This document summarizes opioids and their classification, mechanisms of action, and effects. Opioids are compounds that bind to opioid receptors in the central nervous system to produce morphine-like analgesic effects. The three main opioid receptor types are mu, kappa, and delta, which have different selectivities for opioids. Opioids relieve pain by altering pain perception in the brain and spinal cord. Common side effects include respiratory depression, constipation, and euphoria. Opioid antagonists like naloxone can reverse the effects of opioid overdose.

1. Opioids
Prepared By Raheel Ahmad

2. INTRODUCTION
 Opioids are natural, semisynthetic, or synthetic compounds that produce
morphine-like effects. These agents are classified on the basis of their
chemical structure.
 All opioids act by binding to specific opioid receptors in the CNS to produce
effects the effect which is similar to the action of endogenous peptide
neurotransmitters (for example, endorphins, enkephalins, and dynorphins).
 Although the opioids have a broad range of effects, their primary use is to
relieve intense pain, whether that pain results from surgery, injury, or chronic
disease

3. Opioids receptors
 Opioids act on three receptor families, which are commonly designated as
μ(mu), κ(kappa), and δ(delta).
 Each receptor family have a different specificity for the drug(s) it binds.
 The analgesic properties of the opioids are mediated by the μ receptors that
responses to thermal, mechanical, and chemical nociception. The κ
receptors contribute to analgesia by response to chemical and thermal
nociception

4. Opioids receptors
 All three opioid receptors are members of the G protein– coupled receptor
family and inhibit adenylyl cyclase.
 They are also associated with ion channels, increasing postsynaptic K+ efflux
(hyperpolarization) or reducing presynaptic Ca2+ influx, thus inhibiting
neuronal firing and neur.otransmitter release

5. CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF MECHANISM

6. CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF ORIGIN

7. CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF CHEMICAL
NATURE

8. Mechanism of action:
 Morphine and other opioids exert their major effects by interacting with
opioid receptors in the CNS and other structures, such as the gastrointestinal
(GI) tract and the urinary bladder.
 Morphine also acts at κ receptors in the spinal cord. It decreases the release
of substance P, which cause pain perception in the spinal cord.
 Morphine also inhibit the release of many excitatory transmitters from nerve
terminals carrying nociceptive (painful) stimuli

9. ACTIONS
 Analgesia: Morphine and other opioids cause analgesia (relief of pain without
the loss of consciousness) and relieve pain both by raising the pain threshold
at the spinal cord level and, more importantly, by altering the brain’s
perception of pain.
 Euphoria: Morphine produces a powerful sense of well-being. Euphoria may be
caused by disinhibition of the dopamine-containing neurons of the ventral
tegmental area

10. ACTIONS
 Respiration: Morphine causes respiratory depression by reduction of the
sensitivity of respiratory center neurons to carbon dioxide.
 Respiratory depression is the most common cause of death in acute opioid
overdoses.
 Tolerance to this effect does develop quickly with repeated dosing, which
allows the safe use of morphine for the treatment of pain

11. ACTIONS
Depression of cough reflex:
 Both morphine and codeine have antitussive properties.
Miosis:
 The pinpoint pupil characteristic of morphine use results from stimulation of
μ and κ receptors.
Emesis:
 Morphine directly stimulates the chemoreceptor trigger zone that causes
vomiting

12. ACTIONS
GI tract:
 Morphine relieves diarrhea by decreasing the motility and increasing the tone
of the intestinal circular smooth muscle.
 Morphine also increases the tone of the anal sphincter. Overall, morphine and
other opioids produce constipation, with little tolerance developing.
Cardiovascular:
 Morphinehas no major effects on the blood pressure or heart rate at lower
dosages. With large doses, hypotension and bradycardia may occur. Because
of respiratory depression and carbon dioxide retention, cerebral vessels dilate
and increase cerebrospinal fluid pressure. Therefore, morphineis usually
contraindicated in individuals with head trauma or severe brain injury

13. ACTIONS
Histamine release:
 Morphinereleases histamine from mast cells causing sweating, and
vasodilation. Because it can cause bronchoconstriction, orphineshould be
used with caution in patients with asthma.
Hormonal actions:
 Morphine increases growth hormone release and enhances prolactin secretion.
It increases antidiuretic hormone and leads to urinary retention.
Labor:
 Morphine may prolong the second stage of labor by transiently decreasing the
strength, duration, and frequency of uterine contractions

14. Pharmacokinetics:
Administration:
 Because significant first-pass metabolism of morphine occurs in the liver,
intramuscular, subcutaneous, and IV injections produce the most reliable
responses.
 Absorption of Morphine from the GI tract after oral absorption is slow

15. Distribution:
 Morphine rapidly enters all body tissues, including the fetuses of pregnant
women.
 It should not be used for analgesia during labor.
 Infants born to addicted mothers show physical dependence on opioids and
exhibit withdrawal symptoms if opioids are not administered.

16. METABOLISM
 Morphine is conjugated with glucuronic acid in the liver to two main
metabolites. Morphine-6-glucuronide is a very potent analgesic, whereas
morphine-3-glucuronide does not have analgesic activity, but is believed to
cause the neuroexcitatory effects seen with high doses of morphine.
 The conjugates are excreted primarily in urine with small quantities
appearing in bile.
 . Elderly patients sensitive to the analgesic effects of the drug, possibly due
to decreases in metabolism, N
 Nonates should not receive morphine because of their low conjugating
capacity.

17. Adverse effects:
 With most μ agonists, severe respiratory depression can occur and may result
in death from acute opioid overdose.
 Respiratory drive may be suppressed in patients with asthma
 Elevation of intracranial pressure, particularly in head injury, can be serious.
 Morphine should be used with caution in patients with asthma, liver disease,
or renal dysfunction

18. Tolerance and physical dependence:
 Repeated use produces tolerance to the respiratory depressant, analgesic,
euphoric, and
 sedative effects of morphine. However, tolerance usually does not develop to
the pupil-constricting and constipating effects of the drug. Physical and
psychological dependence can occur with Morphine and with some of the
other agonists. Withdrawal produces a series of autonomic, motor, and
psychological responses

19. Drug interactions:
Drug interactions with morphine are rare, although the depressant actions of
morphineare enhanced by phenothiazines, monoamine oxidase inhibitors
(MAOIs), and tricyclic antidepressants

20. Codeine
 naturally occurring opioid
 weak analgesic compared to morphine.
 used only for mild to moderate pain.
 The analgesic actions of codeine are derived from its conversion to morphine
by the CYP450 2D6 enzyme system
 Drug interactions associated with the CYP450 2D6 enzyme system may alter
the efficacy of codeine or potentially lead to toxicity.
 commonly used in combination with acetaminophen for management of pain.
 exhibits good antitussive activity at doses that do not cause analgesia.
 codeine has been replaced by drugs such as dextromethorphan, a synthetic
cough depressant

21. PARTIAL AGONIST AND
MIIXED AGONIST
ANTAGONIST

22. Buprenorphine
 partial agonist, acting at the μ receptor
 major use is in opioid detoxification, because it has shorter and less severe
withdrawal symptoms compared to methadone
 It causes little sedation, respiratory depression, or hypotension, even at high
doses.
 Buprenorphineis administered sublingually, parenterally, or transdermally and has
a long duration of action because of its tight binding to the μreceptor.
 available in a combination product containing buprenorphine and naloxone.
 transdermal patch are indicated for the relief of moderate to severe pain.
 Buprenorphineis metabolized by the liver and excreted in bile and urine.
 Adverse effects include respiratory depression that cannot easily be reversed by
naloxone and decreased blood pressure, nausea, and dizziness

23. Pentazocine
 acts as an agonist on κ receptors
 weak antagonist at μ and δ receptors.
 Pentazocine promotes analgesia by activating receptors in the spinal cord,
and it is used to relieve moderate pain.
 It may be administered either orally or parenterally.
 Pentazocine produces less euphoria compared to morphine.
 In higher doses, the drug causes respiratory depression and decreases the
activity of the GI tract.
 High doses increase blood pressure and can cause hallucinations, nightmares,
dysphoria, tachycardia, and dizziness.

24. Pentazocine
 Despite its antagonist action, pentazocine does not antagonize the
respiratory depression of morphine
 Tolerance and dependence develop with repeated use.
 Pentazocine should be used with caution in patients with angina or coronary
artery disease, since it can increase systemic and pulmonary arterial pressure
and, thus, increase the work of the heart

25. Tramadol
 it is a centrally acting analgesic
 binds to the μ opioid receptor.
 extensive metabolism via CYP450 2D6,
 active metabolite with a much higher affinity for the μ receptor
 It is used to manage moderate to moderately severe pain.
 respiratory depressant activity is less than that of morphine.
 Naloxone can only partially reverse the analgesia produced by tramadol
 Anaphylactoid reactions have been reported.
 Overdose or drug–drug interactions with medications, such as SSRIs, MAOIs, and
tricyclic antidepressants, can lead to toxicity manifested by CNS excitation and
seizures.

26. OPIOID ANTAGONIST
 The opioid antagonists bind with high affinity to opioid receptors
Administration of opioid antagonists produces no profound effects in normal
individuals.
 patients dependent on opioids, antagonists rapidly reverse the effect of
agonists, such as morphine or any full μ agonist

27. Naloxone
 It is used to reverse the coma and respiratory depression of opioid overdose.
 It rapidly displaces all receptor-bound opioid molecules and, therefore, is
able to reverse the effect of a morphine overdose.
 Within 30 seconds of IV injection of naloxone, the respiratory depression and
coma characteristic of high doses of morphine are reversed, causing the
patient to be revived and alert.
 Naloxonehas a half-life of 30 to 81 minutes; therefore, a patient who has
been treated and recovered may lapse back into respiratory depression.
 Naloxoneis a competitive antagonist at μ, κ, and δreceptors,