The document summarizes the history of Roman emperors from Augustus to Commodus. It discusses how Augustus established the Principate system that lasted over 200 years and brought the Pax Romana. It then profiles each emperor, describing their rise to power, personality, policies and legacy. It notes periods of stability under emperors like Trajan and Antoninus Pius, and instability under emperors like Caligula, Nero and Commodus. The document traces the transition of power from the Julio-Claudian dynasty to the Flavians and Antonines, and the eventual decline after Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus.

1. The Pax Romana
Ednalino, Misola, Peralta III-Cs
In general, the Augustan system worked fairly well, in fact, it
lasted more than 200 years. It provided a material and political
base of cultural achievement that rivaled the Greeks under
Pericles. This is the age of the Pax Romana, the Roman Peace.
But the Augustan reforms were not limited to political, economic
and social issues alone. They also envisioned a fundamental
change in Roman culture itself. Augustus tried to turn Rome into
a world capital and taught the Romans to identify their destiny
with the destiny of all mankind. They were the chosen people
who would bring peace and stability to a violent and changing
world.
AfterAugustus
When Augustus died in A.D.14, a crisis of leadership of the
Empire developed. This crisis arose basically because the
senatorial class were unsure of their political power. Indeed,
they could control administration of the State, but true power
lay in the hands of Augustus alone. After the death of
Augustus, Tiberius (42 B.C.-A.D. 37; emperor, A.D. 14-37), the
stepson of Augustus, became the leader of the state. A rather
dark, vengeful, complex man and a soldier by training, Tiberius
was suspicious of the Senate who were equally befuddled by his
behavior. The reign of Tiberius eventually became a tyranny -- in
the wake of his paranoia, dozens of members of the Senate and
equestrians were denounced and killed. The reign of Tiberius
ended the illusion that the Republic had been restored and
revealed some of the future of the Principiate.
Imperial power fell to the megalomaniac, Gaius Caesar Augustus
Germanicus (12-41; emperor, 37-41) the third child of Augustus'
adopted grandson, Germanicus, and Augustus' granddaughter,
Agrippina. Gaius accompanied his parents on military campaigns
and was shown to the troops wearing a miniature soldier's outfit,
including a sandal called caliga, hence the nickname, Caligula.
According to the will of Tiberius, Caligula and his cousin Tiberius
Gemellus were joint heirs. Caligula ordered Gemellus killed and
with the support of the Praetorian Prefect, he declared Tiberius
will void on the grounds of insanity. Caligula than accepted the
powers of the Principiate. His popularity was great but within
four years he was assassinated by discontented members of his
bodyguard.
Ancient and modern sources would agree -- Caligula was insane.
The stories of Caligula's insanity are well known: his excessive
cruelty, incestuous relationships with his sisters (he deified
Drusilla), laughable military campaigns (picking up sea shells as
the "spoils of war") and the plan to make his horse a consul. Of
course, we could easily argue that Caligula was merely pushing
the limits of the imperial cult, something already established by
Augustus.
Following the murder of Caligula, Claudius (10 BC-A.D. 54;
emperor, 41-54) emerged as ruler. According to one story, the
Preatorian Guard found Claudius hiding behind a curtain after
Caligula's brutal murder. They picked him up and declared him
their emperor. He was the son of Drusus Claudius Nero, the son
of Augustus's wife Livia, and Antonia, the daughter of Marc
Antony. Claudius was plagued from the start because of his many
defects: he drooled, stuttered, limped and was constantly ill. The
historian Seutonius wrote in his Twelve Caesars, that "Claudius'
mother, Antonia, often called him 'a monster: a man whom
nature had not finished but had merely begun'." Claudius was
secluded from public view throughout his childhood and youth.
At the death of Caligula there was talk among the Senate of
restoring the Republic. Of course, various Senators proposed
that they be chosen as princeps. In the end, it was the Praetorian
Guard who had made the decision and Claudius, the army's
choice, became Rome's fourth emperor. This is important since it
shows how the Romans had not established a line of succession.
Caligula had been murdered by his body guard and Claudius
became princeps only through the support of the army.
Claudius' ambitious wife, Agrippina, seeing that the time was
ripe to dispose of Claudius, had him poisoned with a treated
mushroom. Claudius was dying but needed to be poisoned again.
With Claudius finally out of the way, the princeps fell to his
adopted son, Lucius Domitus Ahenobarbus, known as Nero
Claudius Caesar, or Nero (37-68; emperor, 54-68). Since Nero
was an adolescent, the early part of his reign was characterized
by direction from Agrippina and the Roman philosopher and
statesman Seneca (the Younger). Nero eventually married
Poppaea in 62. In the same year Nero passed a series of treason
laws directed at anyone he perceived to be a threat. In 64, a
great fire destroyed much of Rome -- the legend is that Nero had
to destroy Rome in order to rebuild it.
Nero had many enemies and there was more than one
assassination plot against him. A number of the conspirators
were forced to commit suicide, including Lucan, Petronious and
Seneca. Continued unrest within the Senate and the provinces
gave his enemies the chance to depose him but in early June 68,
Nero committed suicide. He was the last of the Julio-Claudians.
Control of the Roman Empire between Augustus and Nero was
based on military tyranny. In 68, Rome had four emperors, three
who died early, leaving the title of princeps to Titus Flavius
Vespasianus orVespasian (9-79; emperor, 69-79). Vespasian
restored the peace and brought stability to the Empire following
the rule of Nero. He also established the Flavian dynasty as the
legitimate successor to the throne. As an emperor Vespasian was
sound in his financial dealings and restored the city and
government of Rome following a series of civil wars early in his
reign. Unlike the four previous emperors, Vespasian died
peacefully in his sleep. His administration of the Roman Empire
anticipated the period of the "Five Good Emperors."
Despite the general fear that he would become the next Nero, it
was Titus Flavius Vespasianus, or Titus (30-81; emperor, 79-81),
the eldest son of Vespasian and brother of Domitian, who
became emperor. Titus played an important role in the assault of
Jerusalem (70), an assault which showed him to be a capable,
but not an innovative military leader. Tales of Titus' violence as a
praetorian prefect and his sexual debauchery preceded his
office. Despite his reputation, Titus was a capable ruler. Huge
amounts of money poured into Rome to finance an extensive
building program. The Flavian Amphitheater, or Coliseum, was
built during his reign. In A.D. 79, Vesuvius erupted, destroying

2. Pompeii and Herculaneum, and killing almost 4000. Titus spent
huge sums of money to relieve the hardships of the people
affected. Known for his generosity, Titus died in 81, after only
twenty-six months in office.
Titus was succeeded by his younger brother, Titus Flavius
Domitianus, or Domitian (51-96; emperor, 81-96). Titus and
Domitian were not close (they were separated in age by 21
years) and so while Titus was dying, Domitian left for the
praetorian camp where he was hailed as emperor. As emperor,
Domitian produced a financially sound administration. After a
series of catastrophes in Rome (the great fires of 64 and 80, and
the civil wars of 68-69), Domitian erected, restored or completed
more than fifty public buildings. In 85, Domitian made
himself censor perpetuus, censor for life, and thus took charge of
the conduct and morals of Rome. He was not much of a military
figure and his campaigns were minor at best. It was instead his
domestic policies that earned him some respects in the early
years of his rule. It is odd that while Domitian was severe in his
attempt to curb moral and political corruption, should turn out
to be a murderer himself. The catalog of his crimes is long and he
inflicted death on young and old alike. He called himself "Lord
God" and spoke of himself as divine. There were numerous
conspirators and in 96 he was murdered in a palace coup. The
people did not mourn the loss of Domitian. That same day
Domitian was succeeded by Nerva.
It was Edward Gibbon who called the period 96-180 the era of
the "Five Good Emperors." It was during the reign of Marcus
Cocceius Nerva, or Nerva (30-98; emperor, 96-98), that the
practice of an emperor adopting an heir rather than selecting a
blood relative first began. He took an oath before the Senate
that he would stop executing its members and also released
those who had been imprisoned by Domitian. Although keen on
maintaining a balanced budget, Nerva also built granaries,
repaired the Coliseum and continued the Flavian program of
road building and repair. Under pressure from the Praetorian
Guard, Nerva announced the adoption of Trajan as his successor.
In 98, Nerva suffered a stroke and died.
Marcus Ulpius Traianius, or Trajan (53-117; emperor, 98-117),
was born near Seville in Spain. Having won distinction in the
Parthian and German campaigns, he was made praetor and
consul (91), was adopted by Nerva (97) as his successor and
became sole ruler of Rome in 98. His long and fierce campaign
against the Dacians brought the Dacian province into the Roman
sphere. Although he spent most of his time away from Rome,
back at the capital he used a network of informers bound to
protect his policies and his person. His internal administration
was sound and he also kept up a policy of public works across
the Empire. Perhaps the most ambitious military man since Julius
Caesar, Trajan suffered a stroke and died in 117. The day after
his death, Hadrian was announced as Trajan's successor.
Publius Aeliues Hadrienus, or Hadrian (76-138; emperor, 117-
138) was born in Rome but possibly in Italica, near Seville. In his
youth, he was called "The Greekling," owing to his fondness for
Hellenic culture. Hadrian was a military man and like many other
young Romans, joined the army when he was a teenager. Rising
through the ranks, he eventually became a well-respected
general. Hadrian was also known for building a wall to defend
Roman Britain from the Scottish Picts to the North. He
reorganized the army, ruled justly and was a lover of the arts. In
138, Hadrian adopted as heir a Senator, T. Aurelius Fulvus
Boionius Arrius Antoninus, who was to be known as the Emperor
Antoninus Pius. Ill and depressed, Hadrian then retired from
public life and died after taking poison.
The long reign of Antoninus Pious (86-161; emperor, 138-161)
has been described as the calm before the storm, a storm that
would plague the reign of his successor, Marcus Aurelius.
Antoninus' economic policy was conservative and yet supported
a program of public works. He also promised to complete the
work begun under Hadrian. He was a man of simple, benevolent
and temperate character and tried to fulfill his role as pater
patriae. The persecution of Christians was partly stayed by his
mild measures, and Justin Martyr's Apologia was received by him
with favor. The epithet Pious was conferred upon him for his
defense of Hadrian's memory. By his much-loved yet worthless
wife Faustina he had four children, one of whom married Marcus
Aurelius, his adopted son and successor.
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121-180; emperor, 161-180), the last
of the Five Good Emperors, was one of the noblest figures of the
ancient world. From 140, when he was made consul, to the
death of Pious in 161, he discharged his public duties with the
utmost fidelity. At the same time he devoted himself to the
study of law and philosophy, especially Stoicism. The generally
peaceful Marcus Aurelius was throughout his reign destined to
suffer from constant wars and although in Asia, in Britain and on
the Rhine the barbarians were held in check, a permanent peace
was never secured. Rome was suffering from pestilence and
earthquakes when the imperial colleagues led the Roman armies
against the barbarians along the Danube. He was summoned to
the East by a rebellion of the governor, Avidius Cassius who died
at the hands of an assassin before Aurelius had arrived.
Meanwhile, his wife Faustina died in an obscure village at the
foot of Mount Taurus. On his way back to Rome, Aurelius visited
Lower Egypt and Greece. At Athens he founded chairs in
philosophy in each of the four main branches -- Platonic, Stoic,
Peripatetic and Epicurean. By the end of 176 he reached Italy,
and the following year Germany, where new disturbances had
broken out. Victory again followed him but at last, his health
gave way and he died at either Vienna or at Sirmium in Pannonia
in 180.
Under the Five Good Emperors the frontiers of the Empire were
consolidated to the north and to the east. The bureaucracy was
opened up to all social classes, trade and agriculture flourished,
and there was much public building. Although things did seem to
be getting better, there were problems on the horizon. Barbarian
pressures were mounting. There was a considerable decline in
the slave population and the army was no longer large enough to
maintain the frontier. As a result, Marcus Aurelius, the last of the
Five Great Emperors, spent most of his time defending the
frontier and as a result, spent very little time in Rome. Following
his death in 180, the imperial office passed to his nineteen year
old son and another madman, Marcus Aurelius Commodus
Antoninus (161-192, emperor, 180-192).
Commodus represented a throwback to Nero and Caligula. He
began to dress like the god Hercules, wearing lion skins and

3. carrying a club. He took part in gladiatorial contests and also
fought wild beasts in the amphitheater. He also declared that his
own age be henceforth called the "Golden Age." Commodus was
finally strangled in his bath by Narcissus, an athlete, thus
bringing an end to the Antonine dynasty. It was Publius
Helvius Pertinax (126-193; emperor, 192-193), whose brief reign
of only three months, followed that of Commodus. He was a
well-educated man and taught grammar for awhile before he
entered a military career. The Praetorian Guard planned a coup
but Pertinax learned of the plot and stopped it. Military
discipline continued to break down. Pertinax confronted his
troops and was killed.
The reign of Commodus had been anything but settled so the
Roman Empire was fortunate that the imperial office fell to
Lucius Septimius Severus (145-211; emperor, 193-211). Although
he held a positive reputation, his control of the empire was
joined by bloodshed. He rejected the Senate and based his
power on the army alone. Henceforth, soldiers' pay was
increased, they could marry while in service and they had greater
opportunities for promotion. His first act was to disband the
Praetorian Guard -- he then selected a larger Praetorian Guard
drawn from the provinces. He bought off the people with grain
doles and circuses in the Coliseum. At his death in 211, Severus
had created a larger and more expensive army, something that
foreshadowed the highly bureaucratic government of the later
Empire.
The rest of the 3rd century could be written off as the history of
a political mess. No good leader could be found to fill the Roman
office of emperor. Between 211 and 300, there were more than
seventy emperors who vied for control of the Imperial office.
Meanwhile, the frontiers disintegrated, the barbarian tribes
began to move into the territory of the Empire itself, cities were
sacked or declared their independence from Rome, slaves
rebelled on the greatest states, and civic responsibility
disappeared. Order was eventually restored but this order was
not consistent with the ideas of the Republic nor was a
consistent with the aims of Augustus Caesar. The Pax
Romana was clearly at an end.
Summary:
Extended borders to Asia Minor and secured frontiers.
Order and good government.
Prosperity. They Improved harbors, cleared forests, drained
swamps, and turned unused land into farms.
Roads were built.
Products from all over the empire flowed into Rome.
They built cities and expanded old ones.
Greek Culture Brought from Rome
Greeks came after the conquests. They were brought as slaves to
live with the Romans and teach them laws and legal traditions of
Greece. Romans added organization, engineering, and a talent
for government and law.
Poets
Virgil wrote Roman propaganda; Aenid. Horace criticized lives of
wealthy Romans. Ovid spoke for the wealthy people. Juvenal
criticized cities.
Realism
They now made realistic sculptures.
Architecture
Romans used the arch, saved on building costs, used concrete,
and built structure to last. Some things built by the Roman
Empire are still in use today.
Science
The Romans used science for practical things.
Ptolemy: mathematics, geography, and astronomy. They
understood that there was a system of planets. In their system,
the earth was at the center. This theory was believed until the
16th century.
Galen: medicine. Basis for Western medical knowledge until
modern times.
Stoicism
Philosophy - Marcus Aurelius: People should live simple lives,
control their emotions, and be self-sufficient.
Law
The Romans thought law should reflect principles of reason and
justice, and should protect the citizen's person and property.
Their idea that law could be based on just and rational principles
could apply to all people, regardless of nationality was a major
contribution.