1. There are different kinds of law, including divine law, natural law, canon law, and civil law. Natural law participates in divine law and is known through reason, while civil law is man-made.
2. Basic human goods include life, knowledge, play, friendship, religion, and integrity. These goods form a hierarchy and serve as the basis for deriving more specific moral precepts from the fundamental principle of doing good and avoiding evil.
3. Through free choice, a person shapes their own moral character and identity. Repeated choices to do good or evil over time determine the kind of person one becomes.
St. Thomas Aquinas defines four kinds of law: eternal law, natural law, divine law, and human law. Eternal law is God's law governing the universe. Natural law is humanity's participation in eternal law through reason. Divine law provides specific formulations of eternal law to guide human conduct. Human law consists of rules created by human reason to enable virtuous living and maintain order in society. For laws to be just, they must be based on right reason, ordain the common good, not exceed the power of the lawgiver, and impose a burden commensurate with attaining the common good.
St. Augustine developed a theory of two cities or communities - the heavenly city and the earthly city. The heavenly city is dominated by the love of God, while the earthly city is dominated by self-love. He believed humanity is inherently sinful and needs the structure of government and institutions like slavery to maintain order. While the state should pursue peace, true justice can only be found by obeying God and advancing his cause. His work laid the foundation for justifying secular authority and influence of the Christian church in political matters.
This document discusses the concept of natural law. It defines natural law as principles of human conduct that are discoverable by reason from basic aspects of human nature. Natural law is believed to exist independently of human will and is not created by humans. The document outlines several key characteristics of natural law, including that it is universal, immutable, and has always existed. It also discusses different trends in natural law theory and how it has been used both conservatively to maintain the status quo and progressively to enact change. A brief history of natural law in Greek philosophy is provided.
St. Thomas Aquinas believed that God established different types of law to govern human behavior and society, including eternal law (God's plan), divine law (religious doctrine), natural law (human reason and purpose), and human law. Human law must conform to natural law, derived from eternal law, or it is unjust. Property rights exist to meet human needs but the rich have an obligation to the poor. Overall, Aquinas provided a philosophical framework to assess political structures based on their conformity with divine and natural law.
The document discusses different types of law according to St. Thomas Aquinas. It defines law as a decree or ordinance of reason directed towards the common good and promulgated by competent authority. It then explains eternal law as God's plan for the universe, natural law as discernible through human reason, and divine and human positive laws which are enacted to preserve order and direct society for the common good in accordance with or in addition to eternal and natural law.
Natural law is based on the idea that God created everything for a purpose and humans can understand this purpose through reason. Thomas Aquinas developed natural law theory, drawing on Aristotle, to provide a rational basis for Christian morality. Natural law dictates absolute morality - that actions must fulfill their natural purpose without flexibility for circumstances. Applying natural law involves determining if an action achieves its natural end through reason and observation of nature.
St. Thomas Aquinas defines four kinds of law: eternal law, natural law, divine law, and human law. Eternal law is God's law governing the universe. Natural law is humanity's participation in eternal law through reason. Divine law provides specific formulations of eternal law to guide human conduct. Human law consists of rules created by human reason to enable virtuous living and maintain order in society. For laws to be just, they must be based on right reason, ordain the common good, not exceed the power of the lawgiver, and impose a burden commensurate with attaining the common good.
St. Augustine developed a theory of two cities or communities - the heavenly city and the earthly city. The heavenly city is dominated by the love of God, while the earthly city is dominated by self-love. He believed humanity is inherently sinful and needs the structure of government and institutions like slavery to maintain order. While the state should pursue peace, true justice can only be found by obeying God and advancing his cause. His work laid the foundation for justifying secular authority and influence of the Christian church in political matters.
This document discusses the concept of natural law. It defines natural law as principles of human conduct that are discoverable by reason from basic aspects of human nature. Natural law is believed to exist independently of human will and is not created by humans. The document outlines several key characteristics of natural law, including that it is universal, immutable, and has always existed. It also discusses different trends in natural law theory and how it has been used both conservatively to maintain the status quo and progressively to enact change. A brief history of natural law in Greek philosophy is provided.
St. Thomas Aquinas believed that God established different types of law to govern human behavior and society, including eternal law (God's plan), divine law (religious doctrine), natural law (human reason and purpose), and human law. Human law must conform to natural law, derived from eternal law, or it is unjust. Property rights exist to meet human needs but the rich have an obligation to the poor. Overall, Aquinas provided a philosophical framework to assess political structures based on their conformity with divine and natural law.
The document discusses different types of law according to St. Thomas Aquinas. It defines law as a decree or ordinance of reason directed towards the common good and promulgated by competent authority. It then explains eternal law as God's plan for the universe, natural law as discernible through human reason, and divine and human positive laws which are enacted to preserve order and direct society for the common good in accordance with or in addition to eternal and natural law.
Natural law is based on the idea that God created everything for a purpose and humans can understand this purpose through reason. Thomas Aquinas developed natural law theory, drawing on Aristotle, to provide a rational basis for Christian morality. Natural law dictates absolute morality - that actions must fulfill their natural purpose without flexibility for circumstances. Applying natural law involves determining if an action achieves its natural end through reason and observation of nature.
This document provides an overview of virtue ethics from Aristotle to modern philosophers. It discusses Aristotle's concept of eudaimonia or human flourishing as the goal of ethics achieved through developing moral virtues like courage, justice, and temperance. Aristotle defined virtues as means between vices of excess and deficiency. Later virtue ethicists expanded on Aristotle's work, with some emphasizing narrative traditions or ethics of care. Strengths of virtue ethics include its focus on character, community, and long-term moral development, though weaknesses include vagueness and dependence on strong communities.
The document discusses Thomas Aquinas's theory of natural law, which he developed based on the work of Aristotle. It explains key aspects of Aristotle's view that things have a natural telos (purpose) and act according to their nature. For Aristotle, human nature is defined by reason. The document then outlines Aquinas's perspective that natural law is the moral code humans are naturally inclined towards, as revealed by God. Aquinas believed the four purposes of human life are living in society, reproducing, learning, and worshipping God. Any actions that enable these purposes are considered good. The document discusses how Aquinas viewed morality, sin, intentions versus actions, and how his framework is used today, particularly regarding issues like homosexuality.
This document provides an overview of different moral philosophies including nihilism, relativism, objectivism, and subjectivism. It discusses key concepts of each view such as nihilism's belief that life has no objective meaning or purpose. Relativism is explained as the view that morality is determined by one's culture or society. Objectivism holds that there are universal moral truths and ethics are based on rational self-interest. The document also examines different types of these views like metaphysical nihilism and moral relativism. Overall, the document aims to define and compare major approaches to ethics.
Saint Thomas Aquinas was a 13th century Catholic priest and philosopher who synthesized Aristotle's philosophy with Catholic theology. His two most influential works were the Summa Theologica and Summa Contra Gentiles. In the Summa Theologica, he extensively discusses man, arguing that man is substantially both body and soul, with the soul being the principle of life and action in the body. Aquinas' philosophy is considered highly influential to this day.
Thomas Aquinas developed a theory of natural law that argues morality is based on principles that are implanted in human nature by God and can be discerned through reason. Natural law consists of general rules that are derived from eternal law and embedded in human nature, such as preserving life and living in society. Aquinas sought to ground Christian ethics in a rational system based on natural inclinations, arguing that through reason humans can understand moral rules and their proper end as living, reproducing, and rational creatures ordered towards God.
Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher born in 1724 who developed the deontological ethical theory of Kantianism. Some of Kant's most important concepts included the categorical imperative which holds that moral actions are those done from duty in accordance with universal moral rules. For an action to have moral worth, it must be done from duty rather than inclination. Kant also believed that humans have free will and are ends in themselves, never to be used solely as a means to another end.
Aristotle is considered the most important virtue ethicist. He argues that happiness, or eudaimonia, consists in living according to virtue. For Aristotle, virtue is a mean between deficiencies and excesses of emotions and actions. The virtuous person feels and acts moderately in various situations. Aristotle identifies several intellectual and moral virtues. Intellectual virtues like practical wisdom can be learned, while moral virtues become ingrained through practice and habit. True happiness is achieved by cultivating moral excellence and using reason to guide our desires toward what is good.
Law is based on reason and promulgated by a competent authority for the common good. There are different kinds of moral law including eternal law, natural law, revealed law in the Old and New Testaments, and human law. Eternal law is God's plan for governing the universe according to wisdom and love. Natural law is discerned through human reason and includes precepts like doing good and avoiding evil. Revealed law comes from God through scripture and perfects the Old Law through Jesus' teachings in the New Testament. Human law regulates society but must conform with higher divine and natural laws for the common good.
The document summarizes key concepts of social contract theory according to Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Hobbes viewed the state of nature as dangerous and advocated for absolute monarchy to maintain order. Locke believed the state of nature allowed for rational self-governance and advocated for representational democracy and protection of property rights. Rousseau viewed the state of nature positively and humans as inherently good, advocating for direct democracy and for individuals to submit to the general will of the people.
This document discusses the rights and duties of Filipino citizens. It begins by having the reader visit their home and heart to reflect on their role and responsibilities in the family. It then defines key concepts like rights, privileges, and duties. The document outlines several rights that Filipino citizens possess, such as freedom of speech, religion, privacy and access to legal assistance. It also details the duties of citizens, including defending the state, obeying laws, working, and voting. It emphasizes that upholding both rights and duties creates a just society and prosperous country.
Aristotle's philosophical perspective on art is that art aims to represent the inward significance of things rather than their outward appearance. The document then discusses the functions of art, categorizing them as physical, social, or personal. It provides examples of each type of function. The document also examines different philosophical perspectives on the nature of art from thinkers like Plato, Aristotle, Kant, and Tolstoy. Plato viewed art as imitation, Aristotle as representation, Kant believed judgment of art is disinterested, and Tolstoy saw art as communication of emotion.
St. Augustine - City of God and City of ManSarbjit Rindi
St. Augustine wrote "The City of God" in the 5th century to defend Christianity against critics who blamed it for Rome's fall. In the book, he distinguishes between the earthly City of Man, focused on earthly desires, and the heavenly City of God, focused on faith in God. He argues that true peace and justice can only be found in the City of God, as earthly cities are inherently sinful. The two cities will remain entangled on earth until God's final judgment separates them for eternity.
The document discusses the basic concepts and principles of taxation. It states that taxation is an inherent power of sovereign states to raise revenue to fund necessary government expenses. Taxation imposes a levy on persons, property, and property rights. It is an inherent power of the state derived from its sovereignty within its territorial jurisdiction. The document outlines other inherent state powers like police power, eminent domain, and taxation. It distinguishes taxation from eminent domain and police powers. Constitutional and inherent limitations on taxation powers are also discussed. Finally, the document outlines basic principles of a sound tax system including fiscal adequacy, administrative feasibility, consistency with economic goals, and equality and theoretical justice.
MORALITY OF HUMAN ACTS
Human Acts
Acts of Man
Basic Element of Human Acts
• Types of Voluntariness
Major Determinants of the Morality of Human Acts
Four Types of Circumstances
Specific Types of Circumstances
Modifiers of Human Acts
1) Ignorance
• Types of Ignorance
2) Passion
3) Fear
Act done ‘with’ fear
Act done ‘out’ of fear
4) Violence
5) Habit
The document provides an overview of the concept of human dignity in Western thought from ancient philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle to modern traditions. It discusses how dignity emerged from the idea that humans are rational beings and have worth that separates them from animals. Stoics like Cicero and Marcus Aurelius emphasized that all humans belong to a single moral community as world citizens. The Christian tradition established the idea that humans are created in God's image, giving them inherent worth. Modern frameworks like the UN Declaration of Human Rights are founded on respecting the dignity and equal rights of all people. However, some scholars like Ruth Macklin have critiqued the vague use of "dignity" in bioethics
Ethics refer to rules provided by an external source like a profession regarding right and wrong conduct, while morals refer to an individual's own principles of right and wrong. Ethics are defined by social systems and doing the right thing is to avoid punishment, while morals are defined internally and doing the right thing aligns with one's ideals. Ethics can vary between contexts but morals are usually consistent, though an individual's beliefs may change.
Globalization refers to the increased integration and interdependence of national economies through cross-border movement of goods, capital, services, technologies and people. It has led to greater international trade, cultural exchange and development of global telecommunications infrastructure. While proponents argue it increases economic growth and efficiency, critics argue it can negatively impact national sovereignty, local cultures and lead to greater inequality. The document outlines both the advantages such as increased employment, education and cheaper goods, as well as disadvantages like health issues, environmental degradation and uneven wealth distribution that have resulted from globalization.
Regionalization is the process of dividing an area into smaller segments called regions, such as dividing a nation into states or provinces. It is used by businesses as a management tool. In contrast, globalization promotes integration of economies and free trade worldwide through the exchange of ideas, products, technology and more. While regionalization divides areas, globalization allows for more international cooperation, multiculturalism, technological advances and humanitarian aid across borders.
The document discusses different types of law according to St. Thomas Aquinas. It defines law as a decree or ordinance of reason directed towards the common good and promulgated by competent authority. It then explains eternal law as God's plan for the universe, natural law as discernible through human reason, and divine and human positive laws which are enacted to preserve order and direct society for the common good in accordance with or in addition to eternal and natural law.
This document discusses human values and theories. It outlines three types of values - biological, social, and rational values - which are necessary for human survival, fulfillment, and intellect respectively. Moral values are defined as having intrinsic desirability, being universal, and being obligatory. Other values discussed include religious, cultural, and social values. The document also examines different ethical theories from philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, and Aquinas, as well as belief systems such as Islam, Buddhism, Utilitarianism, and Christianity regarding what constitutes the highest good or value.
This document provides an overview of virtue ethics from Aristotle to modern philosophers. It discusses Aristotle's concept of eudaimonia or human flourishing as the goal of ethics achieved through developing moral virtues like courage, justice, and temperance. Aristotle defined virtues as means between vices of excess and deficiency. Later virtue ethicists expanded on Aristotle's work, with some emphasizing narrative traditions or ethics of care. Strengths of virtue ethics include its focus on character, community, and long-term moral development, though weaknesses include vagueness and dependence on strong communities.
The document discusses Thomas Aquinas's theory of natural law, which he developed based on the work of Aristotle. It explains key aspects of Aristotle's view that things have a natural telos (purpose) and act according to their nature. For Aristotle, human nature is defined by reason. The document then outlines Aquinas's perspective that natural law is the moral code humans are naturally inclined towards, as revealed by God. Aquinas believed the four purposes of human life are living in society, reproducing, learning, and worshipping God. Any actions that enable these purposes are considered good. The document discusses how Aquinas viewed morality, sin, intentions versus actions, and how his framework is used today, particularly regarding issues like homosexuality.
This document provides an overview of different moral philosophies including nihilism, relativism, objectivism, and subjectivism. It discusses key concepts of each view such as nihilism's belief that life has no objective meaning or purpose. Relativism is explained as the view that morality is determined by one's culture or society. Objectivism holds that there are universal moral truths and ethics are based on rational self-interest. The document also examines different types of these views like metaphysical nihilism and moral relativism. Overall, the document aims to define and compare major approaches to ethics.
Saint Thomas Aquinas was a 13th century Catholic priest and philosopher who synthesized Aristotle's philosophy with Catholic theology. His two most influential works were the Summa Theologica and Summa Contra Gentiles. In the Summa Theologica, he extensively discusses man, arguing that man is substantially both body and soul, with the soul being the principle of life and action in the body. Aquinas' philosophy is considered highly influential to this day.
Thomas Aquinas developed a theory of natural law that argues morality is based on principles that are implanted in human nature by God and can be discerned through reason. Natural law consists of general rules that are derived from eternal law and embedded in human nature, such as preserving life and living in society. Aquinas sought to ground Christian ethics in a rational system based on natural inclinations, arguing that through reason humans can understand moral rules and their proper end as living, reproducing, and rational creatures ordered towards God.
Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher born in 1724 who developed the deontological ethical theory of Kantianism. Some of Kant's most important concepts included the categorical imperative which holds that moral actions are those done from duty in accordance with universal moral rules. For an action to have moral worth, it must be done from duty rather than inclination. Kant also believed that humans have free will and are ends in themselves, never to be used solely as a means to another end.
Aristotle is considered the most important virtue ethicist. He argues that happiness, or eudaimonia, consists in living according to virtue. For Aristotle, virtue is a mean between deficiencies and excesses of emotions and actions. The virtuous person feels and acts moderately in various situations. Aristotle identifies several intellectual and moral virtues. Intellectual virtues like practical wisdom can be learned, while moral virtues become ingrained through practice and habit. True happiness is achieved by cultivating moral excellence and using reason to guide our desires toward what is good.
Law is based on reason and promulgated by a competent authority for the common good. There are different kinds of moral law including eternal law, natural law, revealed law in the Old and New Testaments, and human law. Eternal law is God's plan for governing the universe according to wisdom and love. Natural law is discerned through human reason and includes precepts like doing good and avoiding evil. Revealed law comes from God through scripture and perfects the Old Law through Jesus' teachings in the New Testament. Human law regulates society but must conform with higher divine and natural laws for the common good.
The document summarizes key concepts of social contract theory according to Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Hobbes viewed the state of nature as dangerous and advocated for absolute monarchy to maintain order. Locke believed the state of nature allowed for rational self-governance and advocated for representational democracy and protection of property rights. Rousseau viewed the state of nature positively and humans as inherently good, advocating for direct democracy and for individuals to submit to the general will of the people.
This document discusses the rights and duties of Filipino citizens. It begins by having the reader visit their home and heart to reflect on their role and responsibilities in the family. It then defines key concepts like rights, privileges, and duties. The document outlines several rights that Filipino citizens possess, such as freedom of speech, religion, privacy and access to legal assistance. It also details the duties of citizens, including defending the state, obeying laws, working, and voting. It emphasizes that upholding both rights and duties creates a just society and prosperous country.
Aristotle's philosophical perspective on art is that art aims to represent the inward significance of things rather than their outward appearance. The document then discusses the functions of art, categorizing them as physical, social, or personal. It provides examples of each type of function. The document also examines different philosophical perspectives on the nature of art from thinkers like Plato, Aristotle, Kant, and Tolstoy. Plato viewed art as imitation, Aristotle as representation, Kant believed judgment of art is disinterested, and Tolstoy saw art as communication of emotion.
St. Augustine - City of God and City of ManSarbjit Rindi
St. Augustine wrote "The City of God" in the 5th century to defend Christianity against critics who blamed it for Rome's fall. In the book, he distinguishes between the earthly City of Man, focused on earthly desires, and the heavenly City of God, focused on faith in God. He argues that true peace and justice can only be found in the City of God, as earthly cities are inherently sinful. The two cities will remain entangled on earth until God's final judgment separates them for eternity.
The document discusses the basic concepts and principles of taxation. It states that taxation is an inherent power of sovereign states to raise revenue to fund necessary government expenses. Taxation imposes a levy on persons, property, and property rights. It is an inherent power of the state derived from its sovereignty within its territorial jurisdiction. The document outlines other inherent state powers like police power, eminent domain, and taxation. It distinguishes taxation from eminent domain and police powers. Constitutional and inherent limitations on taxation powers are also discussed. Finally, the document outlines basic principles of a sound tax system including fiscal adequacy, administrative feasibility, consistency with economic goals, and equality and theoretical justice.
MORALITY OF HUMAN ACTS
Human Acts
Acts of Man
Basic Element of Human Acts
• Types of Voluntariness
Major Determinants of the Morality of Human Acts
Four Types of Circumstances
Specific Types of Circumstances
Modifiers of Human Acts
1) Ignorance
• Types of Ignorance
2) Passion
3) Fear
Act done ‘with’ fear
Act done ‘out’ of fear
4) Violence
5) Habit
The document provides an overview of the concept of human dignity in Western thought from ancient philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle to modern traditions. It discusses how dignity emerged from the idea that humans are rational beings and have worth that separates them from animals. Stoics like Cicero and Marcus Aurelius emphasized that all humans belong to a single moral community as world citizens. The Christian tradition established the idea that humans are created in God's image, giving them inherent worth. Modern frameworks like the UN Declaration of Human Rights are founded on respecting the dignity and equal rights of all people. However, some scholars like Ruth Macklin have critiqued the vague use of "dignity" in bioethics
Ethics refer to rules provided by an external source like a profession regarding right and wrong conduct, while morals refer to an individual's own principles of right and wrong. Ethics are defined by social systems and doing the right thing is to avoid punishment, while morals are defined internally and doing the right thing aligns with one's ideals. Ethics can vary between contexts but morals are usually consistent, though an individual's beliefs may change.
Globalization refers to the increased integration and interdependence of national economies through cross-border movement of goods, capital, services, technologies and people. It has led to greater international trade, cultural exchange and development of global telecommunications infrastructure. While proponents argue it increases economic growth and efficiency, critics argue it can negatively impact national sovereignty, local cultures and lead to greater inequality. The document outlines both the advantages such as increased employment, education and cheaper goods, as well as disadvantages like health issues, environmental degradation and uneven wealth distribution that have resulted from globalization.
Regionalization is the process of dividing an area into smaller segments called regions, such as dividing a nation into states or provinces. It is used by businesses as a management tool. In contrast, globalization promotes integration of economies and free trade worldwide through the exchange of ideas, products, technology and more. While regionalization divides areas, globalization allows for more international cooperation, multiculturalism, technological advances and humanitarian aid across borders.
The document discusses different types of law according to St. Thomas Aquinas. It defines law as a decree or ordinance of reason directed towards the common good and promulgated by competent authority. It then explains eternal law as God's plan for the universe, natural law as discernible through human reason, and divine and human positive laws which are enacted to preserve order and direct society for the common good in accordance with or in addition to eternal and natural law.
This document discusses human values and theories. It outlines three types of values - biological, social, and rational values - which are necessary for human survival, fulfillment, and intellect respectively. Moral values are defined as having intrinsic desirability, being universal, and being obligatory. Other values discussed include religious, cultural, and social values. The document also examines different ethical theories from philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, and Aquinas, as well as belief systems such as Islam, Buddhism, Utilitarianism, and Christianity regarding what constitutes the highest good or value.
This document discusses the essence and varieties of law. It begins by explaining the essence of law, stating that as rational beings, humans have free will and act in pursuit of their own ends while also considering the common good. There are four main kinds of law: 1) Eternal law is God's divine plan and wisdom that governs all of creation. 2) Divine law is the historical laws revealed in the Bible like the Ten Commandments. 3) Natural law refers to universal moral concepts inherent in human nature. 4) Human law consists of laws constructed and enforced by human communities, which must conform to natural law to be valid. The document provides further explanation of each kind of law.
The document discusses Aristotle's concept of natural law and its influence on Catholic moral philosophy. It describes natural law as universal, obligatory, recognizable, and unchanging. For Aristotle, everything has a natural activity or telos. He sought to discover humanity's highest good or final end, which is happiness. The human soul is divided into three parts: the vegetative faculty responsible for nutrition, the appetitive faculty for desires, and the calculative faculty for reasoning. Virtue is a mean between two extremes. The document also discusses disadvantages of natural law theory and arguments against it from Freud, Marx, and Darwin.
The document discusses different types of laws including eternal law, natural law, moral law, and human law. Eternal law refers to God's plan for governing the universe. Natural law involves moral insights knowable through human reason. Moral law governs human conduct and is revealed through scripture. Human law contains regulations created by legitimate authorities to direct society towards the common good. The document provides details on the characteristics and purposes of these different kinds of laws.
1 Aristotle Virtue Ethics Aristotle and .docxmercysuttle
1
Aristotle
Virtue Ethics
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Aristotle (Ancient Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης, Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC)[1] was a Greek philosopher
and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great.
His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic,
rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important
founding figures in Western philosophy.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy,
encompassing morality, aesthetics, logic, science, politics, and metaphysics.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Nicomachean Ethics
The Nicomachean Ethics /nɪˌkɒmæˈkiːən/ is the name normally given to Aristotle's best
known work on ethics.
The work, which plays a pre-eminent role in defining Aristotelian ethics, consists of ten
books, originally separate scrolls, and is understood to be based on notes from his
lectures at the Lyceum, which were either edited by or dedicated to Aristotle's son,
Nicomachus.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
The theme of the work is the Socratic question which had previously been explored in Plato's
works, of how men should best live. In his Metaphysics, Aristotle described how Socrates turned
philosophy to human questions, whereas Pre-Socratic philosophy had only been theoretical.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Ethics, as now separated out for discussion by Aristotle, is practical rather than theoretical, in
the original Aristotelian senses of these terms. In other words it is not only a contemplation
about good living, but also aims to create good living.
Link to an electronic version of Nicomachean Ethics
2
http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/nicomachaen.html
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Aristotle begins the work by positing that there exists some ultimate good toward which, in the
final analysis, all human actions ultimately aim. The necessary characteristics of the ultimate
good are that it is complete, final, self-sufficient and continuous.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
This good toward which all human actions implicitly or explicitly aim is happiness ‹ in Greek,
"eudaimonia," which can also be translated as blessedness or living well, and which is not a
static state of being but a type of activity.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Ethical virtue "is a habit disposed toward action by deliberate choice, being at the mean relative
to us, and defined by reason as a prudent man would define it." Each of the elements of this
definition is important.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Virtue is not simply an isolated action but a habit of acting well. For an action to be virtuous a
person must do it deliberately, kn ...
The document discusses human values and ethical theories. It begins by defining man as a person with intellect and will. It then outlines 3 categories of values: biological values related to survival, social values related to fulfillment, and rational values related to intellect and will. The document also discusses moral values as having intrinsic desirability and being universal and obligatory. Finally, it summarizes 5 major ethical theories - Plato, Aristotle, Aquinas, Utilitarianism, and Christianity - and what each sees as the highest good or value.
Equality and justice are related but distinct concepts. Equality refers to treating all people the same, while justice considers fairness and individual circumstances and outcomes. True justice cannot be achieved through equality alone. Different cultures understand justice in varying ways based on their shared history and beliefs. Key debates around justice include whether it stems from divine commands, natural law, human design, or a balance of consequences. Theories of justice also consider how to distribute goods fairly in a society.
This document discusses different philosophical perspectives on love, including the types of love defined by philosophers (Eros, Philia, etc.). It also examines definitions of love from Aristotle, Plato, and the Bible. Additionally, it explores philosophical definitions of man, freedom, justice, and man's relationship to others, nature, society, and God. Man is defined as a rational being made in God's image who has responsibilities as steward of creation and to love others.
Natural Law refers to moral principles that are derived from human nature as created by God. It holds that certain laws, such as prohibitions against murder and discrimination, can be discerned by human reason. However, people are imperfect and sometimes misunderstand Natural Law. God therefore revealed Divine Law through scripture to clarify right and wrong. Constantine helped spread Christianity in the Roman Empire by legalizing the faith and favoring the Church. The Council of Trent later reformed Catholic practices and addressed corruption. Social Justice principles include respecting human dignity, treating all equally, and supporting one another.
SunMyungMoon spoke crystal clear PLAIN TRUTH;
An ILLICIT SEXUAL FALL =
Lucifer <–> Eve => Eve <–> Adam
Spiritual Physical
=> Fallen Mankind - ”Fruits; Spiritual dead Mankind”
multiplying Original Sin + 4 Fallen natures
As an embodied subject, the human person has inherent limitations: he has facticity, he is a spatial-temporal being, and his body is intermediary. The presence of inherent limitations imposed by being an embodied subject may make us think that our life is very restricting. However, it is also these limitations that make our lives more interesting and challenging because these offer us the possibility of overcoming or transcending them.
The document summarizes the philosophical views of several thinkers on human nature, including:
- René Descartes viewed humans as both thinking and physical substances.
- Karl Marx believed human nature is derived from labor and productivity.
- Thomas Hobbes saw humans as motivated solely by desires and self-interest in a "state of nature."
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau thought humans were born good but corrupted by society.
- Jean-Paul Sartre and Karl Jaspers described ways to attain authentic human existence through freedom and responsibility.
Happiness comes from possessing a good that is perfect and fully satisfying. Earthly goods are imperfect and cannot provide lasting happiness. True purpose and happiness for humans comes from pursuing supernatural goods like knowing, loving, and serving God. Natural law is derived from eternal law and is based on human nature, prescribing moral norms to guide humans toward their highest good.
The document discusses natural law and natural ethics. It begins by defining natural law as ethical imperatives inherent in human beings discovered through reason, differing from positive or revealed law. It then provides several definitions of natural law from different perspectives. The rest of the document discusses the principles and implications of a natural science of ethics, including:
1) Ethics are based on the natural origins of human values and moral development/conscience.
2) Human needs and values evolve based on their survival value for social species. Satisfying needs leads to self-actualization and ethical behavior.
3) Education should foster proper moral development and respect for human needs to create ethical individuals and societies.
This document discusses different concepts related to morality and law. It defines law as an ordinance that exists for the common good, affirmed by legitimate authority. There are different types of law - eternal law from God, natural law written on the human heart, revealed law in scripture, and positive law made by authorities. For a civil law to be just, it must seek the common good, reflect equality, and align with natural law. The document also discusses degrees of morality based on act, intention, and circumstance. It introduces the principle of double effect to determine right action when good and bad results occur. Finally, it contrasts virtue-based ethics which judges actions as objectively right or wrong, versus moral relativism in systems like situation
Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics discusses the concept of eudaimonia (happiness or human flourishing). It argues that eudaimonia results from living according to reason and possessing moral virtue as well as external goods like wealth and social status. Moral virtue is developed through habituation from a young age and practicing virtuous actions. The virtues involve finding the golden mean between excess and deficiency. Key virtues are courage, temperance, and justice. Justice involves both obeying just laws and treating others fairly based on their merits. Freedom and moral responsibility are also discussed as relating to developing virtue and eudaimonia.
Social Doctrine of the Catholic Church for Catechistsneilmcq
Contained here is an outline and brief presentation of the basic principles of the Social Doctrine of the Catholic Church. This is not a comprehensive course.
Astronism, Cosmism and Cosmodeism: the space religions espousing the doctrine...Cometan
This lecture created by Brandon Taylorian (aka Cometan) specially for the CESNUR Conference held Bordeaux in June 2024 provides a brief introduction to the legacy of religious and philosophical thought that Astronism emerges from, namely the discourse on transcension started assuredly by the Cosmists in Russia in the mid-to-late nineteenth century and then carried on and developed by Mordecai Nessyahu in Cosmodeism in the twentieth century. Cometan also then provides some detail on his story in founding Astronism in the early twenty-first century from 2013 along with details on the central Astronist doctrine of transcension. Finally, the lecture concludes with some contributions made by space religions and space philosophy and their influences on various cultural facets in art, literature and film.
The Book of Samuel is a book in the Hebrew Bible, found as two books in the Old Testament. The book is part of the Deuteronomistic history, a series of books that constitute a theological history of the Israelites and that aim to explain God's law for Israel under the guidance of the prophets.
Lucid Dreaming: Understanding the Risks and Benefits
The ability to control one's dreams or for the dreamer to be aware that he or she is dreaming. This process, called lucid dreaming, has some potential risks as well as many fascinating benefits. However, many people are hesitant to try it initially for fear of the potential dangers. This article aims to clarify these concerns by exploring both the risks and benefits of lucid dreaming.
The Benefits of Lucid Dreaming
Lucid dreaming allows a person to take control of their dream world, helping them overcome their fears and eliminate nightmares. This technique is particularly useful for mental health. By taking control of their dreams, individuals can face challenging scenarios in a controlled environment, which can help reduce anxiety and increase self-confidence.
Addressing Common Concerns
Physical Harm in Dreams Lucid dreaming is fundamentally safe. In a lucid dream, everything is a creation of your mind. Therefore, nothing in the dream can physically harm you. Despite the vividness and realness of the dream experience, it remains entirely within your mental landscape, posing no physical danger.
Mental Health Risks Concerns about developing PTSD or other mental illnesses from lucid dreaming are unfounded. As soon as you wake up, it's clear that the events experienced in the dream were not real. On the contrary, lucid dreaming is often seen as a therapeutic tool for conditions like PTSD, as it allows individuals to reframe and manage their thoughts.
Potential Risks of Lucid Dreaming
While generally safe, lucid dreaming does come with a few risks as well:
Mixing Dream Memories with Reality Long-term lucid dreamers might occasionally confuse dream memories with real ones, creating false memories. This issue is rare and preventable by maintaining a dream journal and avoiding lucid dreaming about real-life people or places too frequently.
Escapism Using lucid dreaming to escape reality can be problematic if it interferes with your daily life. While it is sometimes beneficial to escape and relieve the stress of reality, relying on lucid dreaming for happiness can hinder personal growth and productivity.
Feeling Tired After Lucid Dreaming Some people report feeling tired after lucid dreaming. This tiredness is not due to the dreams themselves but often results from not getting enough sleep or using techniques that disrupt sleep patterns. Taking breaks and ensuring adequate sleep can prevent this.
Mental Exhaustion Lucid dreaming can be mentally taxing if practiced excessively without breaks. It’s important to balance lucid dreaming with regular sleep to avoid mental fatigue.
Lucid dreaming is safe and beneficial if done with caution. It has many benefits, such as overcoming fear and improving mental health, and minimal risks. There are many resources and tutorials available for those interested in trying it.
Heartfulness Magazine - June 2024 (Volume 9, Issue 6)heartfulness
Dear readers,
This month we continue with more inspiring talks from the Global Spirituality Mahotsav that was held from March 14 to 17, 2024, at Kanha Shanti Vanam.
We hear from Daaji on lifestyle and yoga in honor of International Day of Yoga, June 21, 2024. We also hear from Professor Bhavani Rao, Dean at Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham University, on spirituality in action, the Venerable BhikkuSanghasena on how to be an ambassador for compassion, Dr. Tony Nader on the Maharishi Effect, Swami Mukundananda on the crossroads of modernization, Tejinder Kaur Basra on the purpose of work, the Venerable GesheDorjiDamdul on the psychology of peace, the Rt. Hon. Patricia Scotland, KC, Secretary-General of the Commonwealth, on how we are all related, and world-renowned violinist KumareshRajagopalan on the uplifting mysteries of music.
Dr. Prasad Veluthanar shares an Ayurvedic perspective on treating autism, Dr. IchakAdizes helps us navigate disagreements at work, Sravan Banda celebrates World Environment Day by sharing some tips on land restoration, and Sara Bubber tells our children another inspiring story and challenges them with some fun facts and riddles.
Happy reading,
The editors
Trusting God's Providence | Verse: Romans 8: 28-31JL de Belen
Trusting God's Providence.
Providence - God’s active preservation and care over His creation. God is both the Creator and the Sustainer of all things Heb. 1:2-3; Col. 1:17
-God keep His promises.
-God’s general providence is toward all creation
- All things were made through Him
God’s special providence is toward His children.
We may suffer now, but joy can and will come
God can see what we cannot see
Tales of This and Another Life - Chapters.pdfMashaL38
This book is one of the best of the translated ones, for it has a warning character for all those who find themselves in the experience of material life. Irmão X provides a shrewd way of describing the subtleties and weaknesses that can jeopardize our intentions, making us more attentive and vigilant by providing us with his wise pages, reminding us between the lines of the Master's words: "Pray and watch."
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Lesson 12 - The Blessed Hope: The Mark of the Christian.pptxCelso Napoleon
Lesson 12 - The Blessed Hope: The Mark of the Christian
SBS – Sunday Bible School
Adult Bible Lessons 2nd quarter 2024 CPAD
MAGAZINE: THE CAREER THAT IS PROPOSED TO US: The Path of Salvation, Holiness and Perseverance to Reach Heaven
Commentator: Pastor Osiel Gomes
Presentation: Missionary Celso Napoleon
Renewed in Grace
Unleash your spiritual growth journey as a truth-seeker!
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Tracking "The Blessing" - Christianity · Spiritual Growth · Success
Do you ever feel like your Bible highlighting isn't quite enough to ignite lasting spiritual growth? Have you struggled to retain key takeaways from your Bible study sessions?
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In this video, you'll gain insights on:
How highlighting key verses and themes can enhance memory and retention of Scripture (we see a few key ones, here!)
Studies have shown that highlighting can significantly improve information recall. Highlighting key points visually reinforces them in your mind, leading to better long-term memory.
How to personalize your Bible study through strategic highlighting. Don't just highlight everything!
This video will teach you how to strategically highlight based on what resonates with you, focusing on central themes, recurring ideas, or connections between different passages.
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How connecting highlighted passages can reveal deeper biblical truths. By highlighting these connections, you can see the bigger picture and uncover the underlying messages within Scripture.
By the end of this video, you'll be equipped to unlock the hidden potential within your highlighted Bible and embark on a transformative spiritual growth journey! Don't forget to like and subscribe for more inspiring content on deepening your faith.
Note: For Christians seeking to enrich their Bible study and deepen their faith, as well as any other spiritual seeker of truth and growth.
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2nd issue of Volume 15. A magazine in urdu language mainly based on spiritual treatment and learning. Many topics on ISLAM, SUFISM, SOCIAL PROBLEMS, SELF HELP, PSYCHOLOGY, HEALTH, SPIRITUAL TREATMENT, Ruqya etc.A very useful magazine for everyone.
Lição 12: João 15 a 17 – O Espírito Santo e a Oração Sacerdotal | 2° Trimestr...OmarBarrezueta1
Esta lição é uma oportunidade para discutirmos um assunto multo mal interpretado no contexto cristão, que é o fato de algumas pessoas pensarem que o conhecer Jesus é ter a nossa vida mudada em todas as áreas, como se Deus tivesse o dever de transportar-nos deste mundo para um outro mundo onde muitas coisas maravilhosas que desejamos seriam reais. No entanto, a nossa fé não nos tira do mundo após nos convertermos; ao invés disso, permanecemos vivendo sob as mesmas circunstâncias. O propósito de Deus não é nos tirar do mundo, mas nos livrar das ações do maligno (Jo 17.15), Sendo assim, a vida eterna não significa estar fora da realidade deste mundo, mas conhecer o único Deus verdadeiro (Jo 17.3).
3. Law
Civil law
There are
different Natural law
kinds of
law
Canon law
Divine law
4. Law
Civil law
Civil law is founded
upon natural law
Natural law
Natural law
is a
participation
Church law is rooted in an
in divine law, Canon law understanding of divine law
but is
naturally and the historical situation
known of the Church.
Divine law
5. Divine Law
Divine Law is that which is enacted by God and made known to
man through revelation. We distinguish between the Old Law,
contained in the Pentateuch, and the New Law, which was
revealed by Jesus Christ and is contained in the New Testament.
6. Canon Law
Canon law (Church law) is the body of laws and regulations
made by or adopted by ecclesiastical authority, for the
government of the Christian organization and its members.
7. Civil Law
Civil law: man made law. Can be just or unjust, depending
upon how it squares with natural law. I.e., one must be 18 in
order to vote, 19 in order to drink, one must drive on the
right side of the road, etc.
8. Natural Law
Cicero writes of the natural law: “True law
is right reason in agreement with Nature...it
is of universal application, unchanging and
everlasting.... we need not look outside
ourselves for an expounder or interpreter
of it. And there will not be different laws at
Rome and at Athens, or different laws now
and in the future, but one eternal and
unchangeable law will be valid for all
nations and for all times, and there will be
one master and one rule, that is, God, over
us all, for He is the author of this law, its
promulgator, and its enforcing judge.”
9. Civil and Natural Law
Martin Luther King Jr. wrote in his Letter from the
Birmingham Jail: “Now what is the difference between
the two? How does one determine when a law is just or
unjust? A just law is a man-made code that squares with
the moral law or the law of God. An unjust law is a code
that is out of harmony with the moral law. To put it in the
terms of Saint Thomas Aquinas, an unjust law is a human
law that is not rooted in eternal and natural law. Any law
that uplifts human personality is just. Any law that
degrades human personality is unjust. All segregation
statutes are unjust because segregation distorts the soul
and damages the personality. It gives the segregator a
false sense of superiority, and the segregated a false
sense of inferiority. …”
10. Natural Law
First principle of speculative reason:
Nothing can both be and not be at the same time and
in the same respect.
First principle of practical reason:
Good is to be done, evil is to be avoided
12. The Good
The good: that which all things desire. All things desire
their own perfection, that is, their own complete flourishing.
Human beings have natural inclinations or desires (to be
distinguished from acquired desires, and/or perverted
desires).
13. Apparent goods
True goods
Apparent goods appear to be
perfective of the human person,
but they are destructive of the
human person.
True goods are truly perfective
I.e., a poison apple, associating of the human person. Self-
with criminals, an adulterous
relationship, living a life of total
control, honest friendships,
leisure without ever working, healthy foods, etc.
etc.
14. Sensible Goods
Some of the desires (goods) we have are common to animals.
These goods are sensible goods (desire for warmth, sense
pleasure, etc).
15. Intelligible Goods
But other desires (goods) are specifically human. These latter
goods are intelligible (known via the intellect), and so they
have no color, taste, feel, etc. For example, friendship cannot
be sensed, nor can justice.
This is not justice, but a
symbol of justice
unintelligible to a brute
animal
16. Natural Law
From these intelligible human goods (natural), more specific
moral precepts (rules, regulations, laws) can be drawn out.
If we know what is humanly good, we can begin to draw out
the more specific demands of natural law.
Human goods
Specific
First principle precepts
(good is to be done, evil is to i.e., do not
be avoided) harm others
17. Human Goods
• Religion: God is the Supreme Good, and so that part of
justice that seeks harmony between oneself and God is
called religion.
• Integrity (integration of the elements of the self, harmony
between reason and my choices, and the will and the
passions)
• The Common Good (sociability): The harmonious
relationship that exists between oneself and the civil
community as a whole.
• Marriage/family.
• Friendship: relationships based on common qualities and
interests.
• Knowledge
• Leisure (the enjoyment of the beautiful/art and play)
• Life (bodily goods)
21. Life
• The human person has a
natural inclination to
preserve his life; for he
sees his life as basically
good. That is why he acts
to preserve it, and why
married couples choose to
beget life.
22. Goods of the Soul
Intellect and Will
Intellect
Knowledge Contemplation of Beauty
(Art/Play)
23. Knowledge
• We desire to know, to contemplate. Man has
a natural sense of wonder. Human beings ask
questions, seek answers, wonder about the
causes of things. Man is a knower.
24. Leisure (Contemplation
of the Beautiful)
• Man is inclined to behold
the beautiful. Beauty
captivates us, whether it is
beautiful music, a beautiful
sunset, a beautiful painting,
a beautiful face, or a
beautiful life.
• Although the possession of
truth is a distinct good,
truth is beautiful, especially
in its order. The higher we
climb (wisdom), the more
beautiful truth becomes. In
fact, truth and beauty are
one in God.
25. Leisure (Making
and Play)
• Man is a maker. He
loves to produce or
make things. He likes
to build, to play
(games/sports), to
create, to recreate,
simply for its own
sake. Making and
play are intrinsically
good.
26. Religion
Goods of the Will
Integrity
Sociability/the common good
Marriage/family
Friendship
27. Goods of the Will
Friendship: relationship founded upon
common qualities and common interests.
3 types based on:
• Pleasure
• Utility (useful friend)
• Benevolence
(genuine friendship):
friend is loved for his
sake, not for the sake of
what he does for me
(I.e., useful or pleasant
to me)
28. Goods of the Will
Marriage/family
• Man is inclined to marry, to give himself
completely to another, to belong to
another exclusively and permanently in
one flesh union that is open to the
begetting of new life. Both husband and
wife will to beget human life because
goodness is effusive, and their unique
conjugal relationship is good.
29. Goods of the Will
The Common Good of the Civil
Community
Man is a social and political animal.
He enters into relationship not only
with friends, but with the civil
community as a whole. There is a
difference between his own private
good and the common good of the
whole. Just as a hockey player has
his own private scoring record, his
end as a player is a common good,
namely victory for the whole team.
The common good is a good in which everyone can participate without
diminishing any other member’s share in it. Just as a good player thinks of the
team before his own private scoring record, a good human person lives for the
common good, not merely his own private good. The criminal is different in that
he has no regard for the common good, but puts himself before civil community as
a whole.
30. Goods of the Will
Integrity (Virtue)
• Man is inclined to seek integration within
himself, an integration of the complex elements
of himself. This is because he seeks to be most
fully, and one (along with good, beauty, and
true) is a property of being. He is inclined to
bring about a more intense unity within
himself, namely 1) an integration between truth
and his acts, 2) his actions and his character, as
well as 3) his will and his emotions. Bringing
order to the passions (cultivating temperance
and fortitude) is good in itself, but is also a
means to a higher end. A person aims to be
temperate and brave for the sake of possessing
the highest good (God), the possession of
which is threatened by excessive sensuality
and/or by inordinate fear and daring.
31. Goods of the Will
Religion
• Man aspires after what is higher than him
because he is aware of his thirst, among other
things. He beholds his own finitude and the
finitude of creation. He aspires to what is beyond
the temporal to the eternal, yet he cannot
transcend the limits of his nature. But he dreams
about it. He seeks to know the giver behind the
gift of his existence. As a spiritual nature, he is
open to the whole of reality, the whole of being
(universal being). He seeks to know the “whole of
reality”, that is, to possess the bonum universale.
We know from revelation that he is not going to
attain it on his own; Scripture reveals that this
can only happen through God’s initiative (divine
grace). He cannot, of his own nature, attain God.
If he is to attain the bonum universale, it can only
be through another gratuitous giving, distinct
from creation (divine grace). He depends upon
the divine initiative. In fact, even his own natural
happiness is dependent upon the gratuitous self-
giving of others; for he cannot force people to be
his friends. And so this dependency upon the
divine initiative is not incongruent at all, for man
knows already that an element of his own
happiness is the feeling of having a debt that
cannot be paid.
32. These intrinsic human goods form a hierarchy
Although human
goods are good in
and of themselves
and are sought for
their own sake, they
also exist “for the
sake of” higher
goods
34. Character
Moral: from the Latin mores: character. Moral Identity: the kind of
person one is or has made oneself to be.
Morality is not about choices that promise to bring about
an external state of affairs most conducive to the quality
of life one desires for oneself or others.
35. Rather, it is about the making of character.
We determine our character, our moral identity, by the
free choices that we make, and our very destiny is
determined by the kind of persons we’ve made ourselves
to be.
Your character is more intimately yours than anything
else you may have.
36. The human person is like a blank cheque. He has an already
given structure (I.e., human nature with definite powers), but there
is a space for him/her to “fill”, to complete, and this is one’s
moral identity or character.
37. Character vs. Personality
Character is not the same as personality.
You can have a great personality, but
depraved character, like serial killer Ted
Bundy on the left.
You can also have a grumpy, or bland
personality, but saintly character.
Much of our personality is determined,
either inherited or environmental.
But character is entirely ours.
38. Choice
(the relationship between what I choose and what I am)
doing & being
I choose to lie I become a liar
(even a nice liar)
I choose to steal I become a thief
(even a nice thief)
I choose to kill I become a killer
(even a nice killer)
I choose to gossip I become a gossip
(yes, even a nice gossip)
39. Man is an artist who sculpts his
own moral identity, the kind of
person he is or is becoming. By
my own choice, I become either a
good person, fully orientated
towards “the good” (God, who is
the Supreme Good), or an evil
person, that is, a person deficient
in my relationship to the entire
spectrum of human goods.
41. Secondary Precepts
The first principle of morality is “good is to be done, evil is to be
avoided”.
This, however, is very general. It breaks down into more specific
moral precepts when seen against the background of the basic
human goods.
Human goods
Specific
First principle precepts actions
44. Good
is God
to
be Family
done,
Evil Others (the social whole)
is
to Individual good
be
avoided
Given the first principle of practical reason and the human goods,
one can draw out the following practical implications or precepts
45. Secondary Precepts
1. God is to be loved above all things (Recall that the virtue of
religion is the most perfect part of the virtue of justice)
2. One ought to render due honour to one’s parents (The virtue of
piety)
3. One ought to reverence the marriage bond
4. Do not harm others (One ought not to do anything
that harms the common good of the civil community –
the virtue of patriotism
46. Do not harm others
One ought not to do anything that harms
the common good of the civil community.
This precept can be logically expanded
One must direct one’s life for the common good (general justice).
4a) Hence, one ought not to act purely on the basis of emotion, either on the
basis of fear, aversion, hostility, or desire for sensible goods, but ought to
act on the basis of reason, in pursuit of intelligible goods.
4b) One ought not to act individualistically for intelligible human goods, but
in community with others.
4c) One ought not to treat certain others with a preference based purely on
feeling, unless a preference is required by human goods. In other words,
one ought always to treat others in a way that respects their status as
equal in dignity to oneself.
47. Do not harm others
4d) One ought not to willingly destroy an instance of an intrinsic human good for
the sake of some other intrinsic good. In other words, one must not do evil to achieve
good.
4e) One ought not to treat another human person as a means to an end. Persons
must be loved, not used; things must be used, not loved.
48. 5. One ought not to lie (an immediate violation of integrity)
6. One ought not to take what rightfully belongs to another (property)
52. Motive
• Answers the question: Why is this being
done? What is the reason why you are
choosing this course of action?
53. Circumstances
• When? Where? How? Why? Who? By
what means?
• A moral circumstance modifies the act, but
it does not cause the act to be the kind of
moral act that it is.
54. Moral Principle
Evil is a deficiency, a lack of something that ought
to be there.
Therefore:
• In order for an action to be morally good,
all three elements must be good.
• If any of the elements are evil, the entire
action is evil (defective).
55. Example (Moral Object = Evil)
• Moral Object: A married man has an affair
(adultery).
• Motive: In order to comfort the woman with
whom he’s having an affair.
• Circumstances: She’s depressed, she’s
married but going through a tough time, etc.
Secondary precept violated: revere the marriage bond (do not
commit adultery)
56. Example (Motive = Evil)
• Moral Object: Helping an old lady cross the
street.
• Motive: Merely in the hopes that she will
give you some money.
• Circumstances: Winter, icy road, need
money for cigarettes, etc.
Secondary precept violated: One ought not to treat another
as a means to an end.
57. Example (Circumstances that render an
otherwise good act immoral)
• Moral Object: Practicing my putting stroke.
• Motive: In order to improve my game.
• Circumstances: Where? At a funeral home
with nice green carpet. When? At my
mother’s funeral wake.
Secondary precept violated: Lack of due reverence for the
deceased. One ought not to treat certain others with a preference based
purely on feeling, that is, to treat others in a way that fails to respect their
status as equal in dignity to oneself.
59. Sometimes an action has two effects: a good effect
and an evil effect. What does one do?
60. The Conditions
There are certain conditions which must be observed
before one may perform the action in question. Should
any of these conditions be violated, one may not
perform the action.
61. The Conditions
1. The action itself (which has two
effects) must be a good action, or at
least morally indifferent. In other
words, it cannot be an evil act.
Otherwise, we'd be doing evil to
achieve good.
62. The Conditions
2. One must not positively will the
evil effect. That is, one must not
intend the evil effect. One may only
permit or allow the evil effect.
Permitting and intending are two very
different ways of relating to human
goods.
63.
64. The Conditions
3. The good effect must proceed
directly from the action and not from
the evil effect. For this would
involve doing evil to achieve good.
65. Here, the good effect proceeds from the evil
effect. If this were the scenario, one would
have to will the evil effect in order to
achieve the good effect. This violates the
second condition. For one must not will
evil for the sake of a good.
66. The Conditions
4. The good effect must be
sufficiently desirable to compensate
for the allowing of the evil effect.
67.
68.
69.
70. Intending vs. Accepting
No one intends to wear out their
shoes. One wills that they never wear
out, that they last forever.
But one accepts the inevitable. One accepts the fact that when
I choose to wear my shoes, they are going to wear out.
Editor's Notes
Sometimes an action has two effects: a good effect and an evil effect. If so, what do we do?
One may perform the action on certain conditions.
Here, the agent intends or wills the good effect, not the evil effect. He may only accept the evil effect, but not will it. Now, he may be required not to accept the evil effect. This will depend upon condition #4.
Here, the good effect proceeds from the evil effect. If this were the scenario, one would have to will the evil effect in order to achieve the good effect. This violates the second condition. For one must not will evil for the sake of a good.
Consider this example.
Some people think that saving the life of the girl was the effect of the man dying. But this is not so.
Here’s an example of an undesirable effect that is inevitable, yet not intended.