which include crops,
livestock, forests, health, recreation, etc.Organisms that reduce
the availability, quality or value of a human resource; transmit
disease; constitute a nuisanceAnthropocentric

39. designationExamples of pest
groups:AgriculturalMedicalVeterinaryUrban
*
*Any substance or mixture of substances intended for
preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any insect,
rodents, nematodes, fungi, or weeds, or any other forms of life
declared to be pests; and any substance or mixture intended for
use as a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant.
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)
*
By how they affect our
lives:Agricultural.Medical.Veterinary.Urban.By taxonomic
category:Insects -- damage crops, transmit disease,
nuisance.Weeds -- compete with crops, unsightly in lawns.Fungi
-- damage crops.Rodents -- damage crops, urban nuisance.Mites
-- transmit plant diseases.Nematodes -- soil roundworms that
damage crops..
Pesticides: chemicals that kill pests.Most commonly used
method.Cultivation practices.Biological control -- natural

40. enemies.Biotechnology.Integrated Pest Management (IPM).
Since 1950, pesticide use has increased 50-fold.In U.S. 650
pest-killing chemicals used to make 25,000 pesticide
products.In U.S. 25% of pesticides are used in homes, gardens,
lawns, parks, swimming pools, golf courses.In U.S. lawns
receive 10 times the pesticide dose that cropland receives..
Disease controlCrop protectionEconomicsOthers
MalariaSpread by mosquitoes.500 million suffering at any
time.3 million die per year.Other diseases spread by
mosquitoes: yellow fever, west Nile virus.Other insects that
spread disease: sleeping sickness (tsetse fly), bubonic plague
(fleas), river blindness (flies), elephantiasis (flies).Pesticide use
has prevented from 7 to 50 million deaths from malaria and
other insect-transmitted diseases in 50 years (1950-2000).
90% of pesticides world-wide are used in agriculture or in food
storage and shipping.In U.S. agriculture most pesticides used on

41. corn and cotton (90% of insecticides, 80% of herbicides).Plant
diseases, insects, birds and competition from weeds reduces
crop yield worldwide by at least 1/3. Post-harvest losses to
rodents, insects and fungi – another 20-30% loss.Every dollar
spent on pesticides earns a farmer $ 3-5 more from increased
yield.Greater food production.Lower food prices.
Faster and greater pest reductions than alternatives.Low health
risks if used properly.EPA worst-case scenario – pesticides in
food cause 0.5-1.0% of cancer deaths in U.S.New pesticides are
safer and more effective than older ones.Better than doing
nothing.
ICA
Which of the following is true in the U.S.?
(a) 10 times as much pesticide product is used on lawns as on
cropland.(b) 10 times as much pesticide per acre is used on
lawns as on cropland.(c) 10 times more acres of lawn than acres
of cropland are treated with pesticide.(d) Lawns are treated with
pesticide 10 times more often than is cropland.
Which of the following is true in the U.S.?
(a) 10 times as much pesticide product is used on lawns as on
cropland.(b) 10 times as much pesticide per acre is used on
lawns as on cropland.(c) 10 times more acres of lawn than acres
of cropland are treated with pesticide.(d) Lawns are treated with

42. pesticide 10 times more often than is cropland.
Which of the following diseases is transmitted by the tsetse fly?
(a) Bubonic plague(b) Malaria(c) Sleeping sickness(d) West
Nile virus(e) Both b and d.
Which of the following diseases is transmitted by the tsetse fly?
(a) Bubonic plague(b) Malaria(c) Sleeping sickness(d) West
Nile virus(e) Both b and d.
90% of pesticides never reach intended targets.Unintentional
poisoning of beneficial species.20% of all honeybee colonies
destroyed each year by pesticides.Atlantic salmon declined 77%
-- linked to spraying of pesticides on Canadian forests.
Pesticides don’t kill 100% – a few are resistant.Population
regrows with pest-resistant indivduals.Pest becomes resistant to
pesticide.By 1990, 500 insect pests and 250 weeds and plant
pathogens were resistance to pesticides.Larger doses required --
-> more resistance ---> even larger doses ---> even more
resistance = pesticide treadmill..

43. From 1940s to 1990s:Pesticide use increased 33-fold (33 times
as much).But crop losses to insects, weeds and diseases did not
change.Amount of pesticide required to protect 60,000 bushels
of corn:1946 -- 1 kg1971 -- 64 kg..
Many potential pests are NOT pests because they are controlled
by their natural enemies (predators).Pesticides often kill the
predators, then potential pests become actual pests.100 of top
300 pests in U.S. became major pests after wide-spread use of

44. pesticides..
Low numbers of pests --
controlled by predators
High numbers of pests --
predators reduced
by pesticide
Before 1949 yields = 500 kg/ha.1949: began spraying with
DDT.1952: yields = 750 kg/ha.1952-3: Boll weevils became
resistant; populations rebounded.Heliothis worms became new
pest on cotton.DDT had killed the wasps that controlled the
Heliothis worms.1955: Yields down to 330 kg/ha..
ICA
Pests become resistant to pesticides because:

45. (a) Individual pests build up a immunity to the pesticide with
repeated applications.(b) Some pests with natural resistance to
the pesticide survive and repopulate the area.(c) The pesticides
break down with age and become less effective.(d) The
pesticides kill the natural enemies of the pests.
Pests become resistant to pesticides because:
(a) Individual pests build up a immunity to the pesticide with
repeated applications.(b) Some pests with natural resistance to
the pesticide survive and repopulate the area.(c) The pesticides
break down with age and become less effective.(d) The
pesticides kill the natural enemies of the pests.
Most insects that have the potential to do major damage to our
crops have never become major pests because:
(a) They do not live long enough to become pests.(b) They have
been controlled by pesticides.(c) They have been controlled by
their predators and diseases.(d) They reproduce too slowly to
become pests.(e) both a and d.
Most insects that have the potential to do major damage to our
crops have never become major pests because:
(a) They do not live long enough to become pests.(b) They have
been controlled by pesticides.(c) They have been controlled by
their predators and diseases.(d) They reproduce too slowly to
become pests.(e) both a and d.
Assignment:What is HormoligosisAcceptable Daily Intake
(ADI)No observable Adverse Effects Level (NOAEL)

46. Pest Control
Part 3
Biology 140
Instructor: Dr. Franklin Quarcoo
Office Location: 103 Morrison-Mayberry Hall
Phone: 727-8792
Office Hours: MWF 3.00 – 5.00 pm
Email: [email protected]
Pest Control -- OutlinePests (in Part 1)Pesticides (in Part
1)Benefits (in Part 1)Problems (In Parts 1 & 2)Categories (In
Part 2)Chemical types (In Part 2)Regulation of
PesticidesAlternatives to PesticidesReducing Pesticide Exposure

47. Regulation of PesticidesPesticides regulated by EPA, USDA,
and FDA (Food and Drug Administration)Laws regulating
pesticides:Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
(FFDCA).Allows EPA to set limits for the amount of pesticides
that remain in food.Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act (FIFRA).Requires registration and licensing of
all pesticide products with EPA.Food Quality Protection Act
(FQPA) -- 1996.Amended both FFDCA and FIFRA.Cost-benefit
analysis replaced hard standards for approving or banning
pesticides.More protection for children.
Alternatives to Pesticides -- OutlineCultivation
practices.Biological control -- natural enemies.Genetic
control:Conventional genetics.Biotechnology.Hormonal
control.Integrated Pest Management (IPM)..
Cultivation PracticesBurning or plowing under crop
residues.Disrupts insect life cycles.Crop rotation -- changing
crops each year.Different crops have different pests.Prevents
long-term build-up of pest populations.e.g. Tomato wilt
(fungus) -- once it strikes, spores remain in soil and infect new
plants next year.Maintaining strips of natural vegetation
between strips of crops (e.g. British Isles).Maintains
populations of natural enemies of pests in uncultivated
strips.Vacuuming insects off of crops (“salad vac”)..

48. Salad Vac Removing Insect Pests
Cultivation PracticesPlanting trap crops:Small area of
same/different plant as main crop.Planted 1-2 weeks earlier than
main crop.Serves as magnet for pests.Spray trap crop heavily;
few survivors.Destroy trap crop (not harvested).
Cultivation PracticesElimination of alternative hosts.Some pests
require two hosts to complete life cycle.Removal of the non-
crop host breaks the life cycle.Example:Wheat rust alternates
between wheat and barberry (introduced shrub).1918-1981 --
U.S. government campaign to eradicate barberry from wheat-
producing regions greatly reduced wheat rust outbreaks..
ICA

49. QuestionWhich cultivation technique helps maintain natural
enemies of farm pests?
(a) Crop rotation(b) Elimination of alternative hosts(c) Strips of
natural vegetation next to field(d) Trap crops(e) Vacuuming
pests off of crops
AnswerWhich cultivation technique helps maintain natural
enemies of farm pests?
(a) Crop rotation(b) Elimination of alternative hosts(c) Strips of
natural vegetation next to field(d) Trap crops(e) Vacuuming
pests off of crops
Biological ControlMany pests are imported species.Natural
enemies were not imported with the pest.Natural enemies can be
located and imported, BUT…Natural enemies must be tested
first to see if they will attack other, desirable, native species in
their new range.USDA has released 1000 insects to control
pests.Most results favorable.Worldwide, more than 30 weed
species are now controlled by introduced insects..
Biological Control- Successful ExamplesCactus moth --
introduced to control prickly pear cactus in Australia.Brazilian
weevils -- introduced to control water hyacinth (introduced
plant that covers lakes) in Africa.Fungus spores -- sprayed to
control swarming locusts in Africa.Rabbits in Australia -- now
controlled by an introduced infectious virus.Ladybug beetles --

50. commonly used to control pests in gardens and greenhouses..
Cactus-Eating Moth Controls Prickly Pear Cactus in Australia
Before Cactus Moths
After Cactus Moths
Ladybug Control of Cottony Cushion Scale in Orange Groves
Parasitic Wasp Control of Tobacco Hornworm
Wasp cocoons
Parasitoid Wasp Control of Mealybug

51. Biological Control- Problem Cases16% of 313 parasitoid wasp
species introduced by USDA have attacked native
species.Cactus moth (introduced into a Caribbean island) has
invaded the U.S. and now threatens native cacti in western U.S..
Conventional Genetic Control: Selective BreedingMany crops
are selectively bred for resistance to pests.Potato and late blight
(fungus):1845-1847 -- Ireland -- potatoes devastated by
blight.One million starved; one million emigrated.Potato
varieties developed that are resistant to blight.Wheat and
Hessian fly:Hessian fly introduced to U.S. by Revolutionary
soldiers (Hessians).Hessian fly devastated wheat.Wheat
varieties developed that produce a chemical that kills fly larvae
when they feed on wheat leaves..
Conventional Genetic Control: Sterile MalesSome female
insects mate only once, lay eggs, then die.Males are raised in
lab; irradiated to make sterile.Sterile males are released into
natural populations in large numbers.Most wild females mate
with sterile males; fail to reproduce.Developed to control
screwworm fly in 1950s.Screwworm fly lays eggs in open
wounds of cattle.Leads to infections that cause death.Devastated
cattle industry in south in 1940s.Screwworm fly eradicated in
U.S. in 1982 and in several Central American countries in 1994-
1996.Sterile males now being used to control tsetse fly in

52. Africa..
Conventional Genetic Control: LimitationsPests continue to
evolve and develop ways to overcome crop resistance.Wheat
and Hessian fly -- new varieties required seven times.Sterile
male technique only works on certain species.
Pest Control through BiotechnologyBiotechnology -- introduce
genes from other organisms into crops.New crops called
transgenic or genetically modified organisms (GMO).Transgenic
crops:60 approved.220 million acres planted worldwide.Most
important: soybeans, corn, cotton.Some transgenic crops have
greater resistance to pests; require less pesticide..
Pest Control through Biotechnology:
Bt CropsBt (Bacillus thuringiensis) -- a bacterium that produces
a protein that kills some common plant-eating insects.Protein is
harmless to mammals, birds and most other insects.Bt gene has
been put into a number of crops -- esp. cotton, potatoes, corn.In
2004, 32% of corn and 46% of cotton acreage in U.S. was

53. planted with Bt varieties.Benefits: reduced pesticide use,
greater food production..
Bt Gene Protects Potatoes from Colorado Potato Beetle
Bt Potatoes
Non-Engineered
Potatoes
Non-Engineered
Potatoes
Pest Control through Biotechnology:
Roundup Ready CropsRoundup -- an herbicide that kills all
plants; non-toxic to all animals.Genes for resistance to Roundup
have been introduced into cotton, soybean and corn.Farmers
plant roundup resistant (“Roundup Ready”) varieties.Then spray
once with Roundup to kill all weeds (but not crop).Uses less
herbicide than traditional method of repeated applications of
more specific herbicides.90% of U.S. soybean crop is Roundup
Ready..

54. Pest Control through Biotechnology:
Potential ProblemsCostly seeds -- poorly suited for developing
countries.Pests likely to develop resistance to transgenic
defenses (like Bt protein).Resistant genes from transgenic crops
may be shared with close relatives (weeds), leading to
“Superweeds” that are resistant to herbicides.A few weeds have
become “Roundup ready”.
ICA
QuestionRound-up ready soybeans:
(a) Are not affected by Round-up(b) Are not affected by the
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) bacterium(c) Contain a gene that
causes them to make Round-up(d) Produce a chemical that kills
weeds growing nearby(e) Contain the Bt gene
AnswerRound-up ready soybeans:
(a) Are not affected by Round-up(b) Are not affected by the
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) bacterium(c) Contain a gene that
causes them to make Round-up(d) Produce a chemical that kills
weeds growing nearby(e) Contain the Bt gene
Hormonal Control: PheromonesPheromones -- chemicals
secreted by one individual of a species to influence the behavior
of other individuals of the same species.e.g. ant trail

55. pheromones.e.g. mating pheromones -- secreted to attract
mates.Pest control by pheromones:Trapping technique --
pheromones in traps used to capture pests or lure them into
eating poisonous bait.Confusion technique -- spray field with
pheromone; males can’t locate females; no mating.Natural
chemicals -- totally safe for crop and non-target species.Used
on boll weevil (affects cotton), codling moth (affects pears and
apples), Japanese beetles.
Japanese Beetle Pheremone Trap
Hormonal Control: Juvenile HormoneJuvenile hormone --
decrease triggers pupation in insect caterpillars (larvae).Spray
juvenile hormone on caterpillars, pupation does not
occur.Caterpillar keeps feeding; grows overly large;
dies.Caterpillar never becomes adult; never reproduces..
Hormonal Control: EcdysoneEcdysone -- triggers molting in
insect larvae.Insecticide based on ecdysone = Mimic.Mimic
causes moth and butterfly larvae (caterpillars) to start molting,
but then stop.Larva is trapped in old skin; starves to death.Used

56. on gypsy moth (introduced moth of northeastern U.S. forests)..
Hormonal Control: DrawbacksPheromones are species-
specific.Each pest requires its own pheromone pesticide.Costly
and time-consuming to develop.Juvenile hormone and Mimic
only work on certain groups of insects.
ICA
QuestionJuvenile Hormone is used to:
(a) Lure male insects into poisoned traps(b) Prevent insect
larvae from molting completely.(c) Prevent insect larvae from
pupating.(d) Prevent male insects from locating females.
AnswerJuvenile Hormone is used to:
(a) Lure male insects into poisoned traps(b) Prevent insect
larvae from molting completely.(c) Prevent insect larvae from
pupating.(d) Prevent male insects from locating females.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)Integrated Pest Management
(IPM) combines a variety of pest control techniques.Goals of

57. IPM:Minimize (not eliminate) use of synthetic pesticides
without jeopardizing crops.Maintain pest populations below
economic threshold (not totally eradicate)Economic threshold =
point at which the economic loss to pest damage exceeds the
cost of pesticide application..
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)Components of IPM:Set
action thresholds -- points at which pest populations indicate
that action is needed (economic threshold).Monitor and identify
pests.Prevention -- Use cultivation, biological, genetic and
hormonal controls as appropriate.Control -- Use pesticides
(brands and quantities) that do the least damage to the natural
enemies of the pests, and to the environment.Massachusetts
apple farmers who used IPM:Cut pesticide use by
43%.Maintained yields equal to conventional farmers..
IPM in IndonesiaIndonesia depends on rice.Pesticides used
heavily to control brown planthopper (up to 3 times a
week).Planthoppers developed resistance to almost every
insecticide.1986: Conversion to IPM.56 of 57 pesticides
banned.Program to educate farmers about IPM.1987-1992: IPM
program a success.Pesticide use cut by 65%.Rice production
rose by 15%..

58. Pesticide Use and Rice Production in Indonesia
IPM Started
Reducing Pesticide Exposure: FoodWash fruits and
vegetables.Reduces (does not eliminate) pesticide
residues.Choose fruits and vegetable that are low in pesticide
residues (see next slide).Tolerate minor blemishes on fruits and
vegetables.Choose organic foods.“Organic” now defined by
law:No conventional pesticides or chemical fertilizers.No
antibiotics or growth hormones (livestock).No genetically-
engineered foods.No irradiated foods.No fertilization with
sewage sludge.Usually more expensive..
Aquatic Ecosystems
Reducing Pesticide Exposure: Lawns and GardensMow grass no
shorter than 3 inches.Reduces weeds through competition.Allow

59. a diversity of plants in lawnDon’t try and kill every
“weed”.Eliminate plants that attract pests (roses).Grow plants
that naturally repel pests (marigolds, chrysanthemums, basil,
peppermint, garlic).Maintain hedgerows and fencerows of
natural vegetation.Habitat for natural predators.Buy and release
ladybug (ladybird) beetles.Natural predators..
Reducing Pesticide Exposure: HomesInstall or repair screens to
keep out insects.Caulk around windows, doors, plumbing entry
points, etc. to keep out roaches, ants, mice, etc..Identify ant
entry points; sprinkle with ground cinnamon.Drain stagnant
water (buckets. etc.) where mosquitoes might breed.
Reducing Pesticide Exposure: HomesKeep food in sealed
containers.Put few bay leaves in containers of flour to
discourage flour weevils.Clean spilled food and take out
garbage regularly.Use flypaper to catch flies (instead of bug
sprays).Tolerate spiders (insect predators).Remove aphids,
scales, mites from house plants by:Washing stems and leaves
with rubbing alcohol, orSpraying plants with dilute solution of
dish soap and water..

60. Reducing Pesticide Exposure: GeneralBuy the pesticide that is
appropriate for the pest and situation that you want to control --
Read the label before you buy.Use the pesticide only as directed
-- Read the label before you use.Use only the minimum amount
of pesticide to get the job done -- Read the label.Use eye
protection and a respirator, if suggested -- Read the label.When
applying the pesticide, be aware of how children and pets might
come in contact with the treated area.Wash your hands (or other
exposed skin) after contact with pesticides.
END
S
Water Resources and
Pollution
Dr. Raymon Shange
Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences
Earth’s Water Resources
Water Pollution Lecture Objectives
S Understand the Difference between

61. Point Source and Non-point source
pollution
S Know the Types and Nature of Major
Water Pollutants
S Know the Sources of Major Water
Pollutants
Point vs. Non-Point Source Pollution
S Point Source Pollution:
S Can be traced to a particular source such
as industrial site, septic tank, smokestack,
wastewater treatment plant
S Non-Point Source Pollution:
S Results from large areas and not from a
single source and includes both natural
and human activities.
Sources: Nutrients
S Mainly from agricultural and Domestic
Sources
S Major types: Nitrate and Phosphates
S Fertilizers from agriculture and domestic
sources
S Results in Eutrophication

62. Sources: Oxygen Demanding Wastes
SOrganic matter vs. Dissolved
Oxygen.
S DO affected by OM decomposition
S Most fish and aquatic organisms affect at
DO < 4 mg L-1
S Fresh Water 8-15 mg L-1 (30-0oC)
S Sea Water 6-11 mg L-1
Oxygen Demanding Wastes
S Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
S Amount of O2 used over course of time, usually 5-20 d as O2
is oxidized both
biologically and chemically.
S Most commonly used parameter for analysis
of O2 resources in H2O.
Oxygen Demanding Wastes
SChemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
S Measure of decomposable material
S Used for industrial wastes
S Provides a direct measure of the impact of
O2 consumption on O2 content of water
body.
Oxygen Demanding Wastes
Sources of Organic Materials:

63. Wastewaters Added to Soils
S Domestic-Sewage effluents can contain 300-
400 mg L-1 of organic compounds
S 6% are degraded by microbial community
S Leads to decrease in DO
S Industrial Wastes
Oxygen Demanding Wastes
SSewage Sludge
S Residual sewage solids waste from
Municipal sewage systems.
S Contain OM, N, P, Micronutrients
S Main Problem: Pathogens and Heavy
Metals e.g. B, Cd, Pb, Se, Hg, Cu
Oxygen Demanding Wastes
Animal Manures
S Contain soluble salts in addition to N, P,
and heavy metals
S Euthrophication from N and P
S Possible source of pathogens
Oxygen Demanding Wastes

64. S Municipal Wastes, Composts and Sanitary
Landfills
S Possible source of toxic substances
S Gases from anaerobic decomposition
S Food-Processing Wastes
S Main problem water pollution by N
Pesticides
SPesticides
S 600 commercially important pesticides
S 1500 registered for sale
S About 70% used in agriculture
S 7 % at home
S FIFRA regulates pesticide in Agriculture
S FFDCA in food
Pesticides
Estimated Annual Use of Pesticides in 1985
Herbicides Insecticides Total
Agricultural 238 102 390
Non-Agric. 52 18 80.05
Home/Garden 14 16 35.05
Total 304 136 505.1
S *Total includes Fungicides and other; Source EPA 1987

65. Inorganic Pollutants
Metals:
SMainly from Industrial Sludge and
Solid Waste
S Mining
S Metal Smelting and refining
S Coal Burning Power Plants (Flue Gas
sludge), Paints
Organic Compounds
S Mainly from industry
S Includes greases, solvents and by-products
in manufacturing e.g. benzene, toluene and
other petroleum based products
Inorganic Pollutants
SNonmetallic Salts
S Sources:
S Oil Drilling
S Irrigation
S Industrial Sludges
S High concentration in soils kills plants
Inorganic Pollutants
S Potential groundwater contamination
destroys freshwater.
S Accumulation can lead to hazardous
concentration of Selenium, Boron, Arsenic

66. and molybdenum.
Inorganic Pollutants
Acids and Bases
SMain sources: Industry and Mining
S Mine spoils
S High in arsenic, Very acidic
S Burning of fossil fuel
Soil Sediments
S Erosion of agricultural soils can lead to soil loss.
S Construction also a major cause of sedimentation.
S Destroys soils
S Fills dams and reservoirs
S Reduce sunlight penetration in water
Soil Sediments
S Adsorbed Chemicals
S Carries toxic chemicals to water
S 80 % of P and 73% of N loadings in water
from eroded soils
Water Quality Laws

67. S Two major laws on water:
S 1. Clean Water Act
S Goal: To restore and maintain chemical, physical
and biological integrity of the surface waters of the
United States.
S Vision: To make all surface waters of the U.S.
swimmable and fishable
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)
S Goals:
S To protect Drinking Water
S Mandates the establishment of uniform
standards for drinking water quality
S Provides a system for regulating underground
injection of wastes and other substances that
could contaminate underground water sources.
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)
Drinking Water Standards
S Primary Standards
S The primary standards are set for
contaminants deemed to pose a threat to
human health and also to the environment.
S The maximum contaminant level (MCL) set
for primary contaminants are enforceable
under the law.

68. S MCL for nitrate is 10 ppm, Pb is 15 ppb
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)
Secondary Standards
SSecondary Standards are only advisory and nor enforceable
by federal government.
S Normally concern physical characteristics which are
not health hazards
S Set Maximum Contaminant Levels consistent for the
protection of the public
Biology 140
Instructor: Dr. Franklin Quarcoo
Office Location: 115 Henderson Hall
Phone: 727-8792
Office Hours: MWF 3.00 – 5.00 pm
Email: [email protected]
¨ Pests
¨ Pesticides
¡ Benefits
¡ Problems
¡ Categories
¡ Chemical types
¡ Regulation of Pesticides
¨ Alternatives to Pesticides

69. ¨ Reducing Pesticide Exposure
3
¨ Everything we study in this segment of the course
has a direct impact on environmental quality,
QUALITY OF LIFE and sustainability. That means
it affects you, your family, friends and all animal
and plant life forms.
4
¨ What is a pest?
¨ There are several definitions …
¡ Any organism that competes with man for his resources
which include crops, livestock, forests, health, recreation, etc.
¡ Organisms that reduce the availability, quality or value of a
human resource; transmit disease; constitute a nuisance
ú Anthropocentric designation
¡ Examples of pest groups:
ú Agricultural
ú Medical
ú Veterinary
ú Urban
5
¨ Any substance or mixture of substances intended
for preventing, destroying, repelling, or
mitigating any insect, rodents, nematodes, fungi,
or weeds, or any other forms of life declared to be
pests; and any substance or mixture intended for
use as a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant.

70. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide
Act (FIFRA)
¨ By how they affect our lives:
¡ Agricultural.
¡ Medical.
¡ Veterinary.
¡ Urban.
¨ By taxonomic category:
¡ Insects -- damage crops, transmit disease,
nuisance.
¡ Weeds -- compete with crops, unsightly in lawns.
¡ Fungi -- damage crops.
¡ Rodents -- damage crops, urban nuisance.
¡ Mites -- transmit plant diseases.
¡ Nematodes -- soil roundworms that damage
crops..
¨ Pesticides: chemicals that kill pests.
¡ Most commonly used method.
¨ Cultivation practices.
¨ Biological control -- natural enemies.
¨ Biotechnology.
¨ Integrated Pest Management (IPM).
¨ Since 1950, pesticide use has increased 50-
fold.
¨ In U.S. 650 pest-killing chemicals used to

71. make 25,000 pesticide products.
¨ In U.S. 25% of pesticides are used in homes,
gardens, lawns, parks, swimming pools, golf
courses.
¨ In U.S. lawns receive 10 times the pesticide
dose that cropland receives..
¨ Disease control
¨ Crop protection
¨ Economics
¨ Others
¨ Malaria
¡ Spread by mosquitoes.
¡ 500 million suffering at any time.
¡ 3 million die per year.
¨ Other diseases spread by mosquitoes:
yellow fever, west Nile virus.
¨ Other insects that spread disease: sleeping
sickness (tsetse fly), bubonic plague (fleas),
river blindness (flies), elephantiasis (flies).
¨ Pesticide use has prevented from 7 to 50
million deaths from malaria and other
insect-transmitted diseases in 50 years (1950-
2000).
¨ 90% of pesticides world-wide are used in agriculture
or in food storage and shipping.
¨ In U.S. agriculture most pesticides used on corn and
cotton (90% of insecticides, 80% of herbicides).

72. ¨ Plant diseases, insects, birds and competition from
weeds reduces crop yield worldwide by at least 1/3.
¨ Post-harvest losses to rodents, insects and fungi –
another 20-30% loss.
¨ Every dollar spent on pesticides earns a farmer $ 3-5
more from increased yield.
¨ Greater food production.
¨ Lower food prices.
¨ Faster and greater pest reductions than
alternatives.
¨ Low health risks if used properly.
¡ EPA worst-case scenario – pesticides in food cause
0.5-1.0% of cancer deaths in U.S.
¨ New pesticides are safer and more effective
than older ones.
¨ Better than doing nothing.
ICA
¨ Which of the following is true in the U.S.?
¨ (a) 10 times as much pesticide product is used
on lawns as on cropland.
¨ (b) 10 times as much pesticide per acre is used
on lawns as on cropland.

73. ¨ (c) 10 times more acres of lawn than acres of
cropland are treated with pesticide.
¨ (d) Lawns are treated with pesticide 10 times
more often than is cropland.
¨ Which of the following is true in the U.S.?
¨ (a) 10 times as much pesticide product is used
on lawns as on cropland.
¨ (b) 10 times as much pesticide per acre is used
on lawns as on cropland.
¨ (c) 10 times more acres of lawn than acres of
cropland are treated with pesticide.
¨ (d) Lawns are treated with pesticide 10 times
more often than is cropland.
¨ Which of the following diseases is transmitted
by the tsetse fly?
¨ (a) Bubonic plague
¨ (b) Malaria
¨ (c) Sleeping sickness
¨ (d) West Nile virus
¨ (e) Both b and d.
¨ Which of the following diseases is transmitted
by the tsetse fly?
¨ (a) Bubonic plague
¨ (b) Malaria
¨ (c) Sleeping sickness

74. ¨ (d) West Nile virus
¨ (e) Both b and d.
¨ 90% of pesticides never reach intended targets.
¨ Unintentional poisoning of beneficial species.
¨ 20% of all honeybee colonies destroyed each
year by pesticides.
¨ Atlantic salmon declined 77% -- linked to
spraying of pesticides on Canadian forests.
¨ Pesticides don’t kill 100% – a few are
resistant.
¨ Population regrows with pest-resistant
indivduals.
¨ Pest becomes resistant to pesticide.
¨ By 1990, 500 insect pests and 250 weeds and
plant pathogens were resistance to
pesticides.
¨ Larger doses required ---> more resistance --
-> even larger doses ---> even more
resistance = pesticide treadmill..
¨ From 1940s to 1990s:
¡ Pesticide use increased 33-fold (33 times as
much).
¡ But crop losses to insects, weeds and diseases did

75. not change.
¨ Amount of pesticide required to protect
60,000 bushels of corn:
¡ 1946 -- 1 kg
¡ 1971 -- 64 kg..
¨ Many potential pests are NOT pests because
they are controlled by their natural enemies
(predators).
¨ Pesticides often kill the predators, then
potential pests become actual pests.
¨ 100 of top 300 pests in U.S. became major
pests after wide-spread use of pesticides..
Low numbers of pests --
controlled by predators
High numbers of pests --
predators reduced
by pesticide
¨ Before 1949 yields = 500 kg/ha.
¨ 1949: began spraying with DDT.
¨ 1952: yields = 750 kg/ha.
¨ 1952-3: Boll weevils became resistant;
populations rebounded.
¨ Heliothis worms became new pest on cotton.
¨ DDT had killed the wasps that controlled the

76. Heliothis worms.
¨ 1955: Yields down to 330 kg/ha..
ICA
¨ Pests become resistant to pesticides because:
¨ (a) Individual pests build up a immunity to
the pesticide with repeated applications.
¨ (b) Some pests with natural resistance to the
pesticide survive and repopulate the area.
¨ (c) The pesticides break down with age and
become less effective.
¨ (d) The pesticides kill the natural enemies of
the pests.
¨ Pests become resistant to pesticides because:
¨ (a) Individual pests build up a immunity to
the pesticide with repeated applications.
¨ (b) Some pests with natural resistance to the
pesticide survive and repopulate the area.
¨ (c) The pesticides break down with age and
become less effective.
¨ (d) The pesticides kill the natural enemies of
the pests.
¨ Most insects that have the potential to do
major damage to our crops have never
become major pests because:

77. ¨ (a) They do not live long enough to become
pests.
¨ (b) They have been controlled by pesticides.
¨ (c) They have been controlled by their
predators and diseases.
¨ (d) They reproduce too slowly to become
pests.
¨ (e) both a and d.
¨ Most insects that have the potential to do
major damage to our crops have never
become major pests because:
¨ (a) They do not live long enough to become
pests.
¨ (b) They have been controlled by pesticides.
¨ (c) They have been controlled by their
predators and diseases.
¨ (d) They reproduce too slowly to become
pests.
¨ (e) both a and d.
Assignment:
¨ What is Hormoligosis
¨ Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI)
¨ No observable Effects Level (NOEL)

78. Biology 140
Instructor: Dr. Franklin Quarcoo
Office Location: 115 Henderson Hall
Phone: 727-8792
Office Hours: MWF 3.00 – 5.00 pm
Email: [email protected]
¨ Pests (in Part 1)
¨ Pesticides
¡ Benefits (in Part 1)
¡ Problems (some in Part 1)
¡ Categories
¡ Chemical types
¡ Regulation of Pestitcides
¨ Alternatives to Pesticides
¨ Reducing Pesticide Exposure
¨ Effects on non-target species (in Part 1)
¨ Pesticide resistance and pest resurgence
(in Part 1)
¨ Creation of new pests (in Part 1)
¨ Concentration in food chains
¨ Persistence and mobility in the environment
¨ Human health problems
¨ Bioaccumulation:
¡ Occurs in individual organisms.
¡ Many pesticides are fat-soluble.
¡ Small, harmless amounts of pesticide ingested .
¡ Pesticides bind with body fats (lipids).

79. ¡ Pesticide not excreted or broken down.
¡ Over time pesticide builds up to high levels in
body -- higher than what is in it’s food source =
bioaccumulation.
¡ May or may not reach toxic levels..
¨ Biomagnification
¡ Occurs in food chains.
¡ Each organism in food chain concentrates
pesticide in its body through bioaccumlation.
¡ Next organism up the food chain has more
contaminated food; concentrates pesticide to a
greater level.
¡ Concentration of pesticide in organisms increases
as you move up the food chain =
biomagnification.
¡ Top carnivores most susceptible to pesticide
poisoning..
¨ DDT = dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane.
¨ 1874 -- first synthesized by Othmar Zeidler
¨ 1939 -- Paul Müller discovered insecticidal
properties of DDT.
¨ 1943 -- DDT marketed as first commercial
synthetic pesticide.
¨ Highly toxic to insects, but relatively non-toxic

80. to humans.
¨ Heavily used in 1940s and 1950s on crops,
livestock, homes and people.
¨ Very effective in controlling insect pests.
¨ 1948 -- Müller wins Nobel prize..
¨ DDT very persistent -- half life in soil of
decades.
¨ Biomagnifies in food chains.
¨ High concentrations in top predator birds
(eagles, hawks, falcons, pelicans).
¨ Inhibits deposition of calcium carbonate in
eggshells.
¨ Thinner eggshells break easily -- reduced
reproduction.
¡ Bald eagles reduced to about 400 pairs (lower 48
states).
¡ Peregrine falcons reduced to 120 birds (lower 48
states)..
DDT Use
¨ 1962 -- Rachel Carson wrote Silent Spring.
¨ Book described harmful effects of pesticides
on environment, especially birds.

81. ¨ Helped trigger start of environmental
movement.
¨ 1972 -- DDT banned in U.S.
¨ Now banned world-wide for agricultural use.
¨ But still allowed for use for control of disease
vectors in tropical countries (e.g. mosquitoes
for malaria control)..
¨ Banning of DDT and other chlorinated
hydrocarbons has led to recovery of
populations of top predator birds.
¨ Peregrine falcons have recovered from 120 to
1400 birds (lower 48 states).
¨ Bald eagles have recovered from 400 to 9800
pairs (lower 48 states).
¨ Both birds were removed from the
endangered species list in 1994..
DDT
¨ Some pesticides persist for decades before breaking
down.
¨ Persistent pesticides move by wind, water and
animals far from original application site.
¨ Pesticides tend to evaporate in warm areas and
accumulate in polar regions.
¨ Inuits of northern Canada have highest levels of
pesticide residues of any human population.

82. ¨ Inuit breast milk contains 5 times as much pesticide
residues as the breast milk of women from
Canada’s industrial cities to the south.. ICA
¨ In the food chain: Plankton --> Fish --> Seal --
> Killer Whale, the greatest concentration of
pesticide residue is expected in the Killer
Whale. This is due to the process of:
¨ (a) Bioaccumulation
¨ (b) Biomagnification
¨ (c) Biomass accumulation
¨ (d) Biopersistence and Mobility
¨ (e) Bioremediation
¨ In the food chain: Plankton --> Fish --> Seal --
> Killer Whale, the greatest concentration of
pesticide residue is expected in the Killer
Whale. This is due to the process of:
¨ (a) Bioaccumulation
¨ (b) Biomagnification
¨ (c) Biomass accumulation
¨ (d) Biopersistence
¨ (e) Bioremediation
¨ Acute effects:
¡ Short-term illness.
¡ One or a few exposures (often accidental).
¡ High doses.
¨ Chronic effects:
¡ Long-term illness.

83. ¡ Repeated exposure.
¡ Low-level doses.
¡ Cancer, sterility, birth defects, neurological
problems, immune system problems, Parkinson’s
disease..
¨ Acute poisoning (WHO and EPA):
¡ 3 million cases of acute poisoning per year (300,000 in
U.S.).
¡ 18,000 deaths per year (25 in U.S.).
¡ Highest risk = agricultural workers, children.
¡ In U.S., 250,000 people per year become ill from
household pesticides (bait boxes, pest strips, bug
bombs, flea collars, pesticide pet shampoos, week
killers)..
¨ Chronic Poisoning:
¡ Hard to separate pesticides from other causes.
¡ Estimates of 2,000-10,000 premature deaths per year
due to legal pesticide residues in food..
¨ Mothers who ate lake Michigan fish (high
levels of PCBs) regularly had children with
learning and attention problems (lower IQ
scores, below average reading, poor
memory).
¨ Missouri children from homes with “no-pest
strips” had higher rates of leukemia and
brain cancer than similar children from
home without “no-pest strips”..

84. ¨ Foothill ranches:
¡ Low pesticide use.
¨ Valley ranches:
¡ High pesticide use.
¨ Valley children:
¡ Decreased memory, physical stamina, hand-eye
coordination; greater irritability..
Low
Pesticide
Use
High
Pesticide
Use
¨ Insecticides kill insects
¨ Herbicides kill plants
¨ Fungicides kill fungi
¨ Rodenticides kill rodents
¨ Miticides kill mites
¨ Nematocides kill nematodes (roundworms)
¨ Inorganic
¨ Botanicals
¨ Chlorinated hydrocarbons (organochlorides)
¨ Organophosphates
¨ Carbamates
¨ Pyrethroids

85. ¨ First pesticides:
¡ ~3000 BC -- Sumarians -- sulfur (insects, mites)
¡ ~500 BC -- China -- arsenic, mercury (body lice)
¡ ~1400 AD -- arsenic, lead, mercury applied to crops
¡ ~1920 -- most use discontinued due to increasing
fatalities and poisonings.
¨ Currently-used inorganic insecticides:
¡ Boric acid (roaches).
¡ Lime sulfur (tree spray for bacteria, fungi, insects)..
¨ Extracted from plants.
¨ Plants’ natural defenses against insects.
¨ Commonly used before 1940 (when synthetic
pesticides were first developed).
¨ Examples: pyrethrum (chrysanthemum),
nicotene (tobacco), rotenone..
¨ Also called organochlorides.
¨ First synthetic pesticides.
¨ Kills by disrupting signal transmission along
nerve cells.
¨ Widely used from 1940s into 1970s.
¨ Many now banned; few still used today.
¨ Toxicity to mammals: relatively low.
¨ Persistence: high (years); biomagnified in food
chains.
¨ Examples: DDT, toxaphene, dieldrin,
chlordane, lindane, mirex,
paradichlorobenzene (mothballs)..

86. ¨ Similar to nerve gas.
¨ Highly toxic, but short-lived.
¨ Kills by blocking signal transmission between
nerve cells.
¨ Toxicity to mammals: high
¨ Persistence: low (days).
¨ Examples: malathion, parathion, diazinon..
¨ Kills by blocking signal transmission between
nerve cells.
¨ Toxicity to mammals: moderate.
¨ Persistence: low (days).
¨ Examples: carbaryl (Sevin), aldicarb (Temik)..
¨ Synthetics based on pyrethrum (botanical).
¨ Fastest developing group.
¨ Very effective and safe.
¨ Kills by disrupting signal transmission along
nerve cells.
¨ Toxicity to mammals: low.
¨ Persistence: low (days).
¨ Examples: allethrin (Raid), bifenthrin..
ICA
¨ The first group of synthetic pesticides that
was widely used was:
¨ (a) Botanicals
¨ (b) Chlorinated hydrocarbons
¨ (c) Inorganic compounds

87. ¨ (d) Organophosphates
¨ (e) Pyrethroids
¨ The first group of synthetic pesticides that
was widely used was:
¨ (a) Botanicals
¨ (b) Chlorinated hydrocarbons
¨ (c) Inorganic compounds
¨ (d) Organophosphates
¨ (e) Pyrethroids
¨ Which group of insecticides has the highest
toxicity to mammals?
¨ (a) Carbamates
¨ (b) Chlorinated hydrocarbons
¨ (c) Organophosphates
¨ (d) Pyrethroids
¨ Which group of insecticides has the highest
toxicity to mammals?
¨ (a) Carbamates
¨ (b) Chlorinated hydrocarbons
¨ (c) Organophosphates
¨ (d) Pyrethroids