This document discusses the stages of recovery following peripheral nerve injury and the management approach at each stage. It describes 3 stages: 1) degeneration, 2) regeneration, and 3) reinnervation and maturation. Stage 1 management focuses on protecting the repair site, preventing adhesions, and monitoring recovery. Stage 2 addresses complications like stiffness and pain management. Stage 3 involves tendon transfers and strengthening exercises. An intensive, long-term rehabilitation program tailored to the recovery stage is key to achieving good functional outcomes.
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Hand Surgeon Guide to Peripheral Nerve Injury Rehabilitation
1. Dr Andrew Yam
MBBS, MRCS, MMed (Surg), FAMS (Hand Surgery)
Hand and Peripheral Nerve Surgeon
Hand Surgery Associates
www.handsurgerysingapore.com
2. Protect the repair!
◦ SPLINT for 2-3 weeks in position of minimal tension
◦ Block movements that stretch nerve, allow those that slacken
nerve
Prevent adhesions
◦ NERVE GLIDING exercises during and after period of splinting
Monitor for recovery
Formal rehabilitation programme
4. Stage I
Degeneration
(First 2-3 weeks)
Wallerian degeneration
Loss of nerve function
Cortical rearrangement starts
Stage II
Regeneration
(2-18 months depending on
distance to target organ)
Axonal regeneration after successful repair
Chronic denervation changes, end-organ
atrophy
Decreased motor and sensory cortical
representation
5. Stage I
Degeneration
(First 2-3 weeks)
Wallerian degeneration
Loss of nerve function
Cortical rearrangement starts
Stage II
Regeneration
(2-18 months depending on distance to
target organ)
Axonal regeneration after successful repair
Chronic denervation changes, end-organ atrophy
Decreased motor and sensory cortical representation
Stage III
Reinnervation and maturation
(Up to 5 years)
Function returns but impaired due to
denervation atrophy, immature and
decreased axons and cortical
representation
Increasing function with maturation and
cortical reorganisation
6. Surgical Therapy
STAGE I
(Degenerative stage)
Diagnosis
Assess severity
Nerve repair/recon
Sensory and motor assessment
Prevent complications of
denervation
Sensory re-education
Pain control
8. Abnormal joint postures due to imbalanced forces across
joints joint contractures
Myostatic contracture
Tendon adhesions
Oedema
-Dependent limb
-Loss of muscle pump
-Loss of sympathetic tone
9. PATIENTS TEND TO NEGLECT OR AVOID MOVING AND TOUCHING THE
DENERVATED LIMB
Median and ulnar nerve – MCPJ extension and PIPJ flexion contractures
Radial nerve – flexion contractures
Brachial plexus – shoulder, elbow, wrist, finger contractures
10. Joint stiffness is a contraindication for tendon transfers
Reinnervated muscles will not overcome stiffness
ALL JOINTS MUST BE KEPT SUPPLE IN ANTICIPATION
OF FUNCTIONAL RECOVERY BY REINNERVATION OR
MUSCLE TRANSFER
11. Management of joints post nerve injury
Passive mobilization through full range as early as possible
Patient education and compliance – prevent neglect
Splinting with caution in insensate hands
No heat therapy in insensate hands
Surgical release as necessary
12. Secondary injury and infection
Insensate limbs prone to serious injury - no withdrawal
reflex
Paralyzed limbs cannot be moved out of danger
Neuropathic ulcers
Burns
Neglected cuts
Severe infection with
delayed treatment
13. Preventing secondary injury and infection
Awareness of danger of insensate limb
Avoid exposure to hot, cold or sharp objects
Frequent inspection for injury
Keep flail limbs in sling
Avoid prolonged pressure including splints
14. Most major nerve
injuries
Up to 80% of brachial
plexus avulsion
injuries
NEUROPATHIC PAIN MAY BE THE
MOST CRIPPLING ASPECT OF
NERVE INJURY
CRPS Type II
Avulsion/deafferentation pain
Neurostenalgia
Abnormal perception of stimuli –
allodynia, dysaesthesia
15. Pharmacological
Physical
Behavioural
Psychological
Surgical
AGGRESSIVE EARLY MULTI-MODALITY TREATMENT OF NEUROPATHIC
PAIN IMPORTANT TO DECREASE RISK OF DEVELOPING CHRONIC PAIN
SYNDROME
16. Gate-control theory Melzack
Non-painful stimulus
◦ To border of hyperaesthetic
area
◦ To territory of other nerves
in same dermatome
◦ To adjacent dermatome
Gradual increase in
intensity of stimulus
17. CORTICAL PLASTICITY
Decreased afferent transmission to cortex decreased cortical
representation of denervated area
Early (immediate) re-education to maintain cortical representation
Substitute touch sense with visual or auditory
18. Surgical Therapy
STAGE I
(Degenerative stage)
Diagnosis
Assess severity
Nerve repair/recon
Prevent complications of denervation
Sensory re-education
Pain management
STAGE II
(Regeneration)
Manage contractures,
adhesions and other
complications of
denervation
Monitor recovery
(advancing Tinel’s sign)
Adaptive techniques
Assistive devices
Pain management
Strengthen and isolate donor
muscles
19. PERIPHERAL NERVE INJURIES RARELY INCAPACITATE
COMPLETELY!
Assistive devices and coping
strategies
Avoid inactivity and
reinforcement of
“helplessness”
20. Assistive devices
Training uninjured limb to compensate
Train to do things differently to compensate
Change of mindset - motivational talks, acceptance
of limitation, hope for recovery, employment
ENCOURAGE USE OF THE INJURED LIMB AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE
21. Radial nerve – finger and wrist extension
Median nerve – thumb abduction/opposition
Ulnar nerve – claw hand correction
24. Strengthening and Isolating Donor Muscles
All potential donor muscles for transfer identified
Physical exercises to increase strength
Visualisation of new function while activating donor
muscle
Physical activity decreases neuropathic pain and
increases sense of well-being
EARLY TRAINING OF DONOR MUSCLES FACILITATES
RE-EDUCATION AFTER TRANSFER
25. Surgical Therapy
STAGE I
(Degenerative stage)
Diagnosis
Assess severity
Nerve repair/recon
Prevent complications of denervation
Sensory re-education
Desensitisation
STAGE II
(Regeneration)
Manage contractures, adhesions and other
complications of denervation
Monitor recovery (advancing Tinel’s sign)
Adaptive techniques
Assistive devices
Desensitisation
Strengthen and isolate donor
muscles
Stage III
(Post-reinnervation
or
reconstruction)
Tendon transfers
Functioning free muscle
Protected mobilisation
Re-training of transferred
nerve or muscle
Strengthening, dexterity
26. Graduated strengthening exercises
- gravity eliminated exercises
- resistance exercises
- functional use and work hardening
Neuromuscular electrical stimulation
Biofeedback
29. Surface electrodes
stimulate reinnervated
muscle end plates
augmenting active
contraction
High intensity, short
duration
Beware of muscle fatigue
and injury
30. Surface electrode EMGs
Visual/auditory feedback
◦ Increase contraction of
agonist muscles
◦ Decrease contraction of
antagonists
Useful for managing co-
contractions and training
tendon/muscle transfers
31. Intensive structured rehabilitation program is essential to
achieve good functional results after nerve injury and
reconstruction
Rehabilitation starts immediately post-injury to minimize
cortical reorganization and encourage ongoing use of the
denervated upper limb
Program tailored to different stages of recovery
Patient motivation is essential until reinnervation and maturation
(up to 2 YEARS for higher lesions, BPI)
Pain management is vital – the patient will not use a painful limb
Emphasis on early return to function while accepting
limitations and learning to adapt
Editor's Notes
To effectively reconstruct and rehabilitate a patient with nerve injuries, it is necessary to understand the biology of nerve injuries and recovery.
The biological process can be divided into three stages, and a rehabilitation programme designed around each stage.
The first stage is DEGENERATION. The injured nerve undergoes wallerian degeneration over the first 2-3 weeks. Loss of nerve function is evident, but what is not so obvious is that changes start to occur in the brain as well. The denervated area’s representation in the cortex starts to shrink, and synapses start to disappear.
The second stage is REGENERATION. In an axonotmesis, axonal regeneration occurs at a rate of 1-2 mm a day from the proximal end of the injured nerve and moves towards the target organs. In a neurotmesis, this cannot occur because of the gap between the ends, and a neuroma forms. A successful nerve repair that bridges the gap is required to allow regeneration.
The target organ atrophies and displays chronic and progressive denervation changes until it is reinnervated by the regenerating axons.
In the brain, the sensory and motor areas representing the denervated area becomes progressively smaller.
The third stage, REINNERVATION AND MATURATION begins once the regenerating axons reach the target organ. The previous denervation changes are reversed. How much function returns after successful reinnervation depends on the duration of denervation.
Initially, the function is impaired by atrophy of the end-organ, immaturity and decreased axon numbers, and decreased and deranged cortical representation. Function can continue to improve for several years, with ongoing maturation of the reinnervated organ, regenerated axons and cortical reorganisation.
Each stage presents a different challenge to the reconstructive surgeon and the therapist.
In the first stage, the surgeon must diagnose the location, nature and severity of the lesion, and do neurolysis, nerve repair, grafting or nerve transfer as appropriate.
The therapist must accurately assess sensory and motor function to determine the functional loss and remaining function. The patient must be educated to avoid complications of denervation. Sensory re-education is started to minimise the impact of cortical reorganisation, and neuropathic pain must be controlled.
Complications of denervation are stiffness, injury and infection, and neuropathic pain.
Denervated limbs easily become stiff.
Prolonged abnormal joint postures due to imbalanced forces across the joints result in joint contractures.
Myostatic contractures occur in unopposed muscles that are continually contracted.
Tendon adhesions and dependent limb oedema also contribute to stiffness.
Typically, the MCPJs become stiff in extension and the PIPJs stiff in flexion in median and ulnar nerve injuries, while in radial nerve injuries, flexion contractures occur.
In brachial plexus injuries, shoulder, elbow, wrist and finger stiffness are common.
The main cause of stiffness is the patient’s tendency to neglect or avoid moving and touching the denervated limb.
As stiffness prevents successful tendon transfer and prevents reinnervated muscle from moving the joints, it is critical to keep all joints supple in anticipation of functional recovery either by reinnervation or by muscle transfer.
The patient, working with the therapist, has the main responsibility.
Passive mobilisation through the full range is taught as soon as it is safe to do so, pending healing of concomitant injuries to bone and tendon.
The patient is taught to perform the exercises at least 20 times every hour, and monitored weekly for compliance.
Splinting is used with caution in insensate hands, as pressure ulcers may develop.
Heat therapy is contraindicated in denervated hands.
If contractures develop that are resistant to stretching and splinting, surgical release may be needed.
Another problem with denervated limbs is injury and infection.
Insensate limbs are prone to serious injury as there is no withdrawal reflex. Paralyzed limbs cannot be moved out of danger.
Denervated skin is soft and dry and does not heal well.
The classic example is the patient with leprosy, who develops neuropathic ulcers, severe burns, neglected cuts ultimately resulting in severe infection that is not noticed and treated late, resulting in loss of the extremity.
It is important to educate the patient on the dangers of the insensate limb, to avoid hot, cold or sharp objects, to inspect frequently for injury, and to keep flail limbs in a sling close to the body. Prolonged pressure must be avoided, including from splints and tools.
Neuropathic pain, while not so common, is probably the most crippling aspect of nerve injury. It is most common in avulsion injuries of the plexus, but may occur in traction lesions, partial nerve lacerations, and with neuroma formation. The pain is characteristic – stabbing, shooting, pins and needles, “numb”, burning, throbbing, and electric-shocks.
Managing this pain is crucial in restoring the patient to useful function, as the patient will not use the limb even if muscle power and sensation is restored if the pain is too severe.
Multi-modal treatment must be started early and aggressively. This involves drugs like pregabalin, physical techniques, behavioural techniques, and psychological techniques. Surgical neurolysis may be effective in some cases.
In some centres like the Peripheral Nerve Injuries Unit at the Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital in Stanmore, patients with severe neuropathic pain are admitted for a week to the rehabilitation ward for intensive pain management involving all modalities, especially physical therapy.
Desensitisation and TENS works via the gate-control theory of pain. A non-painful stimulus is applied to the border of the hypersensitive area, or to the territory of other nerves in a same dermatome or an adjacent dermatome. This sensory signal travels by fast nerve fibres and inhibits pain signals travelling in slower fibers. The stimulus is gradually increased in the hypersensitive area until the patient is able to tolerate pressure compatible with daily contact when using the limb.
Early sensory re-education is advocated by Rosen and Lundborg. They found that cortical plasticity results in reorganisation of the cortical representation of the denervated limb soon after the nerve injury. Early re-education using the eyes or ears to substitute for the sense of touch, and “mirror therapy” helps to maintain the cortical representation of the denervated limb. This facilitates return of function once reinnervation occurs.
In the second stage, the surgeon must manage contractures, adhesions, and other complications of denervation while monitoring for signs of recovery.
The therapist should help the patient to function independently via adaptive techniques and assistive devices. Pain management continues. Donor muscles should be trained and strengthened in anticipation of possible transfers.
It is important to restore the patient to independent function early, despite the limitations imposed by the denervated limb. Peripheral nerve injuries rarely incapacitate completely. The exception is a bilateral total brachial plexus injury, which is extremely rare. Attitudes are the real disability: the attitudes of the patient, their family and their employers. Each should be engaged to help the patient avoid inactivity and reinforcement of helplessness.
Numerous methods can be used to augment any existing function. The goal is always to encourage the patient to use the denervated limb as much as possible and to function independently.
Some assistive devices we commonly use are the dynamic finger and wrist extension splint for radial nerve, opposition strap for median nerve and anti-claw splint for ulnar nerve
More complex devices are also used for brachial plexus injuries, such as a locked elbow splint for upper type BPI to position the functioning hand, a flail arm splint in total BPI to allow some control of the limb using the contralateral scapulothoracic movements, and a gauntlet that can be fitted with various attachments to allow the limb to assist in bimanual tasks. These are cumbersome and difficult to fit and train. However, a motivated patient will find them useful. At the Peripheral Nerve Injuries unit in Stanmore, two patients with BPI with poor recovery are employed in the orthotics department and work using these devices.
Strengthening and isolating donor muscles helps facilitate re-education after transfer, and also decreases neuropathic pain by encouraging the patient to use the limb.
In the final stage, reinnervation or lack of reinnervation is seen. If function is not adequate, tendon and muscle transfers may be useful.
Protected mobilisation is started after the transfers, followed by re-training and strengthening.
If nerve transfers were done in the first stage, then these must be trained to perform their new function.
Sensory re-education now aims to improve tactile gnosis.
Muscle strengthening and training is done by graduated strengthening exercises, aided by neuromuscular electrical stimulation and biofeedback
Gravity eliminated exercises are started once M2 power returns. Slings and low friction devices are used to allow patient to move the limb actively. Exercising in a swimming pool or hydrotherapy pool is also useful.
Resistance training starts with M3 power, followed by work hardening
Neuromuscular electrical stimulation helps to augment muscle contractions by delivering high intensity, short duration bursts of current to the motor end plates. It is important not to overuse this, as muscle fatigue and injury can occur it contractions are too strong or frequent.
Biofeedback provides useful visual or auditory feedback indicating when the agonist and antagonist muscles are activated. This can help the patient to increase contraction of agonists and decrease those of antagonists. It is most useful for managing co-contractions and training tendon or muscle transfers.