The document discusses mycotoxins, which are toxic chemicals produced by fungi that can contaminate foods like cereals, nuts, and livestock feeds. Mycotoxins pose health risks like liver cancer and stunting growth in children. They also cause significant economic losses estimated at over $1 billion annually from contaminated global food crops. The document outlines the challenges of regulating mycotox

1. Health and Economic significance of Mycotoxin
Contamination in Food and Feeds
By
NEGEDU ANTHONY PhD.
B.Sc. (Unijos), MSc.(UI), PhD. (ABU)
President, Mycotoxicology Society of Nigeria (MSN)
At the
27TH Annual National Scientific Conference and General
Meeting of the Professional Association of Public
Health Nursing Officers of Nigeria (PAPHNON)
International Center for Women Development, Abuja
October 27, 2015
1

2. OUTLINE OF PRESENTATION
BACKGROUND
PERTINENT QUESTIONS
 WHAT ARE MYCOTOXINS
 WHY ARE THEY PRODUCED
 CHARACTERISTICS
 MYCOTOXIN EFFECTS
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE PRODUCTION
 PREVENTION AND CONTROL
 CHALLENGES
 VIABLE OPTIONS
 OPPORTUNITIES
 CONCLUSIONS/ RECOMMENDATIONS
2

3. 3 QUESTIONS ARE PERTINENT
Food Trade
 What is the food export market loss at different
mycotoxin (especially aflatoxin) standards? Which
nations are most at risk?
 How many additional liver cancer cases attributable to
mycotoxin (especially aflatoxin) exposure occur at
different standards? Which nations are most at risk?
Interventions.
 How do health and trade improve when we introduce
public health strategies and nutritional approaches, or
mycotoxin (especially aflatoxin) control methods to
supplement agricultural mitigating strategies? 3
AF -Max. Limits: Eu=2-4 (AFB 2-4ppb); USA =20ppb;
Codex = 10ppb

4. 4
 Safety and security have remained basic human needs
and food quality and safety have been the concern of
mankind since the dawn of history.
 In recent years, there has been increasing disquietness on
the part of governments, food processors and consumers
over food safety and mycotoxins in relation to food
security .
 There is increasing awareness on the close relationship
between food and health.
Food Safety and Myctoxin Challenges

5. WHAT ARE MYCOTOXINS?
• Mycotoxins are toxic
(poisonous) chemical secondary
products of the metabolism of
certain strains of some
filamentous fungi such as,
Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus
parasiticus , Penicillium citrinum
Fusarium verticilioides, etc.
• They are produced under
favorable environmental
conditions (temperature and
humidity)
Aspergillus flavus
Penicillium citrinum
5

6. BACKGROUND CONT‘D
 Fungi are microorganisms that lack
chlorophyll and depend on other
organisms as saprophytes or
parasites for existence.
 The most notorious and extensively
investigated mycotoxins are
aflatoxins, fumonisins, Ochratoxins,
Zearalenone, trichothecenes
sterigmatocystin, citrinin, patulin
and fusaric acid.
F. graminearum
A. fumigatus
A. tamariiA. flavusA. niger
(Negedu et al., 2012)

7. BACKGROUND CONT‘D
They contaminate agricultural
commodities such as:
 Nuts (walnuts, cashew nuts,
almond, tiger nuts, dates,
groundnuts, etc.)
 Cereals ( maize, sorghum, pearl
millet, wheat, rice, hungry rice,
etc.)
 Oilseeds (soya beans, sesame
seed, cottonseed, castor seed,
sunflower seed, palm fruits,
etc.);
 Tubers (cassava, yam, cocoyam,
potato, etc.);
Mouldy palm fruits
Mouldy groundnuts
Mouldy maize cobs
Mouldy Coconut
7Cassava tuber
Mouldy maize cobs

8. 8
RICE
MILLET
WHEAT
Beans
MAIZE
Susceptible commodities

9. 9
TIGER NUTS TOMATOESCASTOR SEEDDRIED
PEPPER
Bread garnished
with Sesame
seeds

10. BACKGROUND CONT‘D
 Fruits (apple, pineapple, peppers,
citrus, mango, tomato, okra,
guava),
 Peanut butter, marijuana, tortillas,
feeds,
 Livestock and poultry products
(cheese, meat, egg, milk)
 Allied products (groundnut cake,
cotton seed cake, popcorn, tortillas,
cornflakes, fruit juice, wines, etc.)
 Sea foods (Shrimps, fish, crabs,
prawns, etc.)
 Spices (onions, peppers, garlic, etc.)
and
Apple Fruits
Pineapple Fruits
Tomato Fruits
10
Onion bulbs

11. Commodities found to be contaminated with mycotoxins
Mycotoxin Commodity
Aflatoxins Peanuts, corn, wheat, cottonseed,
copra, nuts, various foods,
milk, egg, cheese, figs
Citrinin Cereal grain (wheat, barley, corn, rice)
Cyclopiazonic acid Corn, peanut, cheese, kodo millet
Ochratoxin A Cereal grains (wheat, barley, oats, corn), dry
beans, mouldy peanuts, cheese, tissues
of swine, coffee, raisins, grapes, dried fruits,
wine, cocoa
Patulin Mouldy feeds, rotten apples, apple juice,
wheat straw residue
11

12. Penicillic acid Stored corn, cereal grains, dried beans, mouldy
tobacco
Penitrem Mouldy cream cheese, English walnuts,
hamburger bun, beer
Sterigmatocystin Green coffee, mouldy wheat, grains, hard cheese,
peas, cottonseed
Trichothecenes Corn, wheat, commercial cattle feed, mixed
feeds, barley, oats
Zearalenone Corn, mouldy hay, silage, pelleted commercial
feeds, water systems
Commodities found to be contaminated with mycotoxins
Mycotoxin Commodity
12

13. 13
IRISH POTATO SWEET POTATO CASSAVAYAM

14. WHY ARE THEY PRODUCED
As a secondary metabolite, mycotoxins have no direct
function in fungal metabolism
Main theories for their production are:
 To assist the fungus in creating an environment
for survival and growth
 To protect the fungus
14

15. FACTOR AFFECTING MYCOTOXIN PRODUCTION
 Temperature (4 – 32oc)
 Humidity ( >70%)
 Moisture (22 – 23%) in grains
 Oxygen ( 1-2%)
 Extent of physical damage to the commodity
 geographical and seasonal factors
 Cultivation practices
 Harvesting practices
 Storage and
 transportation
15

16. CHARACTERISTICS OF MYCOTOXINS
 They are natural contaminants
 Their complete elimination may not be possible
 Have relatively high stability, so can persist on/in stored grains
 They do not lose their toxicity during thermal processing
 They are odourless, tasteless and colourless
 When present in livestock feed, mycotoxin can appear in meat
and dairy products (milk, meat, egg).
 Remain active on dead spores
 Resistant to degradation
 Produced on surfaces of spores
 Cause short-&long-term effects
 Have multiple exposure routes
 Produced by numerous species
 Production is variable
16

17. MAJOR MYCOTOXINS
 Aflatoxins
 Trichothecenes,
 Fumonisins,
 Zearalenone,
 Ochratoxin A,
 Ergot alkaloids.
OTHER MYCOTOXINS
Other mycotoxins that should
be included because of their
frequency of occurrence in
commodities or their products
or their co- occurrence with
other important mycotoxins are:
• Cyclopiazonic acid,
• Sterigmatocystin,
• Citrinin and
• Patulin. 17

18. Toxicity of mycotoxins depends on:
 Rate of absorption of the toxin.
 Transportation to the target organ.
 Various metabolic reactions which:
•activate, detoxify, enhance or,
•decrease the effects of the toxin.
 Other diseases
 Exposure to multi-mycotoxins
 Extent of exposure.
18

19. SEVERITY OF MYCOTOXICOSIS DEPENDS ON:
 Toxicity of the toxins
 Extent of exposure to the toxin
 Age, health, and nutritional status of the
affected animal or human
 Synergistic effect of all compounds to which
individual has been exposed 19

20. 20
Here are just a few of the many short-term symptoms that
have been documented in scientific and medical literature:
Headaches, chills, fever, nausea, sore throat, coughing,
congestion, skin rashes, skin lesions, nose bleeds,
fatigue, depression, diarrhea, blood in feces,
Blood in urine, abdominal pain, altered breathing,
altered immunity
Symptoms of mycotoxicosis

21. FACTORS OBSTRUCTING MYCOTOXIN REGULATION
Availability of toxicological data
Availability of survey data
The distribution of mycotoxins over commodities
Legislation in other countries with which trade contracts
exist
Sufficient food supply.
21

22. Extent of the problem
It is estimated that 25% of the world’s food crops
including many basic foods are contaminated by
mycotoxins
Global losses of foodstuffs due to mycotoxin
contamination is approximately 1 billion tons per year
(FAO, 1997, 2001 )
More than 4.5 billion people in developing countries
may be chronically exposed to aflatoxins in their diets
(WHO, 2004)
The chronic incidence of aflatoxin in diets is evident from the
presence of aflatoxin M1 in human breast milk in Ghana, Nigeria,
Sierra leone, Sudan, Thailand and the United Arab Emirates, the
Gambia and in the umbilical cord blood samples in Ghana, Kenya,22

23. Health Effects cont’d
Aflatoxin exposure among children in Benin and Togo has
been positively correlated to stunting growth, mortality,
immune suppression and neurological impairment (Gong
et al., 2002, Gong et al., 2003).
Over 37% of the male infertility in Benin, Nigeria positively
correlated to high aflatoxin levels (from 700 to 1393 µg/ml
and 148 µg/ml in infertile men) found in the blood and
semen of 98% cases tested and may be a contributory
factor to the increasing incidence of infertility (Uriah et al.,
23

24. 24
Afaltoxin outbreak in Kenya in 2004 resulted in the death
of 215 persons (Azziz-Banmgartuer et al., 2005)
Death of 2 chemical enigngeers from Pulmonary
adenomatosis in Czecho-SIavakia (Dvorakova ,1976) having
worked on peanut preservation.
Death of two British biochemists who developed
adenocarcinomas of the colon was attributed to their
exposure to purified aflatoxins (Dieger, 1976).
Health Effects cont’d

25.  Exposure to mycotoxins can produce
acute and chronic toxicities ranging
from death to deleterious effects on
central nervous, cardiovascular and
pulmonary systems and
alimentary tract (FAO, 2001).
Mycotoxins may also be
carcinogenic, mutagenic,
tetratogenic and
immunosuppressive (FAO, 2001).
Together with the hepatitis B virus,
aflatoxins are seen as co-factors in
the high incidence of primary liver
cancer in tropical Africa (FAO, 1997).
Liver cancer linked to
chronic intake of
aflatoxin (Bankole et
al.,2013)
Liver cirrhosis with
cancer in a
Nigerian Child.
(Jibrin, 2012)
Health Effects cont’d
25

26. 26
Aspergillus flavus contaminated dried meat displayed for
sale in an open market in Nigeria (Atanda et al., (2012)

27. Studies carried out in West
African countries such as Benin,
the Gambia and Togo indicate
chronic exposure of population
groups and fetuses to dietary
aflatoxins.
Children exposed to aflatoxins
may become stunted,
underweight and more
susceptible to infectious diseases
in childhood and later life (Bhat
and Vasanthi, 2003).
Health Effects Cont’d
Liver cirrhosis in a
Nigerian Child
(Jibrin , 2013)
27

28. 28
How the Outbreaks Unfolded
Symptoms of Aflatoxicosis include
High fever, Gastrointestinal infections, Stomach pain, Vomiting,
Edema of the limbs, Rapid progressive jaundice, Swollen livers,
Jaundiced sclera
Tested negative for: Yellow fever, Rift Valley fever, dengue,
hepatitis A, B, and C; West Nile virus; Chikungunya, and Bunyamwera
Jaundiced sclera
(David Wilson, UGA/Tifton)

29. 29
Liver cancer
Esophageal
cancer
Neural tube defects
Breast cancer

30. 30
Impact on Adults
As per one estimate, 40% of the
Hepatocellular Carcinoma (liver cancer) in
Africa can be attributed to Aflatoxin
Impact on infants
Where the lactating mother is exposed to
aflatoxin, the breast milk is also
contaminated with aflatoxins

31. Young ones (Children) are very sensitive to toxins due to:
 Their low body weight
Their higher metabolic rate
Their low ability to detoxify
Incomplete development of some organs and tissues
Increased nutritional requirements
Health Effects Cont’d
31

32. Health Effects Cont’d
Effects on Horses
32

33. 33

34. Health Effects Cont’d
34

35.  Reduction in productivity
and reproductivity
 Decrease in milk quantity
 Reduced egg size, shell
thickness and quantity
 Reduced vitamins in eggs
 Induces birth defects
 Leucoencephalomalacia in
horses
 Pulmonary oedema in pigs
 Teratogenicity
 Craniofacial enzema in
sheep
EFFECTS ON LIVESTOCK
35
Aborted cattle fetus

36. Health Effects Cont’d
36

37. 37
Cancer in fish
ASCITES (FLUID ACCUMULATION IN ABDOMINALCAVITY) IN CATFISHESJAUNDICED CATFISH FROM A FARM WHERE FISHES
CONSUMED CONTAMINATED FEED

38. Health Effects Cont’d
Mycotoxin Effects on Poultry
38

39. 39
Birds raised with aflatoxin
contaminated feed safe feed
Birds raised with safe feed

40. 40

41. Eggs contaminated
by Aspergillus spp
Aspergillus fumigatus inside
abdomen of a chicken
A. fumigatus
41
Aspergillus granulomas
in chicken lungs

42. 42

43. 43

44. Aflatoxins
• Hepatotoxicity(liver
damage).
•Bile duct hyperplasia.
•Hemorrhage.
•Intestinal tract
tumours.
•Kidneys.
•Carcinogenesis (liver
tumours).
44
Inspection for aflatoxin contamination under
ultra violet light

45. Carcinogenecity: AFB1
IARC (WHO) classified aflatoxins
as factor 1 in liver cancer
Molecular model showing AFB1 (in
medium grey) intercalated between
the strands of DNA
45

46. Teratogenicity:
 Delivery of live, but structurally
or biochemically abnormal
offspring.
Developmental delays or young
that are small for gestational
age.
Decrements of postnatal
functional capacity
Death of the concepts
skeletal malformations
Severe fetal growth retardations
(Abdel-Wahhab et al., 2005).
46Mould- infected cattle placenta

47. Sterigmatocystin
Carcinogenesis
Hepatotoxin
47

48. Ochratoxin
Nephrotoxicity
(tubular necrosis of
kidney)
Porcine nephropathy,
mild liver damage.
Enteritis,
Teratogenesis
Carcinogenesis
(kidney tumors)
Urinary tract tumors.
48
 Ochratoxin A is a carcinogen and involved in human
renal pathologies, IARC class 2B e.g. Balkan
endemic nephropathy (BEN)
 urinary tract tumours, nephritis, renal karyomegaly
not mutagenic, but genotoxic
OCHRATOXINS

49. Fumonisins
 Pulmonary edema.
Leucoencephalomalacia
Nephrotoxicity.
Hepatoxicity.
Lipid peroxidation.
Teratogenecity.
Severe fetal growth retardations
(Abdel-Wahhab et al., 2005).
49
“Hole-in-the-head disease" of
horses - leucoencephalomalacia, caused
by toxins of Fusarium verticillioides
Fusarium graminearum,
source of zearalenone
and vomitoxin.

50. Cyclopiazonic Acid
•Muscle necrosis.
•Intestinal hemorrhage
and edema.
•Oral lesions.
•Cracked eggshell.
50

51. Patulin
Hemorrhage (lungs,
capillary damage, liver,
spleen and kidney),
Paralysis of motor nerves,
Convulsions,
Carcinogenesis,
Antibiotic
Oedema (Brain and lungs).
51

52. Penicillic acid
 Kidney damage.
 Digitalis-like action on
heart.
 Dilates blood vessels.
 Liver damage (fatty liver,
cell necrosis).
 Antidiuretic.
52

53. Zearalenone
 Estrogenic effects (edema of
vulva, prolapse of vagina and
enlargement of uterus)
Atrophy of testicles Atrophy
of ovaries and enlargement
of mammary glands
Abortion
Abdel-Wahhab et al., 2005)
53
Aborted cattle fetus

54. Trichothecenes
Digestivedisorders(emesis,
diarrhea and refusal to eat).
Hemorrhage (stomach, heart,
intestines, lungs, bladder and
kidney).
Edema, oral lesions.
Dermatitis,
Blood disorders (leucopenia).
Trichothecenes include:
(T-2 toxin,
diacetoxyscirpenol,
neosolaniol, nivalenol,
diacetylnivalenol,
deoxynivalenol, HT-2
toxin, fusarenon X)
54

55. Citrinin
 Nephrotoxicity(tubular
necrosis of kidney).
 Porcine nephropathy.
55

56. 56
Ergot alkaloids
Gangrenous ergotism
1a: Ergot (sclerotia) on rye.
Ergot replaces grain of rye.
Until 1850's the ergot was
thought to be part of the
plant. .
1b. Ergot (Sclerotia)The ergot is the
overwintering stage and also is the
part of the life cycle containing the
alkaloids

57. Economic Impacts
 Adhering to the strict EU aflatoxin ML (2 µg/kg
AFB1 and 4 µg/kg total) allowable in
commodities entering their markets, will reduce
imports of cereals, dried fruits, oil seeds and nuts
from nine African countries by 64%
 According to the world bank estimate, this will
cost the African countries about US $670 million
in trade per year (Kellerhal, 2000; Otzuki, 2001).
The countries include, Chad, Egypt, Gambia,
Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Sudan and
Zimbabwe.
In 2010, over 2 million bags of maize in the
Eastern and Central provinces of Kenya were
found to be highly contaminated with aflatoxins and
were declared not tradeable or merchantable 57

58. Economic Impacts Cont.d
 Senegal lost its EU market for groundnut due
unacceptable high level of aflatoxin and the
World Bank estimates that reducing aflatoxin
contamination would add US$281 million
annually to Senegalese groundnut exports.
 Because of aflatoxin contamination in 1971, the
USA and Canada returned 80% of imported
Pistachio nuts to the original exporting countries
– Turkey and Iran resulting in loss of 4- 5 million
US $ (FAO, 1979a).
 In 2005, insurance companies in Canada paid out
$2.5 billion as claims on mould-related diseases.
 The burden on US alone is about $1 billion
annually with additional $0.5 billion due to
mitigating expenses.
58
Max. Limit:
Nigeria- 10ppb
Europe- 2-4(AFB1-
2ppb)
USA -20ppb
Codex – 10ppb
Loss of potential
export market

59.  Losses to Ontario (in Canada) pork producers alone was put
at $9 x 106 as a result of reproductive problems arising
from zearalenone,
 And losses due to DON (Vomitoxin) was put $12 x 106 as a
result of reduced growth rate in growing and finishing hogs
(Cardwell et al., 2001).
 Contamination of grains by aflatoxins alone inflicts annual
losses of more than $750 million in Africa and is a major
economic and health problem for the continent (Goyal et
al., 2003).
 Over $100 billion of exported commodities all over the
world are susceptible to mycotoxin contamination
(Cardwell et al., 2001).
Economic Impacts Cont’d
59

60. MYCOTOXIN PREVENTION AND CONTROL
Pre-Harvest
Time of planting
Crop planted
Genotype of seed planted
Irrigation
Insecticides
Competitive exclusion
Timing of harvest (Cotty and
Bhatnagar, 1994;
Dowd et al 2003) 60
(GAP)

61. 61

62. 62

63. 63

64. Pre-Harvest Interventions
 Good agricultural practices (GAP) including proper irrigation, farm
hygiene and post- harvest management can reduce mycotoxin
contamination.
 Choose crops that are genetically more resistant to the growth of
fungus and production of aflatoxins (Cotty and Bhatnager, 1994;
Brown et al 2001; Dowd et al., 2003).
 Eliminate inoculum sources such as infected debris from previous
harvest to prevent infection of crops (Hoyos et al., 1997).
 Use biopesticide consisting of a non-aflatoxigenic strain of
Aspergillus to competitively exclude toxigenic strains from
infecting the crop (Dorner, Cole et al., 1999; Dowd et al, 2003).
MYCOTOXIN PREVENTION AND CONTROL CONT’D
64

65. MYCOTOXIN PREVENTION AND CONTROL
CONT’D
Post – Harvest: Drying and Storage
 Before storage, dry crops properly to
prevent development of moulds
 Hand sorting and disposing of visibly
mouldy or damaged kernels before storage
in appropriate structures
Sun-drying on mats on elevated platforms.
Storing bags on wooden pallets or elevated
ground
Insecticides and Rodent control (Gnonlonfin
et al., 2005; Windham et al., 2005). 65

66. 66

67. 67
Seeds of Irvingia
gabonensis
Groundnuts infected
with Aspergillus
Roadside Drying
Inadequate storage
systems
Inadequate storage
at retail markets
INAPPROPRIATE POST HARVEST PRACTICES (STORAGE,
HANDLING, PROCESSING, ETC.)

68. MYCOTOXIN PREVENTION AND CONTROL CONT’D
Post-Harvest: Food Preparation
 Hand sorting
 Winnowing
 Washing
 Crushing and dehulling
 Nixtamalization
 Acidification
 Chemo-protectant
 Enterosorption (Azambula-Villa et al.,
2004; Marin et al., 2005,
68

69. 69
Problems of poor shelling
techniques
Contamination also occurs at point of Processing
Processing

70. MYCOTOXIN PREVENTION AND CONTROL CONT’D
Post – Harvest Food Preparation
 Interventions during food preparation or consumption involve:
 removing contaminated portions of food
 diluting contaminated food with uncontaminated food
 neutralizing aflatoxins present in food or
 altering the bioavailability of the aflatoxins consumed
 Aflatoxins are not largely affected by routine cooking
temperatures, but simple food preparation methods.
70

71. MYCOTOXIN PREVENTION AND CONTROL CONT’D
 Traditional methods of cooking food with alkaline
compounds (i.e. nixtamalizaiton) can reduce aflatoxin
exposure;
However, the chemical reaction may be temporary inactivation
of aflatoxins, a process that may be reversed in the gastric acid
of the stomach (Castellanos-Nava et al 2002; Arambulla-Villa et
al 2004; Fandohan, et al, 2005).
These methods do not always transfer well to other
communities due to lack of acceptance.
71

72. MYCOTOXIN PREVENTION AND CONTROL CONT’D
Enterosorption and Chemoprotection
Enterosorption is the use of clay, such as Novasil, with a high affinity
for aflatoxins (Philips 1999; Lemke et al 2002; Wang, Luo et al; 2005)
Attempt to reduce the effects of aflatoxin exposure or bio available
portions of aflatoxins in feed.
These strategies are expensive and therefore difficult to implement in
poor communities. Clay has been used as an anti-caking additive in
feed and has been shown to protect animals from ingested aflatoxins.
72
Chemoprotection is the use of chemical (e.g. Oltipaz,
Chlorophyllin) or dietary intervention (e.g. green tea,
broccoli sprouts) to alter the susceptability of humans to
carcinogens Davis et al 1994; Shen et al 1999; Ergner et al;
2008).

73. 73
Chemoprotection

74. CHALLENGES
 In most African countries, food supply is already limited
and poverty does not allow people to discard moldy
foodstuffs, because the need to eat first outweighs other
considerations such as food safety
there is limited awareness on mycotoxin contamination in
food and feeds and allied products, as well as the negative
impacts of these bioactive substances.
 the knowledge about technologies to reduce mycotoxin
contamination and the negative effects is very limited
 Developing countries do not have cost–effective
technologies that can be used to reduce the risk of human
and animal exposure to mycotoxins.
74

75. CHALLENGES CONT’D
 Most of the food stuffs that serve as staple for millions of
Africans are the greatest sources of exposure to
mycotoxins, such as maize, groundnuts, sorghum, millet,
rice, cassava, yam and fonio (Digitaria exilis).
 There are missing legislation and poor surveillance
programs
 There is lack of adequate resources for mycotoxin control
actions
 Lack of non-contaminated sources of nutrition
 Planting materials from previous season’s crop are used for
the next planting, thereby serving as sources of fungal
inoculum
75

76. CHALLENGES CONT’D
 Producers are unable to have physical and financial
access to fertilizers and insecticides
 Storage in houses, on roofs, in tanks of poorly
constructed containers in tropical climates are
inappropriate
 Traditional food processing may increase aflatoxin
contamination
Access to global markets is restricted due to aflatoxin
trade regulations 76

77. 77
Language barriers
Low and limited political will to put effective policies in
place and resources for mycotoxin control
Low level of farmer education on climate change as it
relates to mycotoxin contamination
CHALLENGES CONT’D

78. VIABLE OPTIONS
Public Awareness, Advocacy and Strategic
Communication
Raising awareness of aflatoxins and
disseminating relevant information.
During the 2005 outbreak in Kenya,
individuals who reported receiving
information on maize drying and storage
through an awareness campaign done by
FAO, Health and Agriculture Ministries
had lower serum aflatoxin levels than
those who did not receive the
information (CDC, 2005).
Awareness campaigns should utilize
already existing systems for 78

79. Such campaigns should disseminate information to non-
state actors, public service associations, health care
providers and schools.
Considering the diversity in culture and remote location of
villages, multiple means for disseminating information may
be necessary to reach a broad range of people.
Populations not receiving message from current campaigns
and appropriate methods for reaching them should be
identified.
Reasons for failure or unwillingness to adopt
recommendations should also be identified.
VIABLE OPTIONS CONT’D
79

80. Necessary alliance with UMBRELLA ASSOCIATIONS OF
health practitioners for routine screening of blood and
urine samples of patients for mycotoxins
Regular surveillance of food and feed along the value
chains for mycotoxin occurrence and levels
Strengthening of existing institutions (public and private)
for mycotoxin analysis and dissemination of relevant data
Capacity building and development on mycotoxin analysis,
detection, sampling, prevention and control
VIABLE OPTIONS CONT’ D
80

81. VIABLE OPTIONS CONT’D
Development of crop varieties that are more resistant to
fungal infection and mycotoxin production
Promotion of clustering of specific crop value chain actors
Promotion of health strategies to supplement agricultural
strategies
Promotion of dietary approaches to supplement
agricultural strategies
Inclusion of mycotoxin education in school curricullum
especially at post primary levels
81

82. OPPORTUNITIES
Available expertise
Available information, as well as print and electronic
media to disseminate the information
Existing public health strategies that need to be built
on and/or scaled up as successful initiatives
Existing global initiatives like UN and national days,
GAIN
82

83. Existing non-state actors (such as civil society
organizations) on advocacy working on agriculture,
food and nutrition security, trade, and other socio-
economic agenda and private sector.
Increased willingness amongst development partners
Existing laboratories and relevant facilities
OPPORTUNITIES CONT’D
83

84. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
With increasing population and limiting food supply, the
mycotoxin hazards will be exacerbated in Africa and hence,
the need for efficient and effective mycotoxin control
actions in Africa. Some of these actions include:
Conduct strategic extension campaigns (Awareness) on
mycotoxin impacts, prevention and control among
commodity value chain operators in Africa
Conduct advocacy workshops for legislators
(parliamentarians), policy makers and Non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) for effective legislation, polices and
resources allocation towards mitigating the harmful effects
of mycotoxins.
Strengthen existing Institutions (by purposefully upgrading
or scaling-up) to provide access for analysis 84

85. Conduct enlightenment workshops for agricultural and
agro-allied value chain actors.
Conduct mycotoxin mapping based on
compartmentalized agro-ecological zones
Monitor the incidence and prevalence of mycotoxins
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS CONT’D
85

86. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS CONT’D
 Conduct regular human and animal exposure assessment
 Establish bilateral and multilateral collaborations on
mycotoxins (with respect to capacity building, funding
and providing state-of-the-art facilities for analysis in
Africa.
 Conduct capacity building and development on mycotoxin
analysis, prevention and control
 Develop cost-effective, in-situ pre-harvest, harvest or
post-harvest technologies for mycotoxin control, such as
the bio control that is on-going.
86

87. CONTACT
Anthony Negedu PhD
Raw Materials Research and Development Council,
(Federal Ministry of Science and Technology)
P.M.B. 232, Garki, Abuja, Nigeria
Mobile: +234 805 524 0599
Email: tonyneg2000@yahoo.com
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