The document summarizes research on modeling the lost pencheck staircase of Penicuik House in Scotland. It describes the staircase's original construction, methodology for surveying and modeling it, and stages of model construction. The model revealed challenges in precisely casting steps and fitting them together to function as the original staircase did through interlocking penchecks that transferred weight between steps.
The document provides an overview of masonry structures through history and discusses key concepts in masonry compressive strength. Some key points:
- Masonry has been used as a structural material for thousands of years, with some of the earliest structures made of mud bricks in Jericho over 9,000 years ago. The Egyptians built large stone structures like pyramids without modern machinery.
- Masonry units and mortar each have compressive strengths that influence the overall strength of masonry. Mortar can crush under compression or fail in a nonlinear manner, while units may split if stressed beyond their tensile strength.
- The Hilsdorf equation relates the compressive strength of a m
This document provides information on building components such as lintels, arches, vaults, and staircases. It discusses different types of each component and their characteristics. For lintels, it describes stone, wooden, brick, steel, reinforced concrete, and reinforced brick lintels. For arches, it defines various arch terminology and classifies arches based on material, shape, and number of centers. Vaults are classified as barrel, groin, rib, and fan vaults. Finally, it discusses the parts of staircases and types including straight, quarter turn, and bifurcated stairs.
CONTENTS
• Introduction and brief list of Failures and Solution in Pile Foundation.
• Major issues and their solutions during Pile Foundation construction:
o Pile foundation problems and its solutions.
o Settlement of adjacent structures or adjacent grounds and its
solutions.
o Faults in concrete and its solutions.
o Working load faults and its solutions.
• Underpinning
The document provides information about various building components including lintels, arches, vaults, and staircases. It describes 6 different types of lintels - stone, wooden, brick, steel, reinforced concrete, and reinforced brick lintels. It also discusses arches and their classification based on material, shape, and number of centers. Additionally, it covers vaults like barrel, groin, rib, and fan vaults. Finally, it summarizes the different parts of staircases and types including straight, quarter turn, and half turn stairs.
The document provides details from a site visit report for a construction technology course. It includes 10 photos documenting various stages of construction of semi-detached houses. Key aspects summarized include:
- The site visit location and purpose which was to observe construction practices for a 2-story semi-detached housing project.
- Photos showed formwork, scaffolding, machinery used and arrangements of materials on site.
- Descriptions of constructing pad footings including excavation, formwork, reinforcement and concrete pouring.
- The primary construction materials observed were concrete, timber, bricks and reinforcement bars.
The Wellesley High School project update provides details on construction progress from Summer 2009 through March 2010. Key milestones include expanding parking lots, demolishing part of the lecture hall to build 5 new classrooms, installing piles and pouring concrete foundations, erecting over 2000 tons of structural steel, and making progress on the building's frame with a goal of being weather tight by early 2011. The project remains on time and within budget according to the Massachusetts School Building Authority which is closely monitoring progress.
The document provides an overview of masonry structures through history and discusses key concepts in masonry compressive strength. Some key points:
- Masonry has been used as a structural material for thousands of years, with some of the earliest structures made of mud bricks in Jericho over 9,000 years ago. The Egyptians built large stone structures like pyramids without modern machinery.
- Masonry units and mortar each have compressive strengths that influence the overall strength of masonry. Mortar can crush under compression or fail in a nonlinear manner, while units may split if stressed beyond their tensile strength.
- The Hilsdorf equation relates the compressive strength of a m
This document provides information on building components such as lintels, arches, vaults, and staircases. It discusses different types of each component and their characteristics. For lintels, it describes stone, wooden, brick, steel, reinforced concrete, and reinforced brick lintels. For arches, it defines various arch terminology and classifies arches based on material, shape, and number of centers. Vaults are classified as barrel, groin, rib, and fan vaults. Finally, it discusses the parts of staircases and types including straight, quarter turn, and bifurcated stairs.
CONTENTS
• Introduction and brief list of Failures and Solution in Pile Foundation.
• Major issues and their solutions during Pile Foundation construction:
o Pile foundation problems and its solutions.
o Settlement of adjacent structures or adjacent grounds and its
solutions.
o Faults in concrete and its solutions.
o Working load faults and its solutions.
• Underpinning
The document provides information about various building components including lintels, arches, vaults, and staircases. It describes 6 different types of lintels - stone, wooden, brick, steel, reinforced concrete, and reinforced brick lintels. It also discusses arches and their classification based on material, shape, and number of centers. Additionally, it covers vaults like barrel, groin, rib, and fan vaults. Finally, it summarizes the different parts of staircases and types including straight, quarter turn, and half turn stairs.
The document provides details from a site visit report for a construction technology course. It includes 10 photos documenting various stages of construction of semi-detached houses. Key aspects summarized include:
- The site visit location and purpose which was to observe construction practices for a 2-story semi-detached housing project.
- Photos showed formwork, scaffolding, machinery used and arrangements of materials on site.
- Descriptions of constructing pad footings including excavation, formwork, reinforcement and concrete pouring.
- The primary construction materials observed were concrete, timber, bricks and reinforcement bars.
The Wellesley High School project update provides details on construction progress from Summer 2009 through March 2010. Key milestones include expanding parking lots, demolishing part of the lecture hall to build 5 new classrooms, installing piles and pouring concrete foundations, erecting over 2000 tons of structural steel, and making progress on the building's frame with a goal of being weather tight by early 2011. The project remains on time and within budget according to the Massachusetts School Building Authority which is closely monitoring progress.
This document provides information about the construction project of a bungalow house in Penang, Malaysia. It includes:
1. An introduction outlining the objectives and structure of the document.
2. Details of the existing foundation (pile foundation), slab (suspended slab), and roof (hip and valley roof) used in the project.
3. Analysis and comparison of alternative options to replace the existing foundation (pad foundation), slab (waffle slab), and roof (gable roof) and an explanation of why the selected alternatives were chosen.
The document describes the design process of a group of students in creating a temporary bus shelter. It details their initial design which utilized wood but failed. They redesigned the shelter with a skeletal structure using steel brackets, bolts, and a concrete foundation. Key elements of the successful design include a pitched roof for rainwater, columns arranged at a 25 degree angle for stability, and horizontal V-bracing between the columns. Load testing showed the arch-shaped bracing successfully distributed compression and tension forces to withstand weather conditions.
This document discusses different types of dome structures. It begins by explaining that domes are prominent architectural features seen in many historic styles. Domes evolved from simple huts and tombs to large cathedrals and government buildings. The key elements of domes include the cupola, coffering, lantern, oculus, pendentive, rotunda, squinch, and drum. Common dome materials include brick, concrete, bamboo, metal, timber and cast iron. The document goes on to describe different dome types including corbel, geodesic, crossed-arch, onion, oval, saucer and umbrella domes. It concludes by discussing advantages like strength and aesthetics, disadvantages like cost and complexity, and
The document describes the design process of a 1:5 scale model of a bamboo bus shelter. It discusses the design concepts, material selection, structural analysis, construction progress, and joinery techniques. Bamboo and thatched roof materials were chosen for their sustainability and ability to withstand tropical weather conditions. Various prototypes were tested before finalizing a design with diagonal bracing for the roof and inverted V bracing on the sides to reinforce the structure and distribute loads from the roof to the ground.
This document provides information about the PJ Trade Centre building in Malaysia. It discusses the foundation, slabs, and roofs used in the construction. For the foundation, it describes how pile foundations are used due to the soft soil conditions and need to support the large and heavy multi-story building. It also discusses different types of foundations and how loads are transferred through end-bearing, friction, or a combination. For the slabs, it defines slabs and their functions before describing in-situ and precast concrete slab types.
A pile foundation uses long cylindrical piles made of materials like concrete that are inserted deep into the ground to support structures. It transfers loads from the structure through weaker shallow soil layers to stronger deeper layers that can support the loads. There are different types of piles classified by their function, material, or construction method. Common pile types include pre-cast concrete piles, cast-in-place concrete piles, timber piles, steel piles, and composite piles made of two materials. Pile foundations are used when surface soil cannot support structural loads or in areas with high groundwater levels.
This document discusses different types of braced frames used in building structures. It describes braced frames as structural systems that help position, support, strengthen and restrain structural frames using diagonal bracing. Common types of bracing include X-bracing, K-bracing, and XX-bracing. Braced frames are composed of steel members and provide significant stiffness to structures. As an example, the document discusses the Century Tower in Japan, which uses knee bracing in its braced frame structure.
Domes and vaults are architectural elements that provide covered interior spaces. Domes are rounded vaults that can be made from curved masonry segments or a shell of revolution. Vaults are ceilings constructed from materials like brick, stone or concrete arranged in an arched manner. Common types of domes include hemispherical domes, geodesic domes, and onion domes. Elements of domes include features like coffering, pendentives, and lanterns. Vaults have been used since ancient times by civilizations like the Romans and Egyptians and include styles like barrel vaults and groin vaults.
The Putrajaya International Convention Centre uses a piled foundation and suspended concrete slabs. Piled foundations are suitable for multi-story buildings as they can support large loads through weak soils. Suspended concrete slabs have their perimeter supported by walls, beams or columns and span between supports. This allows them to be used for upper floors of tall buildings. The convention centre likely uses precast concrete slabs that are made off-site and lifted into place.
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 2 ; PROJECT 1 REPORTDarshiini Vig
The document describes a student project to construct a 1:5 scale model of a temporary bus shelter with a skeletal structure using recycled materials. The team researched skeletal construction and designed a shelter combining steel and timber posts, beams, and joints. This provided structural integrity while allowing for aesthetic variations. Diagrams and photos show the design's development from initial sketches through various prototype scales to the final scaled model shelter.
This document summarizes the design and construction of a temporary bus shelter. It describes the organic design inspiration taken from lily plants and how the shelter is designed to withstand weather using a curved roof. The technical drawings, materials used like glulam wood and their joints, and the construction process are documented. Load testing showed the need for bracing and moving the supporting columns to the center to evenly distribute weight. The final design uses a wide concrete base to stably support the glulam structure and roof.
Domes Basics and It's Future from it's originabhinavmj
Some basic knowledge about Domes and it's awesome properties :) , I tried to make it as simple as possible.For more information you can comment below and I will try my best to answer your questions.
The document discusses different types of arches and domes and their construction techniques. It provides details on the key components of arches like voussoirs, keystone, intrados, etc. It describes various arch forms including flat arch, corbelled arch, triangular arch, semicircular arch, bullseye arch, Islamic arch, segmental arch, and pointed Gothic arch. It also explains dome structures and provides examples of different dome styles such as onion domes, geodesic domes, corbel domes, parabolic domes, saucer domes, and umbrella domes. The document aims to educate about the forms and building of common arch and dome structures.
This document summarizes the rehabilitation and widening of the Route 139, 14th Street Viaduct in New Jersey. The project involved replacing deteriorating structures to increase capacity and seismic resilience. Innovative design concepts included using drilled shaft foundations to strengthen existing piers and continuous welded plate girders to widen the bridge. Coordination between the contractor, engineer and NJDOT helped complete the project ahead of schedule to relieve congestion on this important route to the Holland Tunnel.
The document summarizes the construction technology of Madge Mansions, a luxury condominium development in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. It consists of 3 blocks of 10 stories with 52 units total, including 6 penthouses. The development uses pile foundations to support the building due to weak soil conditions. Suspended slabs are used for the ground level and upper levels, and a flat roof covers the top.
By taking the building we live in as the object of study in this assignment, our group with maximum six members need to produce the following :
PART 1
Illustrate the type of the building with plan or sketches or photo or diagrams.
PART 2
Identity and explain the -
Type of foundation
Type of slab
Type of roof of the building with sketches or photo or diagrams
PART 3
Compare and contrast with TWO (2) other types and recommend an alternative to replace the existing type of -
Foundation
Slab
Roof
This document provides information about the construction project of a bungalow house in Penang, Malaysia. It includes:
1. An introduction outlining the objectives and structure of the document.
2. Details of the existing foundation (pile foundation), slab (suspended slab), and roof (hip and valley roof) used in the project.
3. Analysis and comparison of alternative options to replace the existing foundation (pad foundation), slab (waffle slab), and roof (gable roof) and an explanation of why the selected alternatives were chosen.
The document describes the design process of a group of students in creating a temporary bus shelter. It details their initial design which utilized wood but failed. They redesigned the shelter with a skeletal structure using steel brackets, bolts, and a concrete foundation. Key elements of the successful design include a pitched roof for rainwater, columns arranged at a 25 degree angle for stability, and horizontal V-bracing between the columns. Load testing showed the arch-shaped bracing successfully distributed compression and tension forces to withstand weather conditions.
This document discusses different types of dome structures. It begins by explaining that domes are prominent architectural features seen in many historic styles. Domes evolved from simple huts and tombs to large cathedrals and government buildings. The key elements of domes include the cupola, coffering, lantern, oculus, pendentive, rotunda, squinch, and drum. Common dome materials include brick, concrete, bamboo, metal, timber and cast iron. The document goes on to describe different dome types including corbel, geodesic, crossed-arch, onion, oval, saucer and umbrella domes. It concludes by discussing advantages like strength and aesthetics, disadvantages like cost and complexity, and
The document describes the design process of a 1:5 scale model of a bamboo bus shelter. It discusses the design concepts, material selection, structural analysis, construction progress, and joinery techniques. Bamboo and thatched roof materials were chosen for their sustainability and ability to withstand tropical weather conditions. Various prototypes were tested before finalizing a design with diagonal bracing for the roof and inverted V bracing on the sides to reinforce the structure and distribute loads from the roof to the ground.
This document provides information about the PJ Trade Centre building in Malaysia. It discusses the foundation, slabs, and roofs used in the construction. For the foundation, it describes how pile foundations are used due to the soft soil conditions and need to support the large and heavy multi-story building. It also discusses different types of foundations and how loads are transferred through end-bearing, friction, or a combination. For the slabs, it defines slabs and their functions before describing in-situ and precast concrete slab types.
A pile foundation uses long cylindrical piles made of materials like concrete that are inserted deep into the ground to support structures. It transfers loads from the structure through weaker shallow soil layers to stronger deeper layers that can support the loads. There are different types of piles classified by their function, material, or construction method. Common pile types include pre-cast concrete piles, cast-in-place concrete piles, timber piles, steel piles, and composite piles made of two materials. Pile foundations are used when surface soil cannot support structural loads or in areas with high groundwater levels.
This document discusses different types of braced frames used in building structures. It describes braced frames as structural systems that help position, support, strengthen and restrain structural frames using diagonal bracing. Common types of bracing include X-bracing, K-bracing, and XX-bracing. Braced frames are composed of steel members and provide significant stiffness to structures. As an example, the document discusses the Century Tower in Japan, which uses knee bracing in its braced frame structure.
Domes and vaults are architectural elements that provide covered interior spaces. Domes are rounded vaults that can be made from curved masonry segments or a shell of revolution. Vaults are ceilings constructed from materials like brick, stone or concrete arranged in an arched manner. Common types of domes include hemispherical domes, geodesic domes, and onion domes. Elements of domes include features like coffering, pendentives, and lanterns. Vaults have been used since ancient times by civilizations like the Romans and Egyptians and include styles like barrel vaults and groin vaults.
The Putrajaya International Convention Centre uses a piled foundation and suspended concrete slabs. Piled foundations are suitable for multi-story buildings as they can support large loads through weak soils. Suspended concrete slabs have their perimeter supported by walls, beams or columns and span between supports. This allows them to be used for upper floors of tall buildings. The convention centre likely uses precast concrete slabs that are made off-site and lifted into place.
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 2 ; PROJECT 1 REPORTDarshiini Vig
The document describes a student project to construct a 1:5 scale model of a temporary bus shelter with a skeletal structure using recycled materials. The team researched skeletal construction and designed a shelter combining steel and timber posts, beams, and joints. This provided structural integrity while allowing for aesthetic variations. Diagrams and photos show the design's development from initial sketches through various prototype scales to the final scaled model shelter.
This document summarizes the design and construction of a temporary bus shelter. It describes the organic design inspiration taken from lily plants and how the shelter is designed to withstand weather using a curved roof. The technical drawings, materials used like glulam wood and their joints, and the construction process are documented. Load testing showed the need for bracing and moving the supporting columns to the center to evenly distribute weight. The final design uses a wide concrete base to stably support the glulam structure and roof.
Domes Basics and It's Future from it's originabhinavmj
Some basic knowledge about Domes and it's awesome properties :) , I tried to make it as simple as possible.For more information you can comment below and I will try my best to answer your questions.
The document discusses different types of arches and domes and their construction techniques. It provides details on the key components of arches like voussoirs, keystone, intrados, etc. It describes various arch forms including flat arch, corbelled arch, triangular arch, semicircular arch, bullseye arch, Islamic arch, segmental arch, and pointed Gothic arch. It also explains dome structures and provides examples of different dome styles such as onion domes, geodesic domes, corbel domes, parabolic domes, saucer domes, and umbrella domes. The document aims to educate about the forms and building of common arch and dome structures.
This document summarizes the rehabilitation and widening of the Route 139, 14th Street Viaduct in New Jersey. The project involved replacing deteriorating structures to increase capacity and seismic resilience. Innovative design concepts included using drilled shaft foundations to strengthen existing piers and continuous welded plate girders to widen the bridge. Coordination between the contractor, engineer and NJDOT helped complete the project ahead of schedule to relieve congestion on this important route to the Holland Tunnel.
The document summarizes the construction technology of Madge Mansions, a luxury condominium development in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. It consists of 3 blocks of 10 stories with 52 units total, including 6 penthouses. The development uses pile foundations to support the building due to weak soil conditions. Suspended slabs are used for the ground level and upper levels, and a flat roof covers the top.
By taking the building we live in as the object of study in this assignment, our group with maximum six members need to produce the following :
PART 1
Illustrate the type of the building with plan or sketches or photo or diagrams.
PART 2
Identity and explain the -
Type of foundation
Type of slab
Type of roof of the building with sketches or photo or diagrams
PART 3
Compare and contrast with TWO (2) other types and recommend an alternative to replace the existing type of -
Foundation
Slab
Roof
This document provides an overview of marketing for Cooperative Extension. It defines marketing as the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services. It discusses the "4 Ps" of marketing - program, price, place, and promotion. The document also summarizes environmental analysis and surveys that were conducted to understand customers and update goals and programs. It emphasizes understanding customers, competitors, the organization's strengths, and providing excellent customer service in order to promote Extension's programs and services.
A histerectomia é a remoção cirúrgica do útero, podendo incluir também as trompas de Falópio e os ovários. É um procedimento comum realizado para tratar miomas, cânceres, hemorragias ou prolapso uterino. Existem diferentes tipos de histerectomia que variam de acordo com a extensão da remoção e via de acesso cirúrgico, como a abdominal, vaginal ou laparoscópica. A recuperação leva de uma a quatro semanas e requer cuidados para evitar infecções e coagula
Frank Lloyd Wright said that architecture is the "mother art" and that without our own architecture, a civilization has no soul. Architecture is both the art and science of designing structures like buildings and bridges to meet human needs. It is also a vehicle for artistic expression. The most common architectural materials through history have been stone, wood, cast iron, steel, reinforced concrete, steel cable, and shells. New materials and engineering advances now allow architects even greater freedom of expression and new visions in design.
Arches in long span structures (LINK IN DESCRIPTION TO DOWNLOAD)Dimple Poddar
This document discusses different types of arches based on their shape, number of centers, and materials used. It describes flat arches, segmental arches, semicircular arches, horseshoe arches, pointed arches, and more. Arches are also classified as one-centered, two-centered, etc. based on the number of centers. Stone, brick, concrete are discussed as common materials. The document concludes with a case study of the Puente Nuevo bridge in Spain, describing its construction and history.
The document provides information about different types of slabs and vaults used in construction. It discusses 15 types of slabs including flat slabs, conventional slabs, hollow core ribbed slabs, and slabs on grade. It also discusses types of vaults such as barrel vaults, groin vaults, rib vaults, and fan vaults. The document includes a case study about the Metropol Parasol structure in Seville, Spain which uses a wooden grid structure. It also provides a literature case study about a project that used polycarbonate glazed skylights and barrel vaults with insulating panels to provide daylight in a building.
A Brief case study about the famous GuggenheimMuseum.pdfmeygnanasivan
The document provides details about the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. Some key points:
1) Construction of the museum took 16 years from 1943-1959 due to design changes and costs, with Wright intending visitors to view the art collection by descending the central spiral ramp.
2) The building features a giant spiral ramp circling up to a large glass dome, with 12 reinforced concrete partitions dividing the gallery space.
3) The structural design utilizes cast in place and shotcrete concrete, with the 12 radial walls acting as shear walls to transfer forces from the dome and cantilevered floors to the foundation.
Architecture is both an art and a science that designs structures to meet human needs through artistic expression. The architect chooses materials like stone, wood, steel, and concrete and uses techniques such as post-and-lintel construction, arches, vaults, domes, trusses, and reinforced concrete to design enduring and functional buildings. New materials and visions have led to innovative high-tech structures assembled in novel ways.
The document provides an overview of structural analysis and different structural systems used in architecture. It begins with a brief history of structural development from prehistoric times through modern steel structures. It then defines key structural concepts and requirements. The main structural systems discussed are wall-slab, post-lintel, and post-slab structures. Details are given on structural elements, load transfer methods, and case studies for each system. Advantages and disadvantages of wall-slab structures are also summarized.
A truss is a structure composed of straight structural elements arranged in a triangular pattern and connected at their ends. Trusses are commonly used in buildings to support roofs, floors, and internal loads. The main benefits of trusses are that they allow for long spans, are lightweight, have reduced deflection compared to solid members, and can support significant loads. However, trusses also have higher fabrication costs. Common types of trusses include king post, queen post, Warren, Howe, Pratt, and Parker trusses.
This document provides information about the Eiffel Tower in Paris, including its history, construction details, and current status. It was designed by Gustave Eiffel's company and built in 1889 as the entrance to the 1889 World's Fair. The wrought iron lattice tower stands 324 meters tall and was the world's tallest structure at the time of its completion. It underwent an extensive construction process to withstand winds and ensure stability. The tower has three levels open to visitors and remains an iconic landmark in Paris.
The document presents an analysis of a fettuccine truss bridge project completed by a group of 5 students. It includes a precedent study of Henszey's Wrought Iron Bridge, which informed the design of their bridge. Testing was conducted on the strength of the fettuccine and glue materials. Various beam designs were tested, and I-beams made of 5 fettuccine layers and 4-layer laminated fettuccine were found to be strongest. A bowstring truss design was selected, and the truss members were analyzed from the initial to final design.
The document summarizes a group project analyzing a fettuccine truss bridge. It discusses:
1) Conducting material testing and precedent study of Henszey's Wrought Iron Bridge to inform their design.
2) Experimental testing found I-beams made of 5 fettuccine layers and 4-layer laminated fettuccine to be strongest. UHU super glue worked best for bonding.
3) The group analyzed strength of materials, conducted truss analysis from initial to final design, and planned to test their fettuccine bridge structure.
This document provides an analysis report for a project to construct a 1:5 scale model of a temporary bus shelter with a maximum height of 600mm and base area of 400mm x 800mm. It includes sections on the design concept, massing, design development, drawings, material analysis, construction details, structural analysis, and conclusions. The goal was to demonstrate an understanding of skeletal construction and how structures react under loading. The design combined a triangular prism roof with a cuboid base to provide shelter for 5-6 users with an emphasis on practical construction and user needs.
This document provides an analysis report for a project to construct a 1:5 scale model of a temporary bus shelter with a maximum height of 600mm and base area of 400mm x 800mm. It includes sections on the design concept, massing, design development, drawings, material analysis, construction details, structural analysis, and conclusions. The goal was to demonstrate an understanding of skeletal construction and how structures react under loading. The design combined a triangular prism roof with a cuboid base to provide shelter for 5-6 users with an emphasis on practical construction and user needs.
This document provides an analysis report for a project to construct a 1:5 scale model of a temporary bus shelter with a maximum height of 600mm and base area of 400mm x 800mm. It includes sections on the design concept, massing, design development, drawings, material analysis, construction details, structural analysis, and conclusions. The goal was to demonstrate an understanding of skeletal construction and how structures react under loading. The design combined a triangular prism roof with a cuboid base to provide shelter for 5-6 users with an emphasis on practical construction and user needs.
An arch is a structure that spans an opening and supports weight by resolving forces into compression. Arches are made of wedge-shaped blocks or bricks that support each other through their mutual weight and pressure. The earliest known arches date back to Mesopotamian architecture in the 2nd millennium BC, though the Romans made extensive use of the technique. Arches function by carrying weight through an outward thrust that must be constrained by internal ties or external bracing at the ends. Common uses of arches include supporting building roofs, bridges, and aqueducts. Arches can have different geometries like flat, semi-circular, or segmental, and can be constructed from materials including stone, brick, concrete
This document provides a summary of a class lecture on masonry structures. It discusses the historical use of masonry in ancient civilizations and architectural styles. It also covers topics related to the properties and structural behavior of masonry, including compressive strength, elastic modulus, and the strength of unreinforced masonry bearing walls. Code specifications from the UBC and MSJC for determining masonry strength are presented.
The document summarizes Gothic architecture in England from 1180 to the early 16th century. It is divided into four periods: Norman Gothic (1066-1180), Early English Gothic (1180-1275), Decorated Gothic (1275-1375), and Perpendicular Gothic (1375-1530). The Early English Gothic period saw Gothic style truly adapted by English craftsmen, emphasizing pointed arches, vaults, and lancet windows. Decorated Gothic featured more elaborate curved tracery and carvings. Perpendicular Gothic emphasized strong vertical lines through large windows with intricate tracery and fan vaulting. Examples like Salisbury Cathedral and Westminster Abbey are discussed in detail to illustrate the different periods.
1) The document describes the analysis and testing of different fettuccine bridge designs. Various materials were tested to determine the optimal fettuccine type and adhesive for constructing the bridge model.
2) Seven bridge tests were conducted, with improvements made after each test based on observations of how and where the bridges failed under increasing loads. The fourth and final bridge design achieved the highest efficiency but collapsed prematurely.
3) Material analyses determined that San Remo fettuccine and 3-second glue provided the best strength and bonding for the bridge structure. Various supports were also tested to improve load bearing capacity.
The document provides details about the Structural Design and Drawing course CE8703 taught at Vivekanandha College of Technology for Women. It includes the course objectives, units covered, outcomes, design and drawing exercises, textbooks and code books referenced. The key topics covered in the course are design and drawing of retaining walls, flat slabs, bridges, liquid storage structures, industrial structures, girders and connections. The course aims to provide students with knowledge of structural engineering design principles and skills to design and draw various reinforced concrete and steel structures.
1. An Examination of the Lost Pencheck Staircase of Old Penicuik House
Report Submitted for the Culture and Performance in the History of Construction –
(ARCH1117))
Dip/MSc in Architectural Conservation
University of Edinburgh
Adam Thomson
s1162034
EDINBURGH SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURAL AND LANDSCAPE
EDINBURGH COLLEGE OF ART
UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH
2012/2013
2. 2
FIG. 1, Pencheck staircase at Penicuik House –
Image from “Country Life” magazine, August 15, 1968.
3. 3
Contents:
Acknowledgements 4
1. Introduction to Study Area and Construction History 5
2. Survey Methodology and Key Measurements 6
3. Research and Analysis of Geometry and Process of Assembly 6
4. Model Making Stages 9
5. Analysis of Original Construction Techniques, Performance,
Site Organisation and Relation to Rest of Building 11
6. Results of model performance testing 12
7. Conclusion 15
8. Bibliography 16
4. 4
Acknowledgements
Simpson & Brown Architects;
Graeme Brown Stonemason Ltd;
Stuart Beattie, Project Manager, Penicuik House Project; and,
Training and Education Officer, Scottish Lime Centre Trust.
5. 5
1 Introduction to Study Area and its Construction History
The historic construction process selected to model is the missing eastern stone penchecked
(or hanging) staircase of the Category A listed ruin of the Palladian mansion of Penicuik
House, located in the countryside on the eastern edge of the Pentland Hill (see Figs. 1 & 2).
The building; which was gutted by fire in 1899 and is roofless is a long oblong internally
symmetrical building consisting of a piano nobile with attic and basement (see Fix. 3). It was
built in 1761-69 by Sir James Clerk, with the assistance of John Baxter.
When a young man James Clerk had gone to Rome as an amateur of architecture.1
Perhaps
it is here he gained the visual knowledge of the construction of penchecked staircases and an
understanding of how they work.
Fig. 2. Plan of First floor of Penicuik House, courtesy of Simpson & Brown Architects
Fig. 3. Photograph of Penicuik House on the day of the fire in 1899.
6. 6
2 Survey Methodology and Key Measurements
In preparing to model the staircase a plan of scale 1:10 of the staircase was drawn using the
floor plans and section drawings of the ruins of the building at scale 1:100 prepared by
Simpson and Brown Architects. Although these drawings delineate only the few remaining
steps of the staircase, given that the staircase was symmetrical, from the few steps that remain
and which are delineated on the plans and from an on-site analysis it was possible to prepare
a complete plan of the staircase with the position of all of the steps delineated. Owing to time
constraints it was not possible to undertake a measured on-site survey of the staircase.
However, photographs were taken of the ruins of the staircase which assisted in completing
the scale plan of it. Using a photocopier, the hand drawn plan of scale 1:100 of the eastern
staircase was rescaled to 1:10. The plan was mounted onto a board to form a template for the
staircase and steps. Where it was not possible to inspect details of the staircase owing to
access difficulties, a pencheck staircase within the Victorian tenement (circa 1890) at 19/3
East Preston Street, Edinburgh, was used as a benchmark.
3 Research and Analysis of Geometry and Process of Assembly
Pencheck staircases get there name from the recess or `pencheck’ groove formed at the
bottom of the riser of the step which interlocks with the top of the back of the step below
(Fig. 3). The recess is cut square or angular so that the steps lock together. The pencheck
prevents the steps from twisting. If the pencheck was rounded the steps would be more
susceptible to twisting.
Fig. 3. Close-up of angled penchecks of steps of
the staircase at 19 East Preston Street, Edinburgh.
7. 7
Stone penchecked staircases are not uncommon. They are found around the world in several
historic buildings built over the last 400 years.1
They are typical in Scottish tenements.
Hume informs that they exist in many countries and that although it is clear that the builders
understood how they worked this knowledge is not now widely held.2
They have no visible means of support. Taylor asks “how could a brittle piece of stone
project 1,200 or 1,500mm out from a wall without snapping in two?”3
The answer is that the
steps are not cantilevers. If they were the steps would be anchored at one end into the
stairwell wall which wall would be the only support. There would be no support under the
outer edge of the individual steps. Nevertheless penchecked stairs are a misnomer and
commonly referred to as cantilever stairs.
How they work is that each tread transfers weight to the back of the tread below and that
tread then transfers load onto the back of the next tread and so on.4
This relies on torsional
resistance at the point where the step is built into the wall to stop the step from twisting. Part
of the load is carried by the stairwell walls and part is transferred through the treads to the
landing below.5
However, it must be the case that the load is carried back to the wall within a few treads. If
this were not the case the load at the landing at the bottom of the stairs would be too great for
the landing to carry. There are thus both horizontal and vertical thrusts. There are parts of
the staircase of Penicuik House where a few steps remain suspended. The load is sustained
because the stub of the step below remains in the wall and the stub is enough to provide a
degree of the proper action.
The pencheck allows the treads to act together so that a weakness in one does not bring about
the failure of the whole flight. It also allows the staircase to deal better with any movement
that might occur in the supporting stairwell wall.
1
Hume, Ian. Cantilever, Hanging or Pencheck Stairs, Journal of Architectural Conservation
July 2009. pp.79-90.
2
ibid.
3
Taylor, Russell. Stone Cantilevered Stairs, The Building Conservation Directory 2006.
4
Hume, Ian. Cantilever, Hanging or Pencheck Stairs, Journal of Architectural Conservation
July 2009. pp.79-90.
5
Davey, Heath, Hodges, Ketchin, Milne. The Care and Conservation of Georgian Houses.
(Fourth Edition) p.187.
8. 8
Fig. 4. Drawing the pencheck steps of Penicuik House with their curved soffits.
The staircase of Penicuik House comprised a series of flyers (straight steps) and winders
(steps with converging on tread). The underside of the pencheck stairs historically were
shaped in different ways. Some are left square, others are cut and some are rounded like
those at Penicuik House (see Fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Drawing of a pencheck step of
Penicuik House with their curved soffits.
9. 9
The quarter landings are constructed of three individual rectangular blocks of stone with ends
bedded into the staircase walls. The first block locks into the step below it with a pencheck.
The two end blocks have mitred ends and the middle block with its reversed mitred ends
locks into place between them. The load of the middle block is carried by both end blocks
(see Fig. 6).
Fig. 6. Illustration showing section of staircase and quarter landing with mitred ends.
The existing staircase walls of Penicuik house are constructed of rubble sandstone. A report
on a survey carried out by the British Geological Survey of a sample analysis and discussion
of the source of external and internal stone of Penicuik House states that the ashlar internal
stairs appears to be a `Craigleith type’ sandstone which was obtained from one or more
quarries in Edinburgh.
4 Model Making Stages
A model of a scale 1: 10 comprising three of the stair walls and part of the first floor flight of
stairs were constructed. The chosen material for the model of the steps is plaster of paris.
This was chosen because; being heavier than timber, it better replicates the weight of stone.
In actuality to construct stairs to full size the stonemason would have drawn a scaled plan on
a large board or platform. The same method was used for making the model of the stairs.
A timber model of both a flyer and a winder step was made using a combination of timber
sections glued together and air drying moulding clay. The riser (vertical) lines are essential to
the setting out both on plan and section. The finished timber models were then used to make
moulds with alginate impressions compound (see Fig. 7).
10. 10
Fig. 7. Photo of underside of plaster casts of flyer and winder
steps showing the penchecks and nosings.
In the case of the construction of the model, initially the plaster casts of the steps were affixed
to the plywood `walls’ of the model using cylindrical metal dowels embedded into the casts.
However, when the steps were put in place it was discovered that these cylindrical dowels
were not effective is preventing the steps from twisting (see Fig. 8). Therefore, the steps had
to be recast with a rectangular rebate which could be inserted into a corresponding
rectangular aperture cut into the plywood walls (see Fig. 9). This was more effective at
prevented the steps from twisting.
Fig. 8. Rejected first Casts with metal Fig. 9. Timber mould of winder step with timber
dowels inserted into the ends rectangular rebate glued over metal thread
Once the first casts of the steps were assembled into the staircase it was apparent that they did
not lock together to form a single stable staircase (see Fig. 10). The `treads’ did not sit level
11. 11
and pressure had to be applied to the top `step’ in order to get the run of steps to lock together,
albeit when pressure was applied the structure was strong. It became apparent that a
combination of inaccurately made moulds of the steps, poor casting and inaccurately
positioned and cut apertures cut within the stairwell `walls’ had prevented a good model of a
staircase from being formed (see Fig. 11). The unavoidable conclusion is that precision is
required when building a pencheck staircase and the same precision is required in making a
successful model of the staircase which functions as a real life pencheck staircase. The
decision was made to rebuild the model with precision (see Fig. 12).
Fig. 10. Failed attempt at assembly of first casts Fix. 11. First attempt at creating moulds of steps
Fig. 12. More precise second moulds.
5 Analysis of Original Construction Techniques, Performance, Site Organisation
and Relation to Rest of Building
The part of the step embedded into the wall is left as a square stone rebate for good reason. It
plays an important part in preventing the steps from twisting. It was confirmed on site that
each of the steps at Penicuik House were embedded into the stairwell wall by only
approximately 100mm. The stone rebates do not have the same profile as the steps; but
instead, the stonemason left the ends as cuboids. Given that the staircase walls are
constructed of rectangular sandstone blocks the cuboid ends would have been able to be
inserted into corresponding apertures in the wall and mortared in place with relative ease.
The stonemason will have made adjustments to the rebates and aperture in order for the
pencheck to sit correctly on the back edge of the step below. The gaps between the rebates
12. 12
and the apertures of the walls were bridged using stone pinning cut to shape and the thin
joints were lime mortared (see Figs. 13 & 14). If the ends of the steps had been the same
profile as the steps it would have been a much more difficult task for the stonemason to cut
the apertures in the staircase walls as this will have involved cutting several wall stones.
Fig. 13. Stone pinning of the remains of the Fig 14. Close-up of stone pinnings
staircase of Penicuik House circled in blue.
In the 18th
and 19th
centuries it is likely that a timber scaffold would have been erected within
the stairwell to assist in the construction of the stairs. This would be for ease of access for
construction and not necessarily for structural support because as each step was laid on top of
the one below the weight of the upper most step would be supported by the run of steps
below.
6 Results of Model Performance Testing
When assembling the casts of the steps both the rebates and aperture required some minor
cutting and sanding so that each step locked correctly into the pencheck of the step below.
Wide gaps were bridged using modelling clay (see Fig. 15). The aim was to get the step to sit
neatly into the pencheck of the step below and not to wedge the step into the aperture so that
it became cantilevered.
Fig. 15. Wide gaps owing to inaccurate cutting
of rebates were bridged with modelling clay.
13. 13
As anticipated, several steps were required to be inserted into place before the action of
weight on the upper step bearing down on the steps below resulted in a stable structure (see
Figs 16, 17 & 18).
Fig. 16. Assembled model of staircase.
Fig. 17. Assembled model of staircase Fig. 18. Assembled model of staircase
According to the stonemason at Penicuik House, when the staircase was constructed it is
probable that a layer of hydraulic lime would have been used between the steps. To test
whether a bonding would improve the stability of the model a thin layer of modelling clay
was placed at the point of contact of each of the steps. However, this did not achieve any
discernible improvement to the stability of the steps and in fact; the thickness of the
modelling clay unlevelled the steps. The conclusion is that it a bond is not necessary for the
structural support of the staircase.
When a step in the middle of the structure was taken out this distorted and weakened the
structure (See Fig 19). To replicate loss of rigidity in the wall, the bolts holding the plywood
`walls’ were adjusted on the threaded rods to bring the `walls’ off-square. This also resulted
in weakening of the structure.
14. 14
Fig. 19. Whole structure is weakened when a middle
Step is removed.
Weights were incrementally added to the treads of the steps of the model to test the strength
of the staircase. Up to a weight of 12kgs the staircase remained intact with no discernible
movement (see Fig. 20). At 12kgs one of the steps began to rotate (see Figs. 21 & 22). The
structure collapsed when a weight of 14.68kg was added (see Fig. 23). The rotating of and
then the eventual fracturing of the ends of the rebates of four of the upper steps led to the
collapse of the upper part of the model (see 24). This proves that the wall is carrying much of
the load. In actuality, full size working pencheck stairs would not at any one time have to
carry a load equivalent to that placed on the model and which resulted in its collapse.
Fig. 20. Weights amounting to 7.37kgs were
placed onto the treads of the casts of the steps.
15. 15
Fix. 21 & 22. Rotation in one of the steps with weigh of 12kgs added.
Fig.23. Failure of structure with weight of Fig.24. structural failure resulting from
14.68kg added. fracturing of rebated ends within the `wall’
7 Conclusion
When the steps and stairwell walls of a pencheck staircase are in good condition and the
structure is intact the staircase is immensely strong. Everything in the structure has to be
rigid and the steps tightly bedded with every step interlocked otherwise the torsional forces
will not be restrained.
In creating a working model of a staircase requires precision in setting out and construction,
including accurately calculating the dimensions of the steps in order to create sound casts of
the steps which when assembled will connect to form a strong stable structure. In particular,
accuracy is required in the rebated ends of the steps and the corresponding apertures in the
stairwell wall to prevent rotating of the steps. The same precision is required when
constructing a pencheck staircase in real life. Such precision would be challenging to a
stonemason in the 18th
and 19th
centuries who would only have the use of hand tools.
However, today we have computers and lasers to accurately calculate dimensions to assist the
stonemason, thus making the process simpler.
16. 16
8 Bibliography
British Geological Survey. Report on an analysis of the source of external and internal
stone of Penicuik House.
Country Life, August 15, 1968.
Davey, Heath, Hodges, Ketchin, Milne. The Care & Conservation of Georgian Houses.
Third Edition, p.187-190).
Hume, Ian. Cantilever, Hanging or Pencheck Stairs, Journal of Architectural
Conservation July 2009. pp.79-90.
Purchase W. R., “Practical Masonry A Guide to the Art of Stone Cutting” Sixth Edition,
Crosby Lockwood and Son, Stationers’ Hall Court, Ludgate Hill, 1928. pp.27-45.
Taylor, Russell. Stone Cantilevered Stairs, The Building Conservation Directory 2006,
available at https://www.buildingconservation .com/articles/stonecantstairs.htm.