Transcription is the process of making mRNA from DNA. It involves RNA polymerase making an mRNA complementary copy of the DNA strand. Translation is the process of using the mRNA to produce a polypeptide by linking amino acids specified by the mRNA codons. During transcription, introns are removed from pre-mRNA and exons are joined to form mature mRNA. If the parent DNA strand is A A T G C A G T, the complementary mRNA strand will be U U A C G U C A.
Chromosomes carry genes that determine traits like height and eye color. Humans have 22 chromosome pairs and two sex chromosomes that determine biological sex. Abnormalities in chromosomes can occur through changes in number, structure, or arrangement of chromosomes and genes. Examples of genetic disorders caused by recessive genes include sickle cell anemia and Tay-Sachs disease. Fragile X syndrome is a rare inherited disorder caused by a faulty X chromosome that progressively destroys neurons in the brain and spinal cord.
Mutations are changes in genetic material that can be harmful, beneficial, or neutral. There are two types of mutations: somatic mutations, which occur in body cells and are not passed to offspring, and germline mutations, which occur in sex cells and can be inherited. Germline mutations are more relevant for evolution and are generally what is meant by the term "mutation". Mutations can be caused by errors in DNA replication, environmental mutagens like radiation or chemicals, or due to changes in DNA base pairing. They result in changes at the DNA level like substitutions, insertions, deletions, and can have various effects at the protein and phenotypic levels.
This document summarizes the process of translation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. It discusses the central dogma of molecular biology and explains the four main steps of translation - initiation, elongation, termination, and activation. In prokaryotes, initiation requires initiation factors to form the 70S initiation complex, elongation is cyclic and uses elongation factors, and termination uses release factors. Eukaryotic translation is more complex, with initiation forming the 43S and 48S preinitiation complexes before joining the 60S subunit. Elongation and termination are similar to prokaryotes but use eukaryotic specific factors. Polyribosomes with multiple ribosomes on a single mRNA can increase protein production efficiency.
Different cell types contain the same DNA but express different genes and proteins. Gene expression can be regulated at many steps from DNA to RNA to protein. Prokaryotes regulate gene expression through operons, where genes are organized together and transcribed as a single unit. The lac and trp operons are regulated by repressor proteins that bind to operator sites on the DNA and block transcription in the presence of effector molecules like lactose or tryptophan. This document discusses the mechanisms of repression and induction of the lac and trp operons through repressor proteins and RNA polymerase binding.
The document discusses the discovery of genetic linkage and crossing over. It notes that Morgan discovered that genes are located linearly on chromosomes. Linkage occurs when genes located on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together. There are two types of linkage: complete and incomplete. Incomplete linkage occurs when genes are far apart on a chromosome and can be separated during meiosis due to crossing over, where segments are exchanged between homologous non-sister chromatids. Crossing over increases with physical distance between genes and allows the construction of genetic maps.
A transposable element (TE or transposon) is a DNA sequence that can change its position within a genome, sometimes creating or reversing mutations and altering the cell's genome size.
Transposition often results in duplication of the TE.
Barbara McClintock's discovery of these jumping genes earned her a Nobel Prize in 1983.
Transposable elements make up a large fraction of the genome and are responsible for much of the C-value of eukaryotic cells.
This document discusses DNA damage and repair mechanisms. It begins by introducing DNA damage and its sources, including endogenous sources like reactive oxygen species and exogenous sources like radiation. It then describes different types of DNA damage such as single base alterations, double base alterations, chain breaks, and cross-linkages. The document proceeds to explain four main DNA repair pathways: photoreactivation, base excision repair, nucleotide excision repair, and mismatch repair. Each repair pathway involves specific enzymes to identify and remove damaged DNA and allow for new DNA synthesis. In summary, the document provides an overview of DNA damage sources and types as well as the key repair mechanisms cells use to correct DNA damage.
Transcription is the process of making mRNA from DNA. It involves RNA polymerase making an mRNA complementary copy of the DNA strand. Translation is the process of using the mRNA to produce a polypeptide by linking amino acids specified by the mRNA codons. During transcription, introns are removed from pre-mRNA and exons are joined to form mature mRNA. If the parent DNA strand is A A T G C A G T, the complementary mRNA strand will be U U A C G U C A.
Chromosomes carry genes that determine traits like height and eye color. Humans have 22 chromosome pairs and two sex chromosomes that determine biological sex. Abnormalities in chromosomes can occur through changes in number, structure, or arrangement of chromosomes and genes. Examples of genetic disorders caused by recessive genes include sickle cell anemia and Tay-Sachs disease. Fragile X syndrome is a rare inherited disorder caused by a faulty X chromosome that progressively destroys neurons in the brain and spinal cord.
Mutations are changes in genetic material that can be harmful, beneficial, or neutral. There are two types of mutations: somatic mutations, which occur in body cells and are not passed to offspring, and germline mutations, which occur in sex cells and can be inherited. Germline mutations are more relevant for evolution and are generally what is meant by the term "mutation". Mutations can be caused by errors in DNA replication, environmental mutagens like radiation or chemicals, or due to changes in DNA base pairing. They result in changes at the DNA level like substitutions, insertions, deletions, and can have various effects at the protein and phenotypic levels.
This document summarizes the process of translation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. It discusses the central dogma of molecular biology and explains the four main steps of translation - initiation, elongation, termination, and activation. In prokaryotes, initiation requires initiation factors to form the 70S initiation complex, elongation is cyclic and uses elongation factors, and termination uses release factors. Eukaryotic translation is more complex, with initiation forming the 43S and 48S preinitiation complexes before joining the 60S subunit. Elongation and termination are similar to prokaryotes but use eukaryotic specific factors. Polyribosomes with multiple ribosomes on a single mRNA can increase protein production efficiency.
Different cell types contain the same DNA but express different genes and proteins. Gene expression can be regulated at many steps from DNA to RNA to protein. Prokaryotes regulate gene expression through operons, where genes are organized together and transcribed as a single unit. The lac and trp operons are regulated by repressor proteins that bind to operator sites on the DNA and block transcription in the presence of effector molecules like lactose or tryptophan. This document discusses the mechanisms of repression and induction of the lac and trp operons through repressor proteins and RNA polymerase binding.
The document discusses the discovery of genetic linkage and crossing over. It notes that Morgan discovered that genes are located linearly on chromosomes. Linkage occurs when genes located on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together. There are two types of linkage: complete and incomplete. Incomplete linkage occurs when genes are far apart on a chromosome and can be separated during meiosis due to crossing over, where segments are exchanged between homologous non-sister chromatids. Crossing over increases with physical distance between genes and allows the construction of genetic maps.
A transposable element (TE or transposon) is a DNA sequence that can change its position within a genome, sometimes creating or reversing mutations and altering the cell's genome size.
Transposition often results in duplication of the TE.
Barbara McClintock's discovery of these jumping genes earned her a Nobel Prize in 1983.
Transposable elements make up a large fraction of the genome and are responsible for much of the C-value of eukaryotic cells.
This document discusses DNA damage and repair mechanisms. It begins by introducing DNA damage and its sources, including endogenous sources like reactive oxygen species and exogenous sources like radiation. It then describes different types of DNA damage such as single base alterations, double base alterations, chain breaks, and cross-linkages. The document proceeds to explain four main DNA repair pathways: photoreactivation, base excision repair, nucleotide excision repair, and mismatch repair. Each repair pathway involves specific enzymes to identify and remove damaged DNA and allow for new DNA synthesis. In summary, the document provides an overview of DNA damage sources and types as well as the key repair mechanisms cells use to correct DNA damage.
- Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1860s and is considered the founder of genetics. Through his experiments, he discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance.
- Mendel determined that traits are passed from parents to offspring through "factors" that we now know as genes. His laws of inheritance include dominance, segregation, and independent assortment.
- Mendel's work formed the basis for understanding how traits are inherited and laid the foundation for modern genetics.
1. Translation is the process by which the genetic code in mRNA is used to synthesize polypeptide chains through the catalysis of ribosomes.
2. Ribosomes contain rRNA and proteins and have three binding sites (A, P, E sites) that facilitate the joining of amino acids specified by the mRNA sequence.
3. tRNAs act as adaptors by pairing their anticodons with mRNA codons and carrying the correct amino acid to the ribosome. Wobble base pairing allows some tRNAs to bind multiple codons.
In some organisms, there are special tissues in which chromosomes undergo structural specializations.
Such specialized chromosomes are generally termed as SPECIAL TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES.
1. The document discusses gene interactions and how they can modify Mendelian ratios by altering phenotypic expression. It provides examples of different types of epistatic interactions like complementary, duplicate, dominant, and recessive gene interactions.
2. It also covers complementation analysis, which is used to determine if two mutations that cause the same phenotype are in the same or different genes. If the mutations complement, producing wild-type offspring, they are in different genes, while failure to complement means they are in the same gene.
3. The functional consequences of mutations are described, including loss-of-function mutations like amorphic and hypomorphic, and gain-of-function mutations like hypermorphic and neomorphic.
Prokaryotes are organisms that consist of a single prokaryotic cell. Eukaryotic cells are found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists. They range from 10–100 μm in diameter, and their DNA is contained within a membrane-bound nucleus.Prokaryotes do not have membrane-enclosed nuclei. Therefore, the processes of transcription, translation, and mRNA degradation can all occur simultaneously.
Features of multiple alleles. The same genes have more than two alleles. All multiple alleles in homologous chromosomes occupy the respective loci. A chromosome or gamete only has one group allele. Each human contains only two separate gene alleles, one for each homologous pair of chromosomes carrying the gene.
More than two alternative alleles of a gene are known as multiple alleles in a population occupying the same locus on a chromosome or its homologue. ... Multiple alleles express various alternatives of one trait. Different alleles can exhibit codominance, dominance-recessive behaviour or incomplete dominance.
Dna replication;transcription and translationJoan Cañete
Cell division requires DNA replication so that each daughter cell receives a copy of the DNA. DNA replication is semi-conservative, resulting in two DNA molecules where each contains one original strand and one newly synthesized complementary strand. DNA replication involves initiation, elongation, and termination. During elongation, the leading strand is synthesized continuously while the lagging strand is synthesized in fragments called Okazaki fragments.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1850s and 1860s to study inheritance of traits. Through his experiments with over 28,000 pea plants, he discovered that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete factors, now known as genes. Mendel identified that for each trait, organisms inherit one gene from each parent, and that some genes are dominant and will always be expressed while others are recessive and only expressed when the dominant gene is not present. His work formed the basis of classical genetics and established the laws of segregation and independent assortment.
This document provides information about translation, the process by which the nucleotide sequence of mRNA is converted into the amino acid sequence of a protein. It describes the key components and steps of translation, including the roles of the ribosome, tRNA, mRNA, and various initiation, elongation and termination factors. Translation is universal but can vary slightly between cytoplasmic and mitochondrial genetic codes. The document also discusses regulation of translation and clinical implications.
1. DNA contains the genetic code for proteins in the form of sequences of nucleotides. RNA carries copies of the DNA code to direct protein synthesis.
2. During transcription, RNA polymerase uses one DNA strand as a template to assemble an mRNA copy of the genetic code.
3. During translation, mRNA binds to ribosomes where tRNA molecules match codons on mRNA to the anticodons carrying amino acids, assembling proteins based on the code.
All eukaryotes have at least three different RNA polymerase (Pol I, II,and III; and plants have a Pol IV & a Pol V). In addition, whereas bacteria require only one additional initiation factor (σ), several initiation factors are required for efficient and promoter-specific initiation in eukaryotes. These are called the general transcription factors (GTFs)
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang teknologi minyak dan gas bumi serta cara pemurnian minyak dan gas bumi. Pada bagian awal dijelaskan definisi dan komponen-komponen minyak dan gas bumi, sedangkan pada bagian selanjutnya diuraikan proses-proses pemurnian seperti copper sweetening, acid treatment, desulfurisasi, deasphalting, dewaxing, desalting untuk pemurnian minyak bumi dan amine gas treating, penyerapan dengan zat padat,
Basics of Undergraduate/university fellows
Transcription is more complicated in eukaryotes than in prokaryotes because
eukaryotes possess three different classes of RNA polymerases and because of the
way in which transcripts are processed to their functional forms.
More proteins and transcription factors are involved in eukaryotic transcription.
This document discusses translation, the process by which mRNA is used to produce a protein. It describes the key components needed for translation: mRNA, tRNA, amino acids, and ribosomes. tRNA carries amino acids to the ribosome and contains an anticodon that is complementary to mRNA codons. Ribosomes contain rRNA and proteins and are the site of protein synthesis. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes have large and small ribosomal subunits, but they differ in their rRNA components and gene structure. The document outlines the process of tRNA charging with amino acids and how rRNAs are produced from rDNA genes to assemble into ribosomes.
The document summarizes the process of protein translation, which involves messenger RNA (mRNA) being used as a template to produce a polypeptide chain through the joining of amino acids. Key steps include transcription producing mRNA from DNA, mRNA binding to ribosomes in the cytoplasm, transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules matching codons on mRNA to deliver corresponding amino acids, and the growth of the polypeptide chain through the formation of peptide bonds until a stop codon is reached, terminating translation. The genetic code and roles of various RNAs like rRNA and tRNA in facilitating translation are also outlined.
The genetic code refers to the sequence of nitrogenous bases in mRNA that encode information for protein synthesis. It consists of 64 codons made up of three nucleotide bases that dictate which of 20 amino acids will be incorporated into a growing polypeptide chain or signal its termination. Key events in discovering the genetic code included determining DNA's structure and identifying that codons encode amino acids. There are sense codons that specify amino acids, start codons that initiate translation, and stop codons that terminate protein synthesis. The genetic code is nearly universal and has several important properties including being triplet-based, non-overlapping, and degenerate.
“Incomplete dominance is a form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a particular trait is not expressed completely over its paired allele.” What is Incomplete Dominance? Incomplete dominance is a form of Gene interaction in which both alleles of a gene at a locus are partially expressed, often resulting in an intermediate or different phenotype.
It shows that alleles of red and white coloured flowers were unable to dominate the other, thus resulting in incomplete dominance. Thus, the law of incomplete dominance says that when none of the two alleles exerts complete dominance over the other, the offspring will be a mixture of parents’ phenotypes. Aside from flowering plants, incomplete dominance takes place in human beings and animals as well. One such incomplete dominance example in human beings is that the growth of wavy hair.
The phenomenon in which two true-breeding parents crossed to produce an intermediate offspring (also known as heterozygous) is called incomplete dominance. ... In incomplete dominance, the variants (alleles) are not expressed as dominant or recessive; rather, the dominant allele is expressed in a reduced ratio.
DNA topology studies the geometric properties and spatial relationships of DNA that are unaffected by changes in shape or size. It includes phenomena like supercoiling, knots, and catenanes that involve the linking and twisting of the two DNA strands. DNA topology is characterized by parameters like the linking number, which represents the number of times the two strands are twisted around each other. Enzymes called topoisomerases regulate DNA topology by introducing temporary breaks in the DNA strands to allow strand passage and control supercoiling levels.
- Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1860s and is considered the founder of genetics. Through his experiments, he discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance.
- Mendel determined that traits are passed from parents to offspring through "factors" that we now know as genes. His laws of inheritance include dominance, segregation, and independent assortment.
- Mendel's work formed the basis for understanding how traits are inherited and laid the foundation for modern genetics.
1. Translation is the process by which the genetic code in mRNA is used to synthesize polypeptide chains through the catalysis of ribosomes.
2. Ribosomes contain rRNA and proteins and have three binding sites (A, P, E sites) that facilitate the joining of amino acids specified by the mRNA sequence.
3. tRNAs act as adaptors by pairing their anticodons with mRNA codons and carrying the correct amino acid to the ribosome. Wobble base pairing allows some tRNAs to bind multiple codons.
In some organisms, there are special tissues in which chromosomes undergo structural specializations.
Such specialized chromosomes are generally termed as SPECIAL TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES.
1. The document discusses gene interactions and how they can modify Mendelian ratios by altering phenotypic expression. It provides examples of different types of epistatic interactions like complementary, duplicate, dominant, and recessive gene interactions.
2. It also covers complementation analysis, which is used to determine if two mutations that cause the same phenotype are in the same or different genes. If the mutations complement, producing wild-type offspring, they are in different genes, while failure to complement means they are in the same gene.
3. The functional consequences of mutations are described, including loss-of-function mutations like amorphic and hypomorphic, and gain-of-function mutations like hypermorphic and neomorphic.
Prokaryotes are organisms that consist of a single prokaryotic cell. Eukaryotic cells are found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists. They range from 10–100 μm in diameter, and their DNA is contained within a membrane-bound nucleus.Prokaryotes do not have membrane-enclosed nuclei. Therefore, the processes of transcription, translation, and mRNA degradation can all occur simultaneously.
Features of multiple alleles. The same genes have more than two alleles. All multiple alleles in homologous chromosomes occupy the respective loci. A chromosome or gamete only has one group allele. Each human contains only two separate gene alleles, one for each homologous pair of chromosomes carrying the gene.
More than two alternative alleles of a gene are known as multiple alleles in a population occupying the same locus on a chromosome or its homologue. ... Multiple alleles express various alternatives of one trait. Different alleles can exhibit codominance, dominance-recessive behaviour or incomplete dominance.
Dna replication;transcription and translationJoan Cañete
Cell division requires DNA replication so that each daughter cell receives a copy of the DNA. DNA replication is semi-conservative, resulting in two DNA molecules where each contains one original strand and one newly synthesized complementary strand. DNA replication involves initiation, elongation, and termination. During elongation, the leading strand is synthesized continuously while the lagging strand is synthesized in fragments called Okazaki fragments.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1850s and 1860s to study inheritance of traits. Through his experiments with over 28,000 pea plants, he discovered that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete factors, now known as genes. Mendel identified that for each trait, organisms inherit one gene from each parent, and that some genes are dominant and will always be expressed while others are recessive and only expressed when the dominant gene is not present. His work formed the basis of classical genetics and established the laws of segregation and independent assortment.
This document provides information about translation, the process by which the nucleotide sequence of mRNA is converted into the amino acid sequence of a protein. It describes the key components and steps of translation, including the roles of the ribosome, tRNA, mRNA, and various initiation, elongation and termination factors. Translation is universal but can vary slightly between cytoplasmic and mitochondrial genetic codes. The document also discusses regulation of translation and clinical implications.
1. DNA contains the genetic code for proteins in the form of sequences of nucleotides. RNA carries copies of the DNA code to direct protein synthesis.
2. During transcription, RNA polymerase uses one DNA strand as a template to assemble an mRNA copy of the genetic code.
3. During translation, mRNA binds to ribosomes where tRNA molecules match codons on mRNA to the anticodons carrying amino acids, assembling proteins based on the code.
All eukaryotes have at least three different RNA polymerase (Pol I, II,and III; and plants have a Pol IV & a Pol V). In addition, whereas bacteria require only one additional initiation factor (σ), several initiation factors are required for efficient and promoter-specific initiation in eukaryotes. These are called the general transcription factors (GTFs)
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang teknologi minyak dan gas bumi serta cara pemurnian minyak dan gas bumi. Pada bagian awal dijelaskan definisi dan komponen-komponen minyak dan gas bumi, sedangkan pada bagian selanjutnya diuraikan proses-proses pemurnian seperti copper sweetening, acid treatment, desulfurisasi, deasphalting, dewaxing, desalting untuk pemurnian minyak bumi dan amine gas treating, penyerapan dengan zat padat,
Basics of Undergraduate/university fellows
Transcription is more complicated in eukaryotes than in prokaryotes because
eukaryotes possess three different classes of RNA polymerases and because of the
way in which transcripts are processed to their functional forms.
More proteins and transcription factors are involved in eukaryotic transcription.
This document discusses translation, the process by which mRNA is used to produce a protein. It describes the key components needed for translation: mRNA, tRNA, amino acids, and ribosomes. tRNA carries amino acids to the ribosome and contains an anticodon that is complementary to mRNA codons. Ribosomes contain rRNA and proteins and are the site of protein synthesis. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes have large and small ribosomal subunits, but they differ in their rRNA components and gene structure. The document outlines the process of tRNA charging with amino acids and how rRNAs are produced from rDNA genes to assemble into ribosomes.
The document summarizes the process of protein translation, which involves messenger RNA (mRNA) being used as a template to produce a polypeptide chain through the joining of amino acids. Key steps include transcription producing mRNA from DNA, mRNA binding to ribosomes in the cytoplasm, transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules matching codons on mRNA to deliver corresponding amino acids, and the growth of the polypeptide chain through the formation of peptide bonds until a stop codon is reached, terminating translation. The genetic code and roles of various RNAs like rRNA and tRNA in facilitating translation are also outlined.
The genetic code refers to the sequence of nitrogenous bases in mRNA that encode information for protein synthesis. It consists of 64 codons made up of three nucleotide bases that dictate which of 20 amino acids will be incorporated into a growing polypeptide chain or signal its termination. Key events in discovering the genetic code included determining DNA's structure and identifying that codons encode amino acids. There are sense codons that specify amino acids, start codons that initiate translation, and stop codons that terminate protein synthesis. The genetic code is nearly universal and has several important properties including being triplet-based, non-overlapping, and degenerate.
“Incomplete dominance is a form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a particular trait is not expressed completely over its paired allele.” What is Incomplete Dominance? Incomplete dominance is a form of Gene interaction in which both alleles of a gene at a locus are partially expressed, often resulting in an intermediate or different phenotype.
It shows that alleles of red and white coloured flowers were unable to dominate the other, thus resulting in incomplete dominance. Thus, the law of incomplete dominance says that when none of the two alleles exerts complete dominance over the other, the offspring will be a mixture of parents’ phenotypes. Aside from flowering plants, incomplete dominance takes place in human beings and animals as well. One such incomplete dominance example in human beings is that the growth of wavy hair.
The phenomenon in which two true-breeding parents crossed to produce an intermediate offspring (also known as heterozygous) is called incomplete dominance. ... In incomplete dominance, the variants (alleles) are not expressed as dominant or recessive; rather, the dominant allele is expressed in a reduced ratio.
DNA topology studies the geometric properties and spatial relationships of DNA that are unaffected by changes in shape or size. It includes phenomena like supercoiling, knots, and catenanes that involve the linking and twisting of the two DNA strands. DNA topology is characterized by parameters like the linking number, which represents the number of times the two strands are twisted around each other. Enzymes called topoisomerases regulate DNA topology by introducing temporary breaks in the DNA strands to allow strand passage and control supercoiling levels.