Nucleic acids are naturally occurring chemical compounds that serve as the primary information-carrying molecules in cells. They play an especially important role in directing protein synthesis. The two main classes of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). The information/images in this study material have been adapted from various sources including but not limited to books, journals, websites, and related materials openly available on the internet. This will be purely utilized for academic purposes only, by college students. The author has no intention of using this information/images/other materials that may be copyrighted and included in this study material for commercial benefit.
Nucleic acid play an important role in transmission of hereditary characteristics and biosynthesis of proteins.
DNA and RNA
* CONTENTS Introduction to Nucleic acids History of Nucleic acids Structure of Nucleic acids Description of Nucleic acids Chemical structure of DNA and RNA Classifications of Bases Sites of Nucleic acids Names of Nucleosides and Nucleotides Conclusion References
* Structure of Nucleic acids NA structure is often divided into four different levels: Primary structure Secondary structure Tertiary structure Quaternary structure
* Primary structure: consists of a linear sequence of nucleotides that are linked together by phosphodiester bond. Nucleotides consists of 3 components: Nitrogenous base 5-carbon sugar One or more phosphate groups
* Secondary structure This is the set of interactions between bases. In DNA double helix, the two strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds. The nucleotides on one strand base pairs with the nucleotide on the other strand. The secondary structure is responsible for the shape that the nucleic acid assumes.
* Tertiary structure This is the locations of atoms in three-dimensional space, taking into consideration geometrical and steric constraits. A higher order than the secondary structure in which large scale folding in a linear polymer occurs and the entire chain is folded into a specific 3-dimensional shape.
* Quaternary structure This is similar to that of protein quaternary structure. Although some of the concepts are not exactly the same. QS refers to a higher level of organization of nucleic acids moreover, it refers to the interactions of the nucleic acids with other molecules.
* NNuucclleeiicc AAcciiddss Nucleic acids are molecules that store information for cellular growth and reproduction
* There are two types of nucleic acids: - deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
* These are polymers consisting of long chains of monomers called nucleotides A nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar and a phosphate group.
* DNA and RNA are nucleic acids, long, thread-like polymers made up of a linear array of monomers called nucleotides All nucleotides contain three components: 1. A nitrogen heterocyclic base 2. A pentose sugar 3. A phosphate residue
* Ribonucleotides have a 2’-OH Deoxyribonucleotides have a 2’-H
* Bases are classified as Pyrimidines or Purines
* Nucleus Cytoplasm replication DNA transcription RNA (mRNA) translation Proteins
* reverse transcription messenger RNA (mRNA) transfer RNA (tRNA) ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
* Names of Nucleosides and Nucleotides
* X-ray diffraction patterns produced by DNA fibers Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins
* 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material" James Watson Francis Crick Maurice Wilkins
Molecular biology is the study of macromolecules like nucleic acids and proteins that are essential for life. The document discusses nucleic acids DNA and RNA. It defines DNA as containing the genetic material organized in chromosomes, while RNA plays important roles in protein synthesis. It describes the structures of nucleotides, DNA, RNA, and how DNA packages into chromatin and chromosomes.
Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds. There are two types: DNA and RNA. DNA contains the genetic information and directs protein synthesis. It exists as a double helix with nucleotides paired through hydrogen bonds between complementary bases (A-T and G-C). RNA is single-stranded and also involved in protein synthesis.
DNA contains the genetic instructions for living organisms. It exists as a double helix structure with two strands bonded together via complementary base pairing between adenine and thymine, and cytosine and guanine. James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the double helix structure of DNA in 1953. DNA is found within the nucleus of cells in structures called chromosomes and carries the code for inheritable traits by way of genes.
Nucleic Acids
DNA
Eukaryotic Chromosomes
The Histones
Deoxynucleic acid ( DNA )
Importance of Nucleotides
Base pairing
Denaturation and Renaturation
Determination GC content
Prokaryotic DNA synthesis
Prokaryotic DNA Replication
Transcription
Coding Strand and Template Strand
Steps of RNA synthesize
Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides that store genetic information. There are two main types: DNA and RNA. A nucleotide contains a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA), and a phosphate group. DNA forms a double helix with base pairing between complementary nucleotides. RNA exists in various forms that aid in protein synthesis.
This document provides information about DNA structure and types. It begins with a timeline of important discoveries in DNA research. It then discusses the primary and secondary structures of DNA, including the double helix model proposed by Watson and Crick. It describes Chargaff's rules and the complementary base pairing of A-T and G-C. Finally, it summarizes the different forms of DNA like A, B, and Z-DNA and discusses mitochondrial DNA and unusual DNA sequences.
Nucleic acid play an important role in transmission of hereditary characteristics and biosynthesis of proteins.
DNA and RNA
* CONTENTS Introduction to Nucleic acids History of Nucleic acids Structure of Nucleic acids Description of Nucleic acids Chemical structure of DNA and RNA Classifications of Bases Sites of Nucleic acids Names of Nucleosides and Nucleotides Conclusion References
* Structure of Nucleic acids NA structure is often divided into four different levels: Primary structure Secondary structure Tertiary structure Quaternary structure
* Primary structure: consists of a linear sequence of nucleotides that are linked together by phosphodiester bond. Nucleotides consists of 3 components: Nitrogenous base 5-carbon sugar One or more phosphate groups
* Secondary structure This is the set of interactions between bases. In DNA double helix, the two strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds. The nucleotides on one strand base pairs with the nucleotide on the other strand. The secondary structure is responsible for the shape that the nucleic acid assumes.
* Tertiary structure This is the locations of atoms in three-dimensional space, taking into consideration geometrical and steric constraits. A higher order than the secondary structure in which large scale folding in a linear polymer occurs and the entire chain is folded into a specific 3-dimensional shape.
* Quaternary structure This is similar to that of protein quaternary structure. Although some of the concepts are not exactly the same. QS refers to a higher level of organization of nucleic acids moreover, it refers to the interactions of the nucleic acids with other molecules.
* NNuucclleeiicc AAcciiddss Nucleic acids are molecules that store information for cellular growth and reproduction
* There are two types of nucleic acids: - deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
* These are polymers consisting of long chains of monomers called nucleotides A nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar and a phosphate group.
* DNA and RNA are nucleic acids, long, thread-like polymers made up of a linear array of monomers called nucleotides All nucleotides contain three components: 1. A nitrogen heterocyclic base 2. A pentose sugar 3. A phosphate residue
* Ribonucleotides have a 2’-OH Deoxyribonucleotides have a 2’-H
* Bases are classified as Pyrimidines or Purines
* Nucleus Cytoplasm replication DNA transcription RNA (mRNA) translation Proteins
* reverse transcription messenger RNA (mRNA) transfer RNA (tRNA) ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
* Names of Nucleosides and Nucleotides
* X-ray diffraction patterns produced by DNA fibers Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins
* 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material" James Watson Francis Crick Maurice Wilkins
Molecular biology is the study of macromolecules like nucleic acids and proteins that are essential for life. The document discusses nucleic acids DNA and RNA. It defines DNA as containing the genetic material organized in chromosomes, while RNA plays important roles in protein synthesis. It describes the structures of nucleotides, DNA, RNA, and how DNA packages into chromatin and chromosomes.
Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds. There are two types: DNA and RNA. DNA contains the genetic information and directs protein synthesis. It exists as a double helix with nucleotides paired through hydrogen bonds between complementary bases (A-T and G-C). RNA is single-stranded and also involved in protein synthesis.
DNA contains the genetic instructions for living organisms. It exists as a double helix structure with two strands bonded together via complementary base pairing between adenine and thymine, and cytosine and guanine. James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the double helix structure of DNA in 1953. DNA is found within the nucleus of cells in structures called chromosomes and carries the code for inheritable traits by way of genes.
Nucleic Acids
DNA
Eukaryotic Chromosomes
The Histones
Deoxynucleic acid ( DNA )
Importance of Nucleotides
Base pairing
Denaturation and Renaturation
Determination GC content
Prokaryotic DNA synthesis
Prokaryotic DNA Replication
Transcription
Coding Strand and Template Strand
Steps of RNA synthesize
Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides that store genetic information. There are two main types: DNA and RNA. A nucleotide contains a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA), and a phosphate group. DNA forms a double helix with base pairing between complementary nucleotides. RNA exists in various forms that aid in protein synthesis.
This document provides information about DNA structure and types. It begins with a timeline of important discoveries in DNA research. It then discusses the primary and secondary structures of DNA, including the double helix model proposed by Watson and Crick. It describes Chargaff's rules and the complementary base pairing of A-T and G-C. Finally, it summarizes the different forms of DNA like A, B, and Z-DNA and discusses mitochondrial DNA and unusual DNA sequences.
B.Tech Biotechnology II Elements of Biotechnology Unit 2 Structure of DNARai University
James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the double helical structure of DNA in 1953. DNA is made up of nucleotides containing nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine) linked by phosphodiester bonds to form a double helix. The bases pair up through hydrogen bonding between adenine and thymine and between guanine and cytosine. DNA can exist in various structural forms including circular, supercoiled and linear configurations.
B.tech biotechnology ii elements of biotechnology unit 2 structure of dnaRai University
James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the double helical structure of DNA in 1953. DNA is made up of nucleotides containing a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine), a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. Adenine pairs with thymine through two hydrogen bonds, and guanine pairs with cytosine through three hydrogen bonds. DNA stores genetic information, takes the double helix form, and can undergo structural variations like hairpin loops or cruciform structures. DNA has characteristic absorption, density, denaturation, and hybridization properties that provide information about its structure and sequence.
Nucleic acids are biologically occurring polynucleotides composed of nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds. A nucleotide contains a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and one or more phosphates. The bases are either purines or pyrimidines. DNA and RNA strands are composed of successive nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds between the 5' phosphate of one nucleotide and the 3' hydroxyl of the next. The base pairs of DNA form the double helix structure described by Watson and Crick, though DNA can also form A, Z, and other structures. Genes are DNA segments that contain information for synthesizing functional products like proteins or RNA.
This document provides information on nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA. It discusses their composition, structure, and functions. Some key points:
- Nucleic acids are made of nucleotides containing nitrogenous bases, pentose sugars, and phosphate groups. The two main types are DNA and RNA.
- DNA exists as a double helix containing two antiparallel strands held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide base pairs. It stores and transmits genetic information.
- RNA exists in various forms and has roles in protein synthesis, including mRNA carrying codes from DNA to ribosomes, tRNA transporting amino acids, and rRNA as a component of ribosomes.
DNA contains the instructions for development, life, and reproduction. It is a double-stranded helix made of nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a phosphate, sugar (deoxyribose in DNA), and one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine, cytosine, guanine, or thymine. The strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs, with adenine bonding to thymine and cytosine bonding to guanine. DNA stores genetic information, directs protein synthesis, determines genetic coding, and is responsible for heredity and cell functions.
This document summarizes the structure of DNA. It describes that DNA is composed of polynucleotide chains containing nucleotides with pentose sugars, phosphate groups, and nitrogenous bases. The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions and are held together through hydrogen bonding between complementary purine-pyrimidine base pairs. The Watson-Crick model established that DNA forms a right-handed double helix with the bases stacking internally and the sugar-phosphate backbones forming the exterior spiraling strands.
DNA stores genetic information that controls protein production and organism biochemistry. It has a double helix structure, with strands composed of sugar-phosphate backbones and attached nucleotide bases that pair through hydrogen bonding between adenine and thymine and between guanine and cytosine. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus, where it is packaged into chromosomes, but mitochondria also contain a small amount of mitochondrial DNA.
The document discusses nucleotides, DNA structure and replication. It can be summarized as follows:
1) Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids like DNA and RNA, and are composed of a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and phosphate groups.
2) DNA is made of two strands coiled around each other. The strands are linked by hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide bases - adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine.
3) DNA replication is semi-conservative and precisely copies the parental DNA into two identical double-stranded daughter molecules during cell division. DNA polymerase synthesizes a new complementary strand using the old strand as a template from 5' to 3'.
DNA is the genetic material found in cells. It exists in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells in the form of a double helix composed of two strands bound together by hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous base pairs. The four bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine in DNA or uracil in RNA. DNA can take on different structures depending on its sequence and environment, including A, B, C, D, E, and Z forms. Eukaryotic DNA is linear and contained within the nucleus, while prokaryotic DNA exists as a single circular chromosome. RNA also exists as a single strand and plays important roles in protein synthesis and gene regulation.
DNA is a complex molecule found inside cells that contains all the genetic instructions needed to build an organism. It takes the form of a double helix, with two strands coiled around each other. Each strand is made up of repeating nucleotide bases adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine that bond together in specific patterns between the strands. This nucleotide sequence encodes the unique traits of each organism. DNA is tightly packed into chromosomes inside the cell nucleus to allow many DNA molecules to fit in each cell.
Lec 10 level 3-de (dna structure and replication)dream10f
The document discusses DNA structure and replication. It describes how DNA is composed of nucleotides that combine to form the characteristic double helix structure. The four nucleotides are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine which pair up through hydrogen bonding in a specific way. DNA replication is semi-conservative and precisely copies the genetic information for cell division. It involves unwinding of the DNA double helix, synthesis of new complementary strands, and production of two identical DNA molecules each composed of one original and one new strand.
DNA and RNA are made up of nucleotides that contain nitrogenous bases, sugars, and phosphate groups. The nucleotides are linked by phosphodiester bonds to form two antiparallel strands that coil together to form the double helix structure. In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose and the bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. In RNA, the sugar is ribose and one of the bases, thymine, is replaced by uracil. DNA exists in various forms including A, B, and Z-DNA depending on environmental conditions and base sequence. In cells, DNA is tightly packaged through processes like supercoiling in prokaryotes and winding around histone proteins to form
NUCLEOTIDES(1).pptx Presentation on nucleotides structureEUROUNDISA
There are two types of nitrogen-containing bases in DNA and RNA - purines and pyrimidines. Purines have two rings fused together, while pyrimidines have a single ring. Adenine and guanine are found in both DNA and RNA, while thymine is only found in DNA and uracil only in RNA. A nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and phosphate groups. Nucleotides bond together to form nucleic acids like DNA and RNA, which store and transmit genetic information in cells.
NAs.pptx assignment biochemistry part oneGetahunAlega
The document discusses nucleic acids and their role in molecular biology. It covers the basic structures of DNA and RNA, including that DNA contains deoxyribose and is double-stranded in its normal state, while RNA contains ribose and exists in several forms involved in protein synthesis. It also summarizes the key discoveries leading to the understanding of DNA as the genetic material, including the elucidation of its double helix structure by Watson and Crick.
Nucleic acids are biopolymers composed of nucleotides that contain a 5-carbon sugar (either ribose or deoxyribose), phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are two main types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA. DNA contains the genetic instructions and usually takes the form of a double-stranded helix. RNA is involved in encoding, decoding, regulating, and expressing genes and exists in several types, including mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA. Nucleic acids are essential components of all living organisms that carry the genetic information needed to direct protein synthesis.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Friedrich Miescher first isolated nucleic acids in 1869 and called them "nuclein" due to their acidic properties. The discovery of DNA's double helix structure in 1953 by Watson and Crick was monumental. Nucleic acids function to store and transmit genetic information through DNA and RNA. DNA is made of two strands bound together by complementary nucleotide bases, with adenine pairing with thymine and guanine pairing with cytosine. The discovery of DNA's structure explained the mechanism of heredity.
DNA is composed of nucleotides that contain nitrogenous bases, sugars, and phosphates. DNA stores and transmits genetic information through genes located on chromosomes in the cell nucleus. DNA is transcribed into RNA and translated into proteins. Genetic traits are passed from parents to offspring through dominant and recessive genes according to patterns of inheritance. DNA is highly condensed and organized within the nucleus to fit inside cells.
B.Tech Biotechnology II Elements of Biotechnology Unit 2 Structure of DNARai University
James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the double helical structure of DNA in 1953. DNA is made up of nucleotides containing nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine) linked by phosphodiester bonds to form a double helix. The bases pair up through hydrogen bonding between adenine and thymine and between guanine and cytosine. DNA can exist in various structural forms including circular, supercoiled and linear configurations.
B.tech biotechnology ii elements of biotechnology unit 2 structure of dnaRai University
James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the double helical structure of DNA in 1953. DNA is made up of nucleotides containing a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine), a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. Adenine pairs with thymine through two hydrogen bonds, and guanine pairs with cytosine through three hydrogen bonds. DNA stores genetic information, takes the double helix form, and can undergo structural variations like hairpin loops or cruciform structures. DNA has characteristic absorption, density, denaturation, and hybridization properties that provide information about its structure and sequence.
Nucleic acids are biologically occurring polynucleotides composed of nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds. A nucleotide contains a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and one or more phosphates. The bases are either purines or pyrimidines. DNA and RNA strands are composed of successive nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds between the 5' phosphate of one nucleotide and the 3' hydroxyl of the next. The base pairs of DNA form the double helix structure described by Watson and Crick, though DNA can also form A, Z, and other structures. Genes are DNA segments that contain information for synthesizing functional products like proteins or RNA.
This document provides information on nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA. It discusses their composition, structure, and functions. Some key points:
- Nucleic acids are made of nucleotides containing nitrogenous bases, pentose sugars, and phosphate groups. The two main types are DNA and RNA.
- DNA exists as a double helix containing two antiparallel strands held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide base pairs. It stores and transmits genetic information.
- RNA exists in various forms and has roles in protein synthesis, including mRNA carrying codes from DNA to ribosomes, tRNA transporting amino acids, and rRNA as a component of ribosomes.
DNA contains the instructions for development, life, and reproduction. It is a double-stranded helix made of nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a phosphate, sugar (deoxyribose in DNA), and one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine, cytosine, guanine, or thymine. The strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs, with adenine bonding to thymine and cytosine bonding to guanine. DNA stores genetic information, directs protein synthesis, determines genetic coding, and is responsible for heredity and cell functions.
This document summarizes the structure of DNA. It describes that DNA is composed of polynucleotide chains containing nucleotides with pentose sugars, phosphate groups, and nitrogenous bases. The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions and are held together through hydrogen bonding between complementary purine-pyrimidine base pairs. The Watson-Crick model established that DNA forms a right-handed double helix with the bases stacking internally and the sugar-phosphate backbones forming the exterior spiraling strands.
DNA stores genetic information that controls protein production and organism biochemistry. It has a double helix structure, with strands composed of sugar-phosphate backbones and attached nucleotide bases that pair through hydrogen bonding between adenine and thymine and between guanine and cytosine. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus, where it is packaged into chromosomes, but mitochondria also contain a small amount of mitochondrial DNA.
The document discusses nucleotides, DNA structure and replication. It can be summarized as follows:
1) Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids like DNA and RNA, and are composed of a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and phosphate groups.
2) DNA is made of two strands coiled around each other. The strands are linked by hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide bases - adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine.
3) DNA replication is semi-conservative and precisely copies the parental DNA into two identical double-stranded daughter molecules during cell division. DNA polymerase synthesizes a new complementary strand using the old strand as a template from 5' to 3'.
DNA is the genetic material found in cells. It exists in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells in the form of a double helix composed of two strands bound together by hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous base pairs. The four bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine in DNA or uracil in RNA. DNA can take on different structures depending on its sequence and environment, including A, B, C, D, E, and Z forms. Eukaryotic DNA is linear and contained within the nucleus, while prokaryotic DNA exists as a single circular chromosome. RNA also exists as a single strand and plays important roles in protein synthesis and gene regulation.
DNA is a complex molecule found inside cells that contains all the genetic instructions needed to build an organism. It takes the form of a double helix, with two strands coiled around each other. Each strand is made up of repeating nucleotide bases adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine that bond together in specific patterns between the strands. This nucleotide sequence encodes the unique traits of each organism. DNA is tightly packed into chromosomes inside the cell nucleus to allow many DNA molecules to fit in each cell.
Lec 10 level 3-de (dna structure and replication)dream10f
The document discusses DNA structure and replication. It describes how DNA is composed of nucleotides that combine to form the characteristic double helix structure. The four nucleotides are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine which pair up through hydrogen bonding in a specific way. DNA replication is semi-conservative and precisely copies the genetic information for cell division. It involves unwinding of the DNA double helix, synthesis of new complementary strands, and production of two identical DNA molecules each composed of one original and one new strand.
DNA and RNA are made up of nucleotides that contain nitrogenous bases, sugars, and phosphate groups. The nucleotides are linked by phosphodiester bonds to form two antiparallel strands that coil together to form the double helix structure. In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose and the bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. In RNA, the sugar is ribose and one of the bases, thymine, is replaced by uracil. DNA exists in various forms including A, B, and Z-DNA depending on environmental conditions and base sequence. In cells, DNA is tightly packaged through processes like supercoiling in prokaryotes and winding around histone proteins to form
NUCLEOTIDES(1).pptx Presentation on nucleotides structureEUROUNDISA
There are two types of nitrogen-containing bases in DNA and RNA - purines and pyrimidines. Purines have two rings fused together, while pyrimidines have a single ring. Adenine and guanine are found in both DNA and RNA, while thymine is only found in DNA and uracil only in RNA. A nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and phosphate groups. Nucleotides bond together to form nucleic acids like DNA and RNA, which store and transmit genetic information in cells.
NAs.pptx assignment biochemistry part oneGetahunAlega
The document discusses nucleic acids and their role in molecular biology. It covers the basic structures of DNA and RNA, including that DNA contains deoxyribose and is double-stranded in its normal state, while RNA contains ribose and exists in several forms involved in protein synthesis. It also summarizes the key discoveries leading to the understanding of DNA as the genetic material, including the elucidation of its double helix structure by Watson and Crick.
Nucleic acids are biopolymers composed of nucleotides that contain a 5-carbon sugar (either ribose or deoxyribose), phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are two main types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA. DNA contains the genetic instructions and usually takes the form of a double-stranded helix. RNA is involved in encoding, decoding, regulating, and expressing genes and exists in several types, including mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA. Nucleic acids are essential components of all living organisms that carry the genetic information needed to direct protein synthesis.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Friedrich Miescher first isolated nucleic acids in 1869 and called them "nuclein" due to their acidic properties. The discovery of DNA's double helix structure in 1953 by Watson and Crick was monumental. Nucleic acids function to store and transmit genetic information through DNA and RNA. DNA is made of two strands bound together by complementary nucleotide bases, with adenine pairing with thymine and guanine pairing with cytosine. The discovery of DNA's structure explained the mechanism of heredity.
DNA is composed of nucleotides that contain nitrogenous bases, sugars, and phosphates. DNA stores and transmits genetic information through genes located on chromosomes in the cell nucleus. DNA is transcribed into RNA and translated into proteins. Genetic traits are passed from parents to offspring through dominant and recessive genes according to patterns of inheritance. DNA is highly condensed and organized within the nucleus to fit inside cells.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...AbdullaAlAsif1
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intellige...University of Maribor
Slides from talk:
Aleš Zamuda: Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intelligent Systems.
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
hematic appreciation test is a psychological assessment tool used to measure an individual's appreciation and understanding of specific themes or topics. This test helps to evaluate an individual's ability to connect different ideas and concepts within a given theme, as well as their overall comprehension and interpretation skills. The results of the test can provide valuable insights into an individual's cognitive abilities, creativity, and critical thinking skills
ESPP presentation to EU Waste Water Network, 4th June 2024 “EU policies driving nutrient removal and recycling
and the revised UWWTD (Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive)”
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
1. Yahyea Baktiar Laskar
ZOOHCC-303: Fundamentals of Biochemistry (U3)
NUCLEIC ACID
Yahyea Baktiar Laskar
Assistant Professor
Department of Zoology
Ramanuj Gupta Degree College
yahyea92@gmail.com
yahyeabaktiar.laskar@aus.ac.in
2. Yahyea Baktiar Laskar
Nucleic Acids
General Introduction:
▪ Nucleic acids are long-chain polymeric molecules.
▪ The monomer or the repeating unit is known as the nucleotides and hence sometimes
nucleic acids are referred to as polynucleotides.
▪ It plays a key factor in transferring genetic information from one generation to the next.
▪ In the nucleus, nucleotide monomers are linked together comprising of distinct components
namely a Phosphate Group, Nitrogenous Bases and Ribose or Deoxyribose sugar.
▪ Based on the sugar group, nucleic acids are of two types— DNA-deoxyribonucleic acid and
RNA-ribonucleic acid.
▪ Pyrimidines (Cytosine and Thymine) and Purines (Guanine and Adenine) are two types of
nitrogenous bases in DNA.
▪ Thymine is replaced by Uracil in RNA.
4. Yahyea Baktiar Laskar
Nucleic Acids
Structure of Purines and Pyrimidines:
Purines:
▪ Purine is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound composed of a pyrimidine ring fused with imidazole ring.
▪ It consists of two hydrogen-carbon rings and four nitrogen atoms. The melting point of purine is 214°C.
▪ Catabolism results in the production of uric acid.
Pyrimidines:
▪ Pyrimidine is a heterocyclic aromatic organic
compound that is composed of carbon and
hydrogen.
▪ It consists of one hydrogen-carbon ring and two
nitrogen atoms.
▪ The melting point of pyrimidine is 20-22°C.
▪ Catabolism produces carbon dioxide, beta-amino
acids and ammonia
5. Yahyea Baktiar Laskar
Nucleic Acids
Structure of Nucleosides and Nucleotides:
Nucleosides:
▪ Nucleoside has only a nitrogenous base and a five-carbon sugar.
▪ The base is bound to either ribose or deoxyribose via a β-glycosidic linkage at
1’ position.
▪ Nucleosides are named as Adenosine, Guanosine, Thymidine, Cytidine,
Uridine.
Nucleotides:
▪ Nucleotide is composed of a nucleobase, a five-carbon sugar, and one or
more phosphate groups.
▪ In DNA (double helix) there are two antiparallel strands of polynucleotides
that are linked together by hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases.
▪ Phosphate group interlinks the sugar molecules of two nucleotides forming a
chain.
▪ Sugar phosphate chain forms the backbone of a polynucleotide chain.
6. Yahyea Baktiar Laskar
Nucleic Acids
Structure of Nucleosides and Nucleotides:
Properties of Nucleotides:
▪ Sparingly soluble in water.
▪ Absorb light in UV region at 260 nm. (for detection & quantitation of
nucleotides).
▪ Capable of forming hydrogen bond.
▪ Aromatic base atoms numbered 1 to 9 (1 to 6 for pyrimidine).
▪ Purine ring is formed by fusion of pyrimidine ring with imidazole ring.
▪ Numbering is anticlockwise.
Functions of Nucleotides:
▪ They are the building blocks of nucleic acids.
▪ They are the energy currency (ATP) in metabolic transactions.
▪ Act as essential chemical links (cAMP) in the response of cells to hormones
and other extracellular stimuli.
▪ Forming a portion of several important coenzymes such as NAD+, NADP+,
FAD and coenzyme A.
7. Yahyea Baktiar Laskar
Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA
Structure of DNA:
▪ DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid, which is a molecule that contains the instructions an organism
needs to develop, live and reproduce.
▪ DNA is found in the nucleus, with a small amount of DNA also present in mitochondria and
chloroplast in the eukaryotes.
▪ In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the structure of DNA.
▪ The works of Rosalind Franklin lead to Watson and Crick’s discovery.
▪ DNA has a double helix structure and looks like a twisted ladder.
▪ Each strand has a 5′end (with a phosphate group) and a 3′end (with a hydroxyl group).
▪ The strands are antiparallel, meaning that one strand runs in a 5′→ 3′direction, while the
other strand runs in a 3′ → 5′ direction.
▪ The sides of the ladder are made of alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate molecules while the steps of the ladder
are made up of a pair of nitrogen bases.
▪ The amount of adenine equals the amount of thymine; the amount of guanine equals the amount of cytosine. The pairs are
held together by hydrogen bonds.
8. Yahyea Baktiar Laskar
Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA
Structure of DNA:
▪ The deoxyribonucleotides are linked together by 3′ → 5′phosphodiester
bonds.
▪ The shape of the helix is stabilized by hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic
interactions between bases.
▪ The diameter of double helix is 2 nm and the double helical structure
repeats at an interval of 3.4 nm which corresponds to ten base pairs.
▪ As a result of the double helical nature of DNA, the molecule has two
asymmetric grooves.
▪ This asymmetry is a result of the geometrical configuration of the bonds
between the phosphate, sugar, and base groups that forces the base groups
to attach at 120° angles instead of 180°.
▪ The larger groove is called the major groove, occurs when the backbones
are far apart; while the smaller one is called the minor groove, occurs when
they are close together.
9. Yahyea Baktiar Laskar
Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA
Base Pairing:
▪ There are 4 types of nitrogen bases—Adenine (A) Thymine (T) Guanine (G) Cytosine
(C) in DNA.
▪ The nitrogen bases have a specific pairing pattern.
▪ This pairing pattern occurs because the amount of adenine equals the amount of
thymine; the amount of guanine equals the amount of cytosine.
▪ The pairs are held together by hydrogen bonds.
▪ The base adenine always interacts with a thymine (A-T) on the opposite strand via
two hydrogen bonds and cytosine always interacts with guanine (C-G) via three
hydrogen bonds on the opposite strand.
Chargaff’s Rule
Erwin Chargaff, a biochemist, discovered that the number of nitrogenous bases in the DNA was present in equal quantities. The
amount of A is equal to T, whereas the amount of C is equal to G.
A=T; C=G
In other words, the DNA of any cell from any organism should have a 1:1 ratio of purine and pyrimidine bases.
10. Yahyea Baktiar Laskar
Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA
Biological Importance of DNA:
There are mainly three different DNA types:
▪ Hereditary material—The genetic information contained in the nucleotide sequence of DNA aids in the production of certain
proteins or polypeptides and is transmitted to daughter cells or progeny.
▪ Autocatalytic role— During the S phase of the cell cycle, each DNA strand of a double helix might serve as a template for
daughter strand synthesis.
▪ Hetero-catalytic role—During transcription, any one DNA strand serves as a template for RNA production.
▪ Variations—During meiosis, DNA undergoes recombination and the occasional mutation (changes in nucleotide sequences),
which generates diversity in the population and ultimately leads to evolution.
▪ DNA finger printing—Each individual possesses mini-satellites or VNTRs, which are small nucleotide repeats (Variable Number
of Tandem Repeats). VNTRs are vary between individuals and provide the basis of DNA fingerprinting. This method is used to
identify criminals, determine paternity, and verify immigrants, among other purposes.
▪ Recombinant DNA technology (Genetic engineering)—Recombinant DNA is the result of the artificial cleaving and rejoining of
DNA sequences from two or more organisms. Utilized for the manufacture of genetically modified organisms (GMOs),
genetically modified foods (GMFs), vaccines, hormones, enzymes, clones, etc.
11. Yahyea Baktiar Laskar
Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA
Forms of DNA:
There are mainly three different DNA types:
▪ A-DNA: It is a right-handed double helix similar to the
B-DNA form. Dehydrated DNA takes an A form that
protects the DNA during extreme conditions such as
desiccation. Protein binding also removes the solvent
from DNA, and the DNA takes an A form.
▪ B-DNA: This is the most common DNA conformation and is a right-handed helix. The majority of DNA has a B type
conformation under normal physiological conditions.
▪ Z-DNA: Z-DNA is a left-handed DNA where the double helix winds to the left in a zig-zag pattern. It was discovered by Andres
Wang and Alexander Rich. It is found ahead of the start site of a gene and hence, is believed to play some role in gene
regulation.
▪ D-DNA: Rare variant with 8 base pairs per helical turn, form in structure devoid of guanine.
▪ C-DNA: Formed at 66% relative humidity and in presence of Li+ and Mg2+ ions.
▪ E- DNA: Extended or eccentric DNA.
12. Yahyea Baktiar Laskar
Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA
Complementarity of DNA:
▪ Complementarity describes a relationship between two structures each following the
lock-and-key principle.
▪ Complementarity is the base principle of DNA replication and transcription.
▪ It is a property shared between two DNA or RNA sequences, such that when they are
aligned antiparallel to each other, the nucleotide bases at each position in the
sequences will be complementary, much like looking in the mirror and seeing the
reverse of things.
▪ This complementary base pairing allows cells to copy information from one generation
to another and even find and repair damage to the information stored in the sequences.
▪ The degree of complementarity between two nucleic acid strands may vary, and
determines the stability of the sequences to be together.
▪ Complementarity is achieved by distinct interactions between nucleobases: adenine,
thymine (uracil in RNA), guanine and cytosine.
▪ All other configurations between nucleobases would hinder double helix formation.
13. Yahyea Baktiar Laskar
Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA
Self-Complementarity and hairpin loop:
▪ A sequence of RNA that has internal complementarity which results in it folding into a hairpin.
▪ Self-complementarity refers to the fact that a sequence of DNA or RNA may fold back on itself, creating a double strand like
structure.
▪ Depending on how close together the parts of the sequence are that are self-complementary, the strand may form hairpin
loops, junctions, bulges or internal loops.
▪ RNA is more likely to form these kinds of structures due to base pair binding not seen in DNA, such as guanine binding with
uracil.
14. Yahyea Baktiar Laskar
Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA
Denaturation and Renaturation of DNA:
▪ DNA denaturation and renaturation processes are used for genetic research and studies.
▪ In the process of denaturation, an unwinding of DNA double-strand takes place, resulting in two separate single strands on
applying high temperature, extreme pH, etc.
▪ Separate single strands rewind on cooling and the process is known as renaturation.
15. Yahyea Baktiar Laskar
Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA
Denaturation and Renaturation of DNA:
Denaturation of DNA double helix takes place by the following denaturation agents:
▪ Temperature— If a DNA solution is heated to approximately 90°C or above, it will denature the DNA completely causing it to
separate into single strands. If several samples of DNA are melted, it is found that the Tm is highest for those DNAs that
contain the highest proportion of G—C.
▪ Chemical Agents—Denaturation can also be brought about by certain chemical agents such as urea and formamide as they
enhance the aqueous solubility of the purine and pyrimidine groups.
▪ pH—Denaturation also occurs at acidic (pH= 2-3) and alkaline (pH=12) solutions in which ionic changes of the purine and
pyrimidine bases can occur.
Denaturation involves the following changes of the properties of DNA:
▪ Increase in absorption of UV-Light at 260 nm.
▪ Double-stranded DNA shows a strong positive rotation which highly decreases with denaturation.
▪ Denaturation causes a marked decrease in viscosity.
16. Yahyea Baktiar Laskar
Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA
Denaturation and Renaturation of DNA:
▪ Renaturation is also known as annealing.
▪ When the temperature and pH return to optimum biological
level, the unwound strand of DNA rewind and give back the
dsDNA.
▪ Renaturation occurs when the denatured DNAs are cooled in
suitable conditions.
▪ Renaturation also depends on temperature, pH, length and
constituents of the DNA structure.
▪ The renaturation rate is directly proportional to the number of
complementary sequences present.
▪ With renaturation, absorption of UV (260nm) decreases and
viscosity increases again.
17. Yahyea Baktiar Laskar
Ribonucleic acid or RNA
Types of Ribonucleic acid or RNA:
▪ It is a single-stranded nucleic acid similar to DNA but having ribose sugar rather than deoxyribose sugar and uracil instead of
thymine as one of the nucleotide bases.
▪ RNA polymerase synthesizes RNA from DNA that is functionally for protein-coding (messenger RNA, mRNA) or non-coding
(RNA genes). Because of these functions, RNA molecules are of following types:
❖ messenger RNA (mRNA)– It is the RNA that carries information from DNA to the ribosomes (site of protein synthesis) in
the cell. The mRNA code sequences determine the amino acid sequence in the protein that is produced.
❖ ribosomal RNA (rRNA)– It incorporates into the ribosomes.
❖ transfer RNA (tRNA)– It is used to transfer specific amino acids to growing polypeptide chains at the ribosomal site of
protein synthesis during translation.
❖ small nuclear RNA (snRNA)—snRNA has different genes in multiple copies, which play different roles in the synthesis of
other RNA classes, such as, snRNA which is part of the spliceosomes that help in the conversion of pre-messenger RNA
(hnRNA) into mRNA by excising the introns and splicing the exons.
❖ microRNA (miRNA)– They are used to regulate gene activity; They are tiny (~22 nucleotides) RNA molecules that
regulate the expression of mRNA molecules.
18. Yahyea Baktiar Laskar
Ribonucleic acid or RNA
Types of Ribonucleic acid or RNA:
❖ small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA)—They are small RNAs of about
60-300 nucleotides found in the cell nucleolus. They play a role in
the synthesis of ribosomes, by cutting the large RNA precursor of
the 28S, 18S, and 5.8S. They also help in the splicing of pre-mRNA
to different forms of mature mRNA. One type of snoRNA serves
as a template for the synthesis of the telomeres.
❖ long non-coding RNA (lncRNA)—This is a heterogeneous group of
non-coding transcript RNA that are 200 nucleotides in size. Major
functions of lncRNA are still unknowns, however, some scientific
evidence indicates its role in gene regulation and physiological
mechanism involvements.
❖ catalytic RNA (ribozymes)— which functions as an enzymatically
active RNA molecule.
19. Yahyea Baktiar Laskar
Disclaimer: The information/images in this study material has been adapted from various sources including but not limited to books, journals, websites, and
related materials openly available in the internet. This will be purely utilized for academic purpose only, by college students. The author has no intension of
using these information/images/other materials that may be copyrighted and included in this study material for commercial benefit.