This document defines various terms related to persuasion and argumentation. It explains logical fallacies like ad hominem attacks, appeals to emotion, and bandwagon appeals. It also defines persuasive techniques like using analogies, anecdotes, facts, statistics, and counterarguments to strengthen arguments. Finally, it discusses rhetorical devices such as loaded language, repetition, and parallel structure that can be used effectively or inappropriately in persuasive writing.

1. Terms to Know
PERSUASION
AND
ARGUMENTATION

2. Ad Hominem (Fallacy)
•An attack “on the person” rather than an
attack on his/her ideas or reasoning
•Sometimes includes name calling

3. Analogy
•An illustrative comparison between things
that have a similar function or structure
•Often uses the words like or as

4. Anecdote (Evidence)
•An anecdote is a tale involving real life
events, a true story. To support a
contention, and to make themselves
appear more credible, writers often use
personal anecdotes.
•Sometimes a logical appeal; sometimes an
emotional appeal

5. Aphorism
•A widely accepted truth
•A maxim; a proverb; an adage

6. Appeal to Authority (Fallacy)
•A suggestion that the audience should
agree with an idea because a respected
authority happens to believe it
•Ex: The world’s greatest scientist, Sir Isaac
Newton, believed that iron could be
turned into gold, so who are we to
question the idea?

7. Appeal to Emotion (pathos)
• An attempt to persuade using
the manipulation of the recipient's
emotions, rather than valid logic, to win an
argument.
•Touch the audience’s hearts
•Logical fallacies are emotional appeals

8. Appeal to Ethics (ethos)
•Ethical appeal is used to establish the
writer/speaker as fair, open-minded,
community minded, moral, honest. The
writer/speaker creates a sense of him or
herself as trustworthy, honorable, and
credible.

9. Appeal to Fear (Fallacy)
• A fallacy in which a person attempts to
create support for an idea by
using deception and propaganda in
attempts to increase fear and prejudice
toward a competitor. The appeal to fear is
common in marketing and politics.
•Emotional Appeal

10. Appeal to Logic (logos)
•Persuasion that appeals to the audience’s
intellect
•Provide a “smart” argument
•Specific evidence, statistics and facts,
expert opinions, and support for the topic
are examples of logical appeals

11. Bandwagon Appeal (Fallacy)
•Bandwagon is an appeal to the subject to
follow the crowd, to join in (or to buy, or
to believe) because others are doing so as
well.
•Emotional Appeal

12. Counterargument
•A viewpoint that opposes your main argument.
•Counterarguments are part of good persuasive writing
and speaking strategy because they show that you've
considered other points of view.
•They also set up the chance to refute the opposition
and show why your position is the right one to have.
•Placing a counterargument in your persuasive piece
increases your ethos (credibility) because it shows
fairness.

13. Credibility (Source)
•Credentials and other qualifications that
indicate whether a source is reliable or not

14. Double Speak
•Language that deliberately disguises, distorts,
or reverses the meaning of words.
•May take the form of euphemisms (e.g.,
"downsizing" for layoffs), making the truth
less unpleasant, without denying its nature.
•It may also be used to intentionally confuse
or reverse meaning.

15. Either/Or Fallacy
•This logical fallacy involves a situation in
which only two alternatives are
considered, when in fact there are other
options.
•Also called false dichotomy, false dilemma

16. Euphemism
•An inoffensive or indirect expression that
is substituted for one that is considered
offensive or too harsh
•EX: Pre-owned vehicle instead of used car
•See Double Speak

17. Exaggeration
•To enlarge, increase, or represent
something beyond normal bounds so that
it becomes ridiculous and its faults can be
seen.
•Hyperbole

18. Expert Opinion (Evidence)
•To make a writer’s position seem more
credible, they may quote the opinions of
experts that correspond with their own.
As in a court case, experts are often called
on to make one side seem stronger and
more believable.
•Logical Appeal

19. Fact vs. Opinion
•A fact can be verified/proven by consulting
a reliable source or by personal
observation
•An opinion cannot be proved, only
supported by evidence and details

20. False Cause (Fallacy)
•The presumption that a real or perceived
relationship between things means that one
is the cause of the other.
•Many people confuse correlation (things
happening together or in sequence) for
causation (that one thing actually causes the
other to happen). Sometimes correlation is
coincidental, or it may be attributable to a
common cause.

21. Flattery
•Excessive and insincere praise, especially
that given to further one's own interests.

22. Glittering Generalities (Fallacy)
•Words that glitter and sparkle, while only
stating generalities.
•Give us a general or vague sense of what
they are trying to sell; they just LOOK
good.
•Emotional Appeal

23. Hasty Generalization (Fallacy)
•A conclusion based on insufficient or
biased evidence. In other words, you are
rushing to a conclusion before you have all
the relevant facts.
•Also called overgeneralization
•Induction is the process of
overgeneralizing

24. Innuendo
• An indirect or subtle reference, especially
one made maliciously or indicating
criticism or disapproval; insinuation; hint

25. Loaded Language (Fallacy)
•Diction that carries with it a heavy
emotional charge.
•Loaded language usually contains words
with strong positive or negative
connotations that unfairly frame words
into limited or biased contexts.

26. Logical Fallacy
•A logical fallacy is, roughly speaking, an
error in reasoning.
•When someone adopts a position, or tries
to persuade someone else to adopt a
position based on a bad piece of
reasoning, they commit a fallacy.

27. Motivation (Author)
•The underlying reason an author
speaks/writes about an issue
•Why is the issue especially important
to the author?

28. Name Calling (Fallacy)
•An attempt to discredit an opponent by
labeling or describing him with words
that have unfavorable connotations.
• Name-calling directs attention to a
person (specifically, his flaws), rather
than a person’s ideas about an issue.

29. Oversimplified Generalization
•When you read/hear words like always,
never, only,…you might be dealing with an
oversimplified generalization. Be careful

30. Parallel Structure
•The use of repeated grammatical form
to emphasize a point
•Purpose: To organize, to clarify, to stress
•EX: Joe likes swimming, hiking, and
jogging.

31. Plain Folks Appeal (Fallacy)
•The use of ordinary people to promote a
product or a service (as opposed to a
celebrity) OR
•When a prominent political figure or
celebrity acts like the “average Joe” in
order to gain acceptance. Attempt to
relate to the common people

32. Point of View
•Objective: Unbiased information; just the
facts (news articles, reference
materials,…
•Subjective: Opinion. May be based on fact,
but it’s the writer’s/speaker’s
interpretation of the information (news
editorials, reviews,…)

33. Propaganda
•Biased, one-sided communication meant
to influence the thoughts and actions of
an audience. Methods used in
propaganda are deceptive and misleading,
and include lies/distortion of the truth,
concealing contradictory information, and
loaded language.

34. Props and Visual Aids
WHY?
To improve communication effectiveness
To improve audience's perceptions of the
presenter
To improve speaker's confidence

35. Red Herring
•A fallacy in which an irrelevant topic is
presented in order to divert attention
from the original issue. The basic idea is to
"win" an argument by leading attention
away from the argument and to another
topic.

36. Repetition/Restatement
•The purpose is to drive home a point
(sometimes unproven) by repeating it so
often that the audience will accept it
•Repetition: Reuse of a key word or idea
for emphasis
•Restatement: Expression of the same idea
in different words

37. Rhetoric
•Using language effectively and
persuasively in spoken or written form
•The art of discourse, which studies and
employs various methods to convince,
influence, or please an audience.

38. Rumor
•Talk or opinion widely disseminated with
no discernible source
•A statement or report current without
known authority for its truth

39. Sarcasm
•A cutting, often ironic remark intended to
wound.
• A form of wit that is marked by the use of
sarcastic language and is intended to
make its victim the butt of contempt or
ridicule.
•More harsh than verbal irony

40. Satire
•Type of persuasion that ridicules the foolishness
and faults of individuals, an institution, society,
or even humanity in general
•The purpose of satire is to bring about social
reform
•Reversal, understatement, exagerration,
incongruity, sarcasm, reversal, caricature, and
parody are all satire techniques. See the Satire
Slideshow for definitions

41. Slanting (Fallacy)
•Ignoring the counterevidence
•One-sided assessment
•Suppressed evidence
“He who knows only his own side of the
case, knows little of that.”

42. Slogan
•A short and striking or memorable phrase
used in advertising
•A motto associated with a political party
or movement or other group

43. Statistics/Facts (Evidence)
•Like any form of evidence, statistics can be
used to make an argument seem more
conclusive, a writer’s opinion more valid.
Often statistics are used that are out of
context, or from unreliable sources.
•Logical Appeal

44. Testimonial (Fallacy)
(Faulty Use of Authority): A fallacy in which
support for a standpoint or product is
provided by a well-known or respected
figure (e.g. a star athlete or entertainer)
who is not an expert and who was
probably well paid for the endorsement.