Andrew Clay Shafer gave a presentation at the OpenStack Summit on November 10, 2010 about open ecosystems and cloud computing. He discussed how most code for Linux and other open source projects comes from hundreds of individual contributors rather than just a few large companies. Shafer envisions a community of service providers working together using shared open technologies, with an open "kernel for the cloud" that enables services to be built and deployed easily. He discussed some principles for reliability in cloud systems and challenges around standardization and interoperability.