The document discusses omega-3, omega-6, and omega-9 fatty acids, including their main components, plant and seafood sources, functions in the body, role in various health conditions, and deficiency symptoms. It provides details on the differences between plant and marine sources of omega-3s, how omega-3s function in the body including promoting healthy cell membranes and reducing inflammation, and conditions such as cardiovascular disease and depression that omega-3s may help prevent or treat.

1. OMEGA 3
Fatty Acids
Prepared by :
Mohammed S. El-Lulu
Master of Clinical Nutrition
Palestine - Gaza

2. The differences between Omega 3, 6, 9
Main components Of Omega 3's
Omega 3 Omega 6 Omega 9
Alpha-linolenic acid Linoleic acid (LA) Oleic acid (OA)
(ALA)
Eicosapentaenoic Gamma-linolenic acid
acid (EPA) (GLA)
Docosahexaenoic Dihomogamma-linolenic
acid (DHA) acid (DLA)
Arachidonic acid (AA)
Miller L, (2009), Omega 3, 6, 9. www.mind1st.co.uk/omega-3-6-9.asp
Access 15.5.2009
Chemical structures of Omega 3 fatty acids
 Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA)
 Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
 Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)
More Info. at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid

3. Plant sources of ALA
Sources g/100g Sources g/100g
Nuts and Seeds Legumes
Almonds 0.4 Beans, common (dry) 0.6
‫ بذور الكتان‬Flaxseed 22.8 ‫الحمص‬Chickpeas (dry) 0.1
‫جوز‬Hickory nuts (dried) 1.0 ‫اللوبيا‬Cowpeas (dry) 0.3
‫ الفول السوداني‬Peanuts 0.003 ‫العدس‬Lentils (dry) 0.1
‫جوز‬Walnuts, black 3.3 ‫البازالء‬Peas, (dry) 0.2
Walnuts, English 6.8 Soybeans (dry) 1.6
Vegetables Grains
Beans, (cooked) 0.3 ‫الشعير‬Barley, bran 0.3
Broccoli (raw) 0.1 Corn, germ 0.3
‫القرنبيط‬Cauliflower (raw) 0.1 Oats, germ 1.4
‫اللفت‬Kale (raw) 0.2 Rice, bran 0.2
‫الخس‬Lettuce 0.1 Wheat, bran 0.2
‫الخردل‬Mustard 0.1 Wheat, germ 0.7
‫الرجلة‬Purslane 0.4 Fruits
Soybeans, green (raw) 3.2 Avocados, (raw) 0.1
Spinach (raw) 0.1 ‫ التوت‬Raspberries (raw) 0.1
Strawberries (raw) 0.1
Kris-Etherton, P.M., et al. Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the food chain in the US .
AJCN. 71: 179-188, 2000.
DHA/EPA Omega-3 Institute, http://dhaomega3.org

4. Fish and Seafood Sources of DHA plus EPA
Source (100 g portion) DHA + EPA
(g)
Fish
‫سمك الشبوط‬Carp, cooked, dry heat 0.451
Catfish, channel, farmed, cooked, dry heat 0.177
Cod, Atlantic , cooked, dry heat 0.158
‫ثعبان البحر‬Eel, mixed species, cooked, dry heat 0.189
Flatfish (flounder and sole), cooked, dry heat 0.501
Halibut, cooked, dry heat 0.465
‫البوري‬Mullet, striped, cooked, dry heat 0.328
Salmon, farmed, cooked, dry heat 2.147
Sardine, canned in oil, drained solids with bone 0.982
Shark, mixed species, raw 0.843
‫ النهاش‬Snapper, mixed species, cooked, dry heat 0.321
‫أبو سيف‬Swordfish, cooked, dry heat 0.819
‫نوع من سمك السلمون‬Trout, mixed species, cooked, dry heat 0.936
Tuna, fresh, cooked, dry heat 0.328
Whiting, mixed species, cooked, dry heat 0.518
‫القشريات‬Crustaceans
‫سلطعون‬Crab, cooked, moist heat 0.413
Shrimp, mixed species, cooked, moist heat 0.315
‫جراد البحر‬Spiny lobster, mixed species, cooked 0.480
‫الرخويات‬Mollusks
‫المحار‬Mussel, blue, cooked, moist heat 0.782
‫األخطبوط‬Octopus, common, cooked, moist heat 0.314
‫المحار‬Oyster, eastern, farmed, cooked, dry heat 0.440
Scallop, mixed species, cooked, breaded and fried 0.180
Williams, C. M., and Burdge, G. Long-chain n-3 PUFA: plant v. marine sources.
Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 65:42-50, 2006.
DHA/EPA Omega-3 Institute, http://dhaomega3.org

5. The differences between Plants and
Seafood sources of Omega 3
Omega-3 fatty acids are the least stable fats in our
diet. Whole grains contain lots of vit-E to keep the
omega 3 fresh and prevent them from turning rancid,
but omega 3 fatty acids in fish are not protected by
vit-E and therefore turn rancid much more quickly
than the omega 3 fatty acids in whole grains.
Omega 3 found in fish oils are mostly long chain
fatty acids. Omega 3 in plants, contain much shorter
chains and are weaker than the omega 3 found in
fish. However, the shorter chain omega 3 (ALA),
are converted to the long chain fatty acids in the
human body. Long- chain fish omega 3 enter blood
and cells more rapidly and produce more rapid
effects than short chain
plant omega-3s.

6. The differences between Plants and
Seafood sources of Omega 3 (Cont)
The conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to EPA and
DHA involves a series of chemical reactions. One
of the first reactions in this series is catalyzed by
the enzyme delta-6 desaturase. Further down the
line is a reaction that is catalyzed by the enzyme
delta-5 desaturase.
To increase the activity of your desaturase
enzymes, be sure that your diet includes a
sufficient amount of
vitamin B6, vitamin B3, vitamin C, magnesium
and zinc.
Simopoulos AP. Omega-3 fatty acids in wild plants, nuts and seeds. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition,
2002, Vol 11, Suppl. 6, pp S163-S173.
More Info. at: www.DrMirkin.com

7. Essential fatty acid metabolism
desaturation and elongation of w3
Arternis P Simopoulos. Omega-3 fatty acids in health and disease and in growth and
development American journal of clinical nutrition

8. How it Functions
What are the functions of omega 3 fatty acids?
 Every cell in our body is surrounded by a cell
membrane composed mainly of fatty acids.
The cell membrane allows the proper amounts
of necessary nutrients to enter the cell, and
ensures that waste products are quickly
removed from the cell.
A- Promoting Healthy Cell Membranes
To perform these functions optimally, however,
the cell membrane must maintain its integrity and
fluidity. Cells without a healthy membrane lose
their ability to hold water and vital nutrients. They
also lose their ability to communicate with other
cells. Researchers believe that loss of cell to cell
communication is one of the physiological events
that leads to growth of cancerous tumors.
(especially Breast cancer via several
mechanisms):

9. A- Promoting Healthy Cell Membranes
(cont.)
1- inhibiting a pro-inflammatory enzyme called
cyclooxygenase 2 (COX 2), which promotes
breast cancer.
2- activating a type of receptor in cell membranes
called peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor
(PPAR)-ã, which can shut down proliferative
activity.
3- increasing the expression of BRCA1 and BRCA2,
tumor suppressor genes that, when functioning
normally, help repair damage to DNA, thus helping
to prevent cancer development.
Bernard-Gallon DJ, Vissac-Sabatier C, Antoine-Vincent D et al. Differential effects of n-3 and n-6
polyunsaturated fatty acids on BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene expression in breast cell lines. Br J Nutr 2002
Apr;87(4):281-9 2002.
Source: International Journal of Cancer
More Info. at: http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=nutrient&dbid=84

10. B- Prostaglandin Production
 Omega 3 fats play an important role in
the production of powerful hormone-
like substances called prostaglandins.
Prostaglandins help regulate many
important physiological functions
including blood pressure, blood
clotting, nerve transmission, the
inflammatory and allergic responses,
the functions of the kidneys and
gastrointestinal tract, and the
production of other hormones.
Source: The George Mateljan Foundation
More Info. at: http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=nutrient&dbid=84

11. Weber PC, Fischer 5, von Schacky C, Lorenz R, Strasser T. Dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and
eicosanoid formation in man. In: Simopoulos AP, Kifer RR, Martin RE, eds. Health effects of polyunsaturated fatty
acids in seafoods. Orlando, FL: Academic Press, 1986:49-60.

12. C- EPA Directly
Anti-Inflammatory
 A recently identified lipid product, that our
bodies make from EPA, called resolvins, helps
explain how this omega-3 fat provides anti-
inflammatory effects on our joints and
improves blood flow.
 Resolvins, which have been shown to reduce
inflammation in animal studies, are made from
EPA by our cellular enzymes, and work by
inhibiting the production and regulating the
migration of inflammatory cells and chemicals
to sites of inflammation. Unlike anti-
inflammatory drugs, such as aspirin,
ibuprofen and the COX-2 inhibitors, the
resolvins our bodies produce from EPA do not
have negative side effects on our
gastrointestinal or cardiovascular systems.
Arita M, Bianchini F, Aliberti J, Sher A, Chiang N, Hong S, Yang R, Petasis NA, Serhan CN. Stereochemical
assignment, antiinflammatory properties, and receptor for the omega-3 lipid mediator resolvin E1. J Exp Med.
2005 Mar 7;201(5):713-22. 2005. PMID:15753205.
Source: The George Mateljan Foundation
More Info. at: http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=nutrient&dbid=84

13. Function of Omega 3
 Reduce inflammation throughout your body
 Keep your blood from clotting excessively
 Maintain the fluidity of your cell membranes
 lower the amount of lipids (fats such as
cholesterol, vLDL, and triglycerides)
circulating in the bloodstream
 decrease platelet aggregation, preventing
excessive blood clotting
 inhibit thickening of the arteries by decreasing
endothelial cells' production of a platelet-
derived growth factor (the lining of the arteries
is composed of endothelial cells)

14. Function of Omega 3
(cont.)
 increase the activity of another chemical
derived from endothelial cells (endothelium-
derived nitric oxide), which causes arteries to
relax and dilate
 reduce the production of messenger
chemicals called cytokines, which are
involved in the inflammatory response
associated with atherosclerosis
 reduce the risk of becoming obese and
improve the body's ability to respond to
insulin by stimulating the secretion of leptin, a
hormone that helps regulate food intake, body
weight and metabolism, and is expressed
primarily by adipocytes (fat cells)
 help prevent cancer cell growth
1- Osmundsen H, Clouet P. Metabolic effects of omega-3 fatty acids. Biofactors 2000;13(1-4):5-8 2000. PMID:15800.
2- Heller A, Koch T. [Immunonutrition with omega-3-fatty acids. Are new anti-inflammatory strategies in sight?].
Zentralbl Chir 2000;125(2):123-36 2000. PMID:15830.
3- Popp-Snijders C, Schouten JA, Heine RJ, et al. Dietary supplementation of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids
improves insulin sensitivity in non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Diabetes Res 1987 Mar;4(3):141-7 1987. PMID:8990.
4- Severus WE, Littman AB, Stoll AL. Omega-3 fatty acids, homocysteine, and the increased risk of cardiovascular
mortality in major depressive disorder. Harv Rev Psychiatry 2001 Nov-2001 Dec 31;9(6):280-93 2001. PMID:15780.
Source: The George Mateljan Foundation
More Info. at: http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=nutrient&dbid=84

15. Health Conditions
Omega 3 fatty acids may play a role in the
prevention and/or treatment of the following health
conditions:
 Alzheimer's disease
 Asthma
 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
 Bipolar disorder
 Cancer
 Cardiovascular disease
 Depression
 Diabetes
 Eczema
 High blood pressure
 Migraine headaches
 Multiple sclerosis
 Obesity
 Osteoarthritis
 Osteoporosis
 Psoriasis
 Rheumatoid arthritis
1- Osmundsen H, Clouet P. Metabolic effects of omega-3 fatty acids. Biofactors 2000;13(1-4):5-8 2000. PMID:15800.
2- Heller A, Koch T. [Immunonutrition with omega-3-fatty acids. Are new anti-inflammatory strategies in sight?].
Zentralbl Chir 2000;125(2):123-36 2000. PMID:15830.
Source: The George Mateljan Foundation
More Info. at: http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=nutrient&dbid=84

16. Deficiency Symptoms
 What are deficiency symptoms for omega 3
fatty acids?
 Recent statistics indicate that nearly 99% of
people in the United States do not eat enough
omega 3 fatty acids. However, the symptoms
of omega 3 fatty acid deficiency are very
vague, and can often be attributed to some
other health conditions or nutrient
deficiencies.
 Consequently, few people (or their physicians,
for that matter) realize that they are not
consuming enough omega 3 fatty acids. The
symptoms of omega 3 fatty acid deficiency
include fatigue, dry and/or itchy skin, brittle
hair and nails, constipation, frequent colds,
depression, poor concentration, lack of
physical endurance, and/or joint pain.
Source: The George Mateljan Foundation
More Info. at: http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=nutrient&dbid=84

17. Drug-Nutrient Interactions
Fish oil supplements containing high amounts of
omega 3 fatty acids have been shown to reduce high
blood pressure in people taking cyclosporine, an
immunosuppressive drug used to prevent rejection
of transplanted organs.
In addition, a high dietary intake of omega 3 fats,
especially from fish, may decrease blood pressure
and thin the blood. People taking prescription blood
pressure medications and/or anticoagulants should
consult with their physician before taking fish oil
supplements.
Nutrient Interactions
Vitamin E, the primary fat-soluble antioxidant, protects
omega 3 fats from oxidation. Oxidation is a chemical
process that produces free radicals.
Source: The George Mateljan Foundation
More Info. at: http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=nutrient&dbid=84

18. Omega 3 Side Effects
Omega 3 side effects & precautions depends on the source.
The most popular omega 3 supplements come from either fish oil,
flaxseed oil, & Cod liver oil.
 Fish Oil Side Effects and Precautions:
1- Possible side effects such as belching, nausea, diarrhea,
bloating, and intestinal gas.
2- Very high doses may cause a fishy body odor and/or "fish breath".
3- In some people, fish oil supplementation has been reported to increase
cholesterol LDL levels. However, others have reported that taking garlic
supplements can counteract this effect.
4- Diabetes: taking large amounts of fish oil may make it more difficult to
control blood sugar levels.
5- Fish oil may have a blood-thinning effect, it is recommended that anyone
taking anticoagulant medications (blood thinning medications) such as
Coumadin or taking any over-the-counter blood thinners such as aspirin,
consult with a physician before taking any supplements.
Cod liver oil contains both vitamin A and D, and consuming
excessive amounts of these two vitamins can cause toxicity
and dangerous side effects.
Flaxseed oil appears to be safe with very few omega 3 side effects.
Flaxseed oil may cause mild gastrointestinal symptoms as diarrhea.
More Info at: www.nutritional-supplement-educational-centre.com/omega-3-side-effects.html

19. The difference between Omega 3
and Fish oil (Pharmaceutical products)
SupHerp: Omega 3
(Fabricate in Israel) (www.supherb.ps)
Fish oil ……………………………………………………………………………… 1000 mg
(marine lipid concentrate) contains:
EPA ……................................................................................................................... 180 mg
DHA …….......................................................................................................…….... 120 mg
Vit E ……………………………………………………………………………………..……….…… 3 IU
Tung-Hai: Fish Liver oil
(Fabricate in Shanghai China)
One capsule contains:
Vit A: ………………………………………………………………………..……. 60,000 IU
Vit D: ……………………………………………………………..………………. 6,000 IU

20. Tolerable Upper Intake Levels
(ULs) for Vitamin D
Age Children Men Women Pregnancy Lactation
Birth to 12 25 mcg
months (1,000 IU)
50 mcg
1-13 years
(2,000 IU)
50 mcg 50 mcg 50 mcg 50 mcg
14+ years
(2,000 IU) (2,000 IU) (2,000 IU) (2,000 IU)
Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes: Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium,
Vitamin D, and Fluoride. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1997.

21. Recommended Dietary
Allowances (RDAs) for vitamin A
Age Children Males Females Pregnancy Lactation
(years) (mcg RAE) (mcg RAE) (mcg RAE) (mcg RAE) (mcg RAE)
300
1-3
(1,000 IU)
400
4-8
(1,320 IU)
600
9-13
(2,000 IU)
900 700 750 1,200
14-18
(3,000 IU) (2,310 IU) (2,500 IU) (4,000 IU)
900 700 770 1,300
19+
(3,000 IU) (2,310 IU) (2,565 IU) (4,300 IU)
Adequate Intakes (AIs) for vitamin A for infants:
Age (months) Males and females (mcg RAE)
0-6 400 (1,320 IU)
7-12 500 (1,650 IU)
Institute of Medicine. Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic,
Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc.
National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2001.

22. Public Health
Recommendations
# In 2002, the Institute of Medicine at the National
Academy of Sciences issued Adequate Intake (AI)
levels for α-linolenic acid:
Male teenagers and adult : 1.6 grams/day
Female teenagers and adult : 1.1 grams/ day
# Guidelines issued by the Workshop on the
Essentiality of Recommended Dietary Intakes (RDI)
for Omega-3 Fatty Acids in 1999 sponsored by the
National Institutes of Health (NIH):
People must consume at least:
2% of their total daily calories as omega-3 fats.
# e.g: person consuming 2000 calories per day should eat sufficient
omega-3-rich foods to provide at least 4 grams of omega-3 fatty
acids.
Source: The George Mateljan Foundation
More Info. at: http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=nutrient&dbid=84

23. Cholesterol content in
Fishes and seafood's
1
(100g) of shrimp, mixed species, containing approximately
152mg of cholesterol. 2
Mullet contains, 90 mg fish cholesterol per 100 gram. 3
CHOLESTEROL INTAKE
The safe range of cholesterol intake is: 200-400 mg/day. 1
Sources: United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).
1- http://healthyeatingclub.com/info/books-phds/books/foodfacts/html/data/data2h.html
2- http://www.cholesterolcholestrol.com/shrimp-cholesterol-cholestrol.html
3- http://www.cholesterolcholestrol.com/fish-cholesterol-cholestrol.html

24. Salmon
Spiny lobster
Oyster
Mullet