Aristotle and Virtue Ethics: The Mean and Happiness

1
– 322 BC)[1] was a Greek philosopher
and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the
Great.
metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic,
rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and
zoology.
teacher), Aristotle
is one of the most important
founding figures in Western philosophy.
system of Western philosophy,

encompassing morality, aesthetics, logic, science, politics, and
metaphysics.
normally given to Aristotle's best
known work on ethics.
-eminent role in defining
Aristotelian ethics, consists of ten
books, originally separate scrolls, and is understood to be based
on notes from his
lectures at the Lyceum, which were either edited by or
dedicated to Aristotle's son,
Nicomachus.
nd Virtue Ethics
previously been explored in Plato's
works, of how men should best live. In his Metaphysics,
Aristotle described how Socrates turned
philosophy to human questions, whereas Pre-Socratic
philosophy had only been theoretical.

practical rather than theoretical, in
the original Aristotelian senses of these terms. In other words it
is not only a contemplation
about good living, but also aims to create good living.
2
ns the work by positing that there exists some
ultimate good toward which, in the
final analysis, all human actions ultimately aim. The necessary
characteristics of the ultimate
good are that it is complete, final, self-sufficient and
continuous.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
explicitly aim is happiness ‹ in Greek,
"eudaimonia," which can also be translated as blessedness or
living well, and which is not a

static state of being but a type of activity.
choice, being at the mean relative
to us, and defined by reason as a prudent man would define it."
Each of the elements of this
definition is important.
well. For an action to be virtuous a
person must do it deliberately, knowing what he is doing, and
doing it because it is a noble
action.
rashness and cowardice. A brave man
is one who faces and fears what he should for the right reason,
in the right manner and at the
right time. A brave man performs his actions for the sake of
what is noble. A brave man is thus
one who is fearless in facing a noble death

bodily pleasures. The intemperate
man desires pleasurable things and chooses them because they
are pleasurable; he is pained
when he fails to get what he desires. A temperate man is
moderately disposed with regard to
pleasures and pains. He loves such pleasures as right reason
dictates. Temperance keeps the
desiring part of the soul in harmony with reason.
regard to property, generosity is a
mean between wastefulness and stinginess. A generous man will
give to the right person, the
right amounts and at the right times. He will also take proper
care of his possessions. Generosity
http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/nicomachaen.html
3
does not depend on the quantity of the giving but on the habit of
the giver, which takes into

account the amount which the giver himself has and is able to
give away.
amounts for suitable occasions. A
munificent man spends gladly and lavishly, not calculating
costs, but always for a noble purpose.
the peaks of virtue. A magnanimous
man claims and deserves great honors. Someone who deserves
honors but doesn't claim them is
low-minded, and someone who claims honors but doesn't
deserve them is vain. It is better to be
vain than low-minded, because vanity will be naturally
corrected by life experience. A
magnanimous man is great in each of the virtues, and is a sort
of ornament of virtues because
he shows how good a virtuous life is.
medium honors. It is a mean between too
much and too little ambition which can be described as right

ambition
flattery or obsequiousness and
quarrelsomeness; truthfulness, the mean between boastfulness
and self-depreciation, and wit,
the mean with regard to humor and amusement. Wit entails
saying the right things in the right
manner and also listening to things properly.
sary part of the good life. There are
three types of friendship: friendship
based on usefulness, friendship based on pleasure and
friendship based on virtue. Only the last
type is genuine friendship.
nd not to be
very enduring, since they only last
as the long as each party derives the usefulness or pleasure he
desires from the relationship.
the other person. This genuine

friendship is necessary for self-knowledge and helps both of the
friends to grow in virtue.
Friendship presupposes justice and goes beyond it.
with a friend is like the harmonious
relationship between the different parts of the soul of a virtuous
man.
4
virtues, is justice.
ll times and places.
Conventional justice is that which is
made up of laws and customs.
than no law, but are always at least
slightly flawed in that they must be formulated universally and
cannot take into account all
specific circumstances.

intention of the lawmaker or the idea
behind the law when the law does not seem to properly fit the
situation.
The Categorical Imperative
foundation that dates back well over
2000 years to Plato and Aristotle in ancient Athens.
our decisions on reason rather
than emotions, i.e.
to be a better approach to
moral decision making, than making
emotional judgments, there are often inconsistencies in

reasoning….
5
– 12 February 1804) was an 18th-century
German philosopher from the Prussian
city of Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia). He is regarded as
one of the most influential
thinkers of modern Europe and of the late Enlightenment.
uel Kant insisted that reason can indeed supply such
absolute categorical ethical
principles: ethical principles that reason reveals to be
universally true, just as reason reveals
universal truths of mathematics.”
that you could will that your act should

be a Universal law”
immoral.
- in
a Kantian sense.
o someone who is no longer a
friend
singular allegiance, whatever our
inclinations and whatever the consequences.”
convenient to be

unethical…..examples
6
ither our feelings nor our
empirical observations of
the world play any part in ethics.
rational moral law must come
from the special capacity of the human will, and not from
emotions or inclinations.
Non-natural Ethics
non-natural powers of reason and will,
not from anything in nature….[as such]….if your behavior is
prompted by your own natural
inclinations, then your generous acts have no moral worth.”

entirely banished feelings when
we determine what if morally right and wrong?
in that all rationally beings
are seen equally as moral agents. This system , however seems
to exclude the rationally,
impaired, i.e. those with dementia, Alzheimer's, head trauma
victims, etc.
a single moral principle.
in 1940’s
Germany.
uncompromising account of morality. Kant would
consider that a virtue, rather than a problem.

and emotions.
balance of pleasure over suffering.
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ulating the right act can be complicated.
[ethics] is a difficult but
straightforward task of measuring, as best we can, the balance
of pleasure over pain that will be
produced by a proposed act or policy.”
egoistic, self-centered, short-sighted

hedonism…. As the balance of pleasure over pain implies
moderation.
ethics. “Teleological” comes from the
Greek word telos, meaning end or goal. It is a philosophical
way of thinking that focuses more on
the “end” then the “means” to the “end”.
-Versus Rule- Utilitarian Ethics
- Act Utilitarians claim that in determining
what we should do, we must consider
what specific act would produce the best overall consequences.
-Versus Rule- Utilitarian Ethics
- implies a deeper look at societal
practices and social intuitions.
s of Practices- In addition to calculating the greatest
amount of pleasure over pain, we

must consider our actions in the light of social practices.
8
rians and the Quality of Pleasures
-
impoverished and disease-ridden
London of the late 1700s to early 1800s .

- Pleasure is subjective. What brings
you joy may not bring joy to me.
behavior shaped by that reinforcer.
happiness.
y’s challenge to Utilitarian Ethics
for the sake of peace and
contentment for the rest of humanity.
te
Utilitarian Ethics in your decision
making?
that you calculate what brings the
greatest amount of pleasure to your constituents.
le: Cancer Research Center vs. Parking Deck.

9
ignoble ethical
counterfeit…He felt that Utilitarianism reduced ethical
quandary to a bookkeeping system rather
than a gift from God.
purpose of peaceful coexistence),
and not found.
when mutually endorsed by a
particular group or society, i.e. United States of America
here are no rules, i.e. the animal
Kingdom.

i.e. humans.
necessary because of humanities brutish
nature.
“seems a good start toward a
peaceful end at least minimally harmonious society”. It is what
transitions us from a state of
chaos/anarchy to state of order/ government.
Rousseau’s Social Contract
in that he believed that human
beings were essentially good and motivated by pity.
e action of self-
love in each individual and
contributing to the mutual preservation of the whole species. It
is pity that sends us unreflecting
to the aid of those we see suffering; it is pity that in the state of
nature takes the place of laws,

10
moral habits, and virtues, with the added benefit that there no
one is tempted to disobey its
gentle voice.”
anthropological account of how political
systems developed. As this would be in the face of the common
understanding of the state of
nature.
in their society or are 100 percent
happy with them .
d Human Nature
But one must ask oneself
laws and principles that govern my
society?

the state of nature?
and Social Contract Theory: John Rawls
c freedoms, i.e. religion, speech, etc.
justice. Law makers/ voters/ social
contractors must consider, is this a law I would approve if I was
behind the veil of ignorance.
-interested beings there
are some rules that are good for
humans to follow, even when they are not to our immediate
advantage. Therefore we should

appreciate social contracts, because when they are fair, they
work to our advantage.
11
s a myth that social contract
theorists use to develop their
position.
other.
in our best interest to sign the
social contract
myth.
contracts made in self-interest
can produce immoral consequences.

together, the only obligations we incur are
those we voluntarily and individually approve.
ocial contract myth one is not obliged
to “give back.”
moral principals are a matter of
choice, because if its not in the contract its not in the ethical
system.
contract as citizens of the United
States?
then you are not apart of the moral
community.

1
Philosophy 222: Ethics
University of New Haven
Instructor Brian Bellamy
Lecture Notes for Weeks 1-5
Philosophy 222: Ethics-Introduction
thics and Critical Thinking
- questions about the nature and concepts of
ethics.
intuitions?
Considerations for Ethical Evaluations
itical thinking] is
to be clear on exactly what is at issue, exactly what the
conclusion is.
- When an arguer uses an

irrelevant point to support their conclusion
allacy- an attack on the person, as the source
of the argument.
argument on its own merits, not the merits of the
person giving the argument.
Authority- someone whose life appears to be morally
exemplary, and therefore seemingly fit to give advice on
moral and ethical conduct.
reputation as a racist…
and exercised integrity when she unilaterally protested an
evil and unjust system, although supported by local and
federal laws.

- The principle of being charitable or
generous toward the positions and arguments we oppose.
2
- when someone distorts or
misrepresents a position in order to make it easier to
attack
-Pro-life argument
life of infant babies.
way to control overpopulation.
- position that ideas concerning morality
and “how to live the good life” come from within our
nature.

- position that ideas concerning
morality and “how to live the good life” come from without
from a higher being, i.e. The Creator, God Almighty, Allah
cs
ethical principles dependent on what God wills. “If God
says, then that settles it!”
(Cont.)
- view that “… moral principles are
set by God, God doesn’t change and doesn’t make exceptions,
so God’s commandments are fixed and eternal and absolute.
What is right is whatever God Commands, or whatever God
chooses. God does not condemn murder because murder is
wrong; rather, murder is wrong because God condemns
murder.”
(Cont.)
affirms them, or does God affirm these ethical principles

because in God’s wisdom, God recognizes the truth of these
ethical laws?
(Cont.)
moral law.
the “perceived moral law, then there is potential for
disaster
3
(Cont.)
pursuit of reward or fear
of punishment, and not for the love being just and doing
good.

(Cont.)
hics is
seen in Martin Luther King, Jr.’s Theo-ethical positions
and commitments.
Ethics from Eastern Traditions
Buddhism & Hinduism
subcontinent that encompasses a variety of traditions,
beliefs, and practices largely based on teachings
attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as
the Buddha (meaning "the awakened one" in Sanskrit and
Pāli).
Indian
subcontinent sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries
BCE.

teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end
suffering (dukkha) through eliminating ignorance (avidyā)
and craving (taṇhā), by way of understanding and seeing
dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda) and non-self
(anātman), and thus attain the highest happiness, nirvāņa
(nirvana).
recognized: Theravada
("The School of the Elders") and Mahayana ("The Great
Vehicle").
Southeast Asia. Mahayana is found throughout East Asia and
includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren
Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Shingon, Tiantai (Tendai) and
Shinnyo-en.

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—practiced mainly in
Tibet and Mongolia, and adjacent parts of China and Russia—
is recognized as a third branch, while others classify it
as a part of Mahayana. There are other categorisations of
these three Vehicles or Yanas.
branches are now found throughout the world. Estimates of
Buddhists worldwide vary significantly depending on the way
Buddhist adherence is defined. Lower estimates are between
350–500 million.
liberation, the importance and canonicity of various
teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective
practices.

origination and no-self. The foundations of Buddhist
tradition and practice are the Three Jewels: the Buddha,
the Dharma (the teachings), and the Sangha (the community).
declaration and commitment to being on the Buddhist path
and in general distinguishes a Buddhist from a non-
Buddhist.
support of the monastic community; renouncing conventional
living and becoming a monastic; the development of
mindfulness and practice of meditation; cultivation of
higher wisdom and discernment; study of scriptures;
devotional practices; ceremonies; and in the Mahayana
tradition, invocation of buddhas and bodhisattvas.
ethical
and moral principles are governed by examining whether a
certain action, whether connected to body or speech is

likely to be harmful to one's self or to others and thereby
avoiding any actions which are likely to be harmful.
hics
that is skilful avoids actions that are likely to cause
suffering or remorse.
applies to the laity or to the Sangha
5
-First Training-
am committed to cultivating compassion and learning ways to
protect the lives of people, animals, plants, and minerals.
I am determined not to kill, not to let others kill, and
not to condone any act of killing in the world, in my
thinking, and in my way of life.

-Second Training-
injustice, stealing, and oppression, I am committed to
cultivate loving kindness and learn ways to work for the
well-being of people, animals, plants, and minerals. I am
committed to practice generosity by sharing my time,
energy, and material resources with those who are in real
need. I am determined not to steal and not to possess
anything that should belong to others. I will respect the
property of others, but I will prevent others from
profiting from human suffering or the suffering of other
species on Earth.
-Third Training-
committed to cultivate responsibility and learn ways to
protect the safety and integrity of individuals, couples,
families, and society. I am determined not to engage in
sexual relations without love and a long-term commitment.

To preserve the happiness of myself and others, I am
determined to respect my commitments and the commitments of
others. I will do everything in my power to protect
children from sexual abuse and to prevent couples and
families from being broken by sexual misconduct.
-Fourth Training-
inability to listen to others, I am committed to cultivate
loving speech and deep listening in order to bring joy and
happiness to others and relieve others of their suffering.
Knowing that words can create happiness or suffering, I am
committed to learn to speak truthfully, with words that
inspire self-confidence, joy, and hope. I am determined not
to spread news that I do not know to be certain and not to
criticise or condemn things of which I am not sure. I will
refrain from uttering words that can cause division or
discord, or that can cause the family or the community to

6
break. I will make all efforts to reconcile and resolve all
conflicts, however small.
-Fifth Training-
onsumption, I
am committed to cultivate good health, both physical and
mental, for myself, my family, and my society by practising
mindful eating, drinking, and consuming. I am committed to
ingest only items that preserve peace, well-being, and joy
in my body, in my consciousness, and in the collective body
and consciousness of my family and society. (continued…)
or to ingest foods or other items that contain toxins, such
as certain TV programs, magazines, books, films, and
conversations. I am aware that to damage my body or my
consciousness with these poisons is to betray my ancestors,

my parents, my society, and future generations. I will work
to transform violence, fear, anger, and confusion in myself
and in society by practising a diet for myself and for
society. I understand that a proper diet is crucial for
self-transformation and for the transformation of society.
duism is the predominant religion of the Indian
subcontinent, and one of its indigenous religions. Hinduism
includes Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Śrauta among numerous
other traditions. It also includes historical groups, for
example the Kapalikas
Hinduism
wide spectrum of laws and prescriptions of "daily morality"
based on karma, dharma, and societal norms. Hinduism is a
conglomeration of distinct intellectual or philosophical
points of view, rather than a rigid common set of beliefs.
- Karma (Sanskrit: IPA: [ˈkərmə] ( listen); Pali:

kamma) in Indian religions is the concept of "action" or
"deed", understood as that which causes the entire cycle of
cause and effect (i.e., the cycle called saṃsāra)
originating in ancient India and treated in the Hindu,
Jain, Buddhist and Sikh religions
- Dharma listen (help·info) (Sanskrit: dhárma, Pali:
dhamma; lit. that which upholds, supports or maintains the
regulatory order of the universe means Law or Natural Law
and is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy
7
and religion. As well as referring to Law in the universal
or abstract sense dharma designates those behaviours
considered necessary for the maintenance of the natural
order of things.
Iron Age India and, as such, Hinduism is often called the

"oldest living religion" or the "oldest living major
religion" in the world.
and worship.
that deifies the one truth, and therefore it accepts all
forms of beliefs and dismisses labels of distinct religions
which would imply a division of identity.
heresy and blasphemy.
- 5 Principle's & 10 Disciplines
y

script), Gayatri (sacred mantra)
-violence)
(Celibacy, non-adultery)
-corrupt)
scriptures)

8
African Traditional Religions
Ethics & Morality
ilar to native American Pan-
Indianism
It is a widespread idea amongst political scientists that
the divisions and conflicts that exist on the continent are
a result of the European colonization in the 19th-20th
Centuries, when state boundaries were drawn by the
colonizers. Now, some sixty years after most African
countries gained independence, the continent is

experiencing a period of turmoil.
describe a process of breaking up a territory into small,
hostile states. It is derived from the events in the
Balkans, which saw the splitting up of Yugoslavia into
seven states, hostile to each other and resulting in a
series of armed conflicts. This term is applied to what is
happening in Africa today.
-85) was held by the European
nations to scramble Africa among themselves with the aid of
diplomacy or by weapons. The conference had positive as
well as negative effects.
had lost their lands. Almost 90% of the African
continent came under the control of Europeans. Only Liberia
and Ethiopia remained free. Africans lost their
independence. They were treated as inferiors and were
forced to work as slaves for long hours.

resources of Africa. The Europeans understood that Africa
was rich in natural resources and they exploited the
resources.
s were tin, copper, gold and
diamonds. The Africans were in famine when the Europeans
9
began to plant cash crops like peanuts, palm, cocoa and
rubber. Large number of Africans died of European diseases.
n the social sphere, the European domination took the
traditional African values and customs. They had also
tarnished the existing social relationships, when they
provided Africans with the education.
to adopt the
European culture. The spread of Christianity by the
European missionaries also affected their society. In
short, the European domination divided the Africans among

themselves.
cans tried to adopt the system of
democratic government pursued by the Europeans and ended in
failure. Europeans did not understand their habits and
culture properly and tried to civilize them. The European
intervention created rivalry and division among the
Africans. Various issues confused the Africans and they
longer stayed united.
considering the tribal, ethnic and cultural boundaries led
to series of tribal conflicts and it is still continuing.
The British were the most successful imperialistic power in
Africa. The imperialist policies of British created wars
with the Africans. For example, Boers hated the British
repressive policies and clashed with them. Zulus also
clashed with British. In both wars, Britain won and the
Africans were defeated.

-See List
ssing book
on religion in Africa called African Traditional Religion
to which all the peoples of Africa draw their religious
inspiration. In other words, it is unthinkable to say every
tribe in Africa has the same body of ideas, belief system,
liturgy and sundry religious practices as it relates to
God.
a continent, regularly occurring, constant, decimal
features have been discovered in the religious world views
of African peoples.
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harm and Medicine.
features of African Traditional Religion. Africans embody
all these features in words, thoughts and deeds in their
daily lives with pervasive sacredness and solemnity. This
is, with some degrees of variations because of differences
in their ecologies, cultures and traditions
in the history of the tribe. They were first worship as
ancestors and gradually move to the higher grade of gods.
- Morality
but also human conduct. Belief in God and in the other
spiritual beings implies a certain type of conduct, conduct
that respects the order established by God and watched over
by the divinities and the ancestors.

life. Africans have a sacred reverence for life, for it is
believed to be the greatest of God’s gifts to humans.
- Morality
inserted within a given community and it is within this
community that one works out one’s destiny and every aspect
of individual life.
principle of African traditional morality and this
promotion is guaranteed only in the community.
- Morality
efore a moral
obligation ordained by God for the promotion of life.
-structure on which this
life-centred, community-oriented morality is based.
- Morality
; and since
we are, therefore I am,” captures this ethical principle
well. The implication is that one has an obligation to
maintain harmonious relationships with all the members of

the community and to do what is necessary to repair every
11
breach of harmony and to strengthen the community bonds,
especially through justice and sharing.
- Morality
obligation since God, the divinities and the ancestors, the
guarantors of this order of things, are quick to punish
defaulters. Any person who infringes a moral norm in
traditional African societies has not only the members of
the community to fear for reprisals but also God and the
spiritual beings.
- Morality
“In order to aid man in ethical living, God has put in him
the ‘oracle of the heart’… the ‘inner oracle’… This ‘oracle
of the heart’ is a person’s conscience, the law of God
written in him. A person is at peace when he obeys his

conscience.” On the contrary, when he disobeys this ‘inner
oracle,’ he lives in constant fear, especially in fear of
all natural manifestations of divine power.
- Morality
asị ka egbe igwe na-atụ egwu” (It is only one who has
committed perjury that is afraid of the thunder).
- Morality
community, Africans have a very strong sense of justice.
Without justice, life in the community would be impossible;
there would be no harmony.
- Morality
Africans believe that God, who is just and who sees and
knows everything, hates injustice as is illustrated by the
following Akan proverb: “Nyame mpe kwaseabuo nti ena wama
obiara edin” (It is because God hates injustice that he has
given each one a name).

The Abrahamic Religions
Ethics & Morality in
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
Abraham was a person who lived during the Iron Age,
sometime after 2000 BCE, in the city of Ur, in Mesopotamia.
12
to take his family
and
migrate to another place.
—most
prominently
the Semitic (after the origin of their languages) peoples,
among whom were the Hebrews, , the Ethiopians, and Arabs.
ons
the

monotheistic tradition.
be called the Holy Land, a region on the eastern
Mediterranean coast between Mesopotamia and Egypt, and the
desert toward its south—the land where the prophets
described in the Biblical and Qur’anic scriptures lived,
traveled, and preached.
countries, including Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Saudi
Arabia, Yemen, and parts of Egypt, Iraq, and Syria.
covenant, or agreement with Abraham to keep the faith in
One God, and to worship Him, to keep that faith and teach
the practice of worship to his children down the
generations, and God would preserve, protect and multiply
the children of Abraham.
of Abraham to continue.

of Sarah), whom he settled in different parts of the
Arabian Peninsula, the latter near Jerusalem, and the
former near Makkah.
the scriptures, Abraham was promised that his
offspring would become the fathers of great nations.
Christians, and Muslims.
people who believe in
one God, the Creator of all that is in the universe and on
earth.
Creator, has “spoken” to humankind over time. The word for
this divine communication is “revelation.” It comes from
the word “reveal” (to make visible or apparent).
13

revealed Himself to certain individuals called prophets
over the course of human history.
purpose of human life and the need to live a
righteous life and the news of judgment after death, and
reward or punishment in the afterlife,
have in common a belief in angels as
God’s messengers to human beings. The angel of revelation
is named Gabriel. The human beings chosen by God as bearers
of revelation to other human beings are called prophets.
Some of them were chosen and inspired to teach people,
while the major prophets received revelations that have
been memorized, recited and written in holy books or

scriptures over the centuries.
scriptures and traditions of the prophets and the story of
their unfolding in human history. They have continued to
write, recite, and study the words of revelation that were
first communicated orally, then recorded in books.
s
part of the Tanakh. The Torah contains the revelation that
was given to Moses. The Tanakh includes the Torah and the
books of the Prophets, the Psalms, Proverbs and other
writings, 24 books in all. It contains history, law, poetry
and song. It is written on a scroll and recited in Hebrew
as apart of Jewish worship.
Old Testament (the Hebrew Bible of Judaism, including the
first five books, called by Christians the Pentateuch), and

the New Testament.
and teachings of Jesus and the history of the early Church.
es of the parts of the Bible indicate, it was
compiled from the writings of many authors over time.
Christians believe that it was inspired in these authors by
14
God. There are 66 books in most versions of the Christian
Bible.
ic Religions
chapters called surahs, and over 6000 verses called ayat.
Muhammad through the Angel Gabriel over a period of 23
years.
moral messages of the Torah and the Bible.
message to humankind from earlier revelations.

ndition for groups of people to be able to live
together in one society is that they share a set of morals
and values.
Biblical tradition is the Ten Commandments, which was part
of the revelation taught by Moses, and are revered by Jews
and Christians as they appear in the Torah and the Old
Testament.
Muslims are taught to respect Jews and Christians as fellow
“People of the Book.”
– many of
them stated in a similar way, with the exception of the
Sabbath (day of rest).
mmandments
-26

terian,
Lutheran
of God
15
f Jesus
-43
you in conduct" (49 : 13).

of them reach old age with thee, say not to them, fie; nor
chide them; and speak to them a generous word. And make
thyself submissively gentle to them with compassion, and
say, My Lord! Have mercy on them as they brought me up when
I was little" (17 : 23, 24).
give them sustenance and yourselves too" (17 : 31).
what sin was she killed?" (81 : 8, 9).
Righteousness is this that one should believe in Allah
. . . and give away wealth out of love for Him to the near
of kin and the orphans and the needy and the wayfarer and
the beggars and for the emancipation of the captives" (2 :
17).
amic Religions
have) over them in a just manner" (2 : 228).
229, 231).

en
your brethren" (49 : 10).
are firm of heart against the disbelievers, merciful among
themselves" (48 : 29).
own their
looks and guard their private parts."
and guard their private parts, and not display their beauty
except what appears thereof; and let them draw their head-
coverings over their bosoms" (24 : 30, 31).
16
American Ethics
Justice & Equality

-Christian ethics-the Dominant Religion
the arrival of Puritan Congregationalist to Virginia
and New England
-Christian Influence
-Christian ideas pervade American
society
Ethic
amendments to the United States Constitution. These
limitations serve to protect the natural rights of liberty

and property.
government's power in judicial and other proceedings, and
reserve some powers to the states and the public.
government, most of their provisions have since been held
to apply to the states by way of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Rights
1st
United States Congress as a series of legislative articles.
August
21, 1789, formally proposed by joint resolution of Congress
on September 25, 1789, and came into effect as
Constitutional Amendments on December 15, 1791, through the
process of ratification by three-fourths of the States.

17
lly protected
only white men, excluding American Indians, people
considered to be "black” (now described as African
Americans), and women.
text, but were well understood and applied.
he Bill of Rights
government, and remains a vital symbol of the freedoms and
culture of the nation, and is a significant source of moral
thought.
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of
religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging
the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the
people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government
for
a redress of grievances.
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security

of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms,
shall not be infringed.
ted excerpt
-evident, that all men
are created equal, that they are endowed by their
Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among
these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
ement
Rights Movement of the mid-20
th
century, where African-
Americans, led by clergy and community leaders, began to
call American on Moral hypocrisy.
m a Birmingham City Jail
-Ethical Formation
of PA (Subsumed by Colgate-Rochester Divinity School

of NY), and Boston University- Ph.D. in Systematic
Theology
-Baptist
Tradition
-
40s
18
ng was in the
Birmingham jail because of his desegregation
demonstrations, eight prominent Alabama clergymen
published the following statement in the local
newspapers urging blacks to withdraw their support
from Martin Luther King and his demonstrations.
segregation should They accused King of being an

outsider, of using "extreme measures" that incite
"hatred and violence", that King's demonstrations are
"unwise and untimely", and that the racial issues
should instead be "properly pursued in the courts."
Four days later, King wrote his Letter from the
Birmingham Jail in reply.
tement.html
about the effect that systemic racism had on the
“Negro”. In the beginning of the letter, the clergymen
claimed this letter to be a second, “appeal for law
and order and common sense’ in dealing with racial
problems in Alabama.” The clergymen apparently are
unaware that there had never been anything lawful,
orderly, or rational about racial problems in Alabama.
This fact was the very reason that the protestors were

protesting.
negroes’ protest was inciting violence, it appears
that the clergymen were apathetic or unmoved by the
plight of Birmingham’s Black citizens. For the Black
citizen, to live under Birmingham’s unequal and unjust
system was to suffer violence on a daily basis, in
that, their human dignity, and God-designed,
personhood was constantly under attack. Violence did
not begin with the protests.
they seem to be completely unaware of the protestors’
religious motivations. As far as the letter, signed by
these eight religious leaders from the Judeo-Christian
tradition, has any “religious” appeal, it could have been

http://www.massresistance.org/docs/gen/09a/mlk_day/statement
.html
http://www.massresistance.org/docs/gen/09a/mlk_day/statement
.html
19
submitted by a group of moderate secular humanists. As
such, the clergymen plead with the protestor to allow the
unfair treatment of Birmingham’s Black citizens to be
handled by government (courts) and negotiation.
gham.html
ense.
his struggle with racism to the struggles of ethically
renowned, historical figures like: Jesus "Love your
enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them

that hurt you, and pray for them which despiteful use
you, and persecute you.", Abraham Lincoln "This nation
cannot survive half slave and half free.", as well as,
Thomas Jefferson, who said, "We hold these truths to
be self-evident, that all men our created equal....”
Birmingham Correspondence
with "Sometimes a law is just on its face and unjust
in its application". He then follows his claim with
specific evidence to support it. "For instance, I have
been arrested on a charge of parading without a
permit. Now, there is nothing wrong in having an
ordinance which requires a permit for a parade". Then
he offers his logical conclusion with "But such an
ordinance becomes unjust when it is used to maintain
segregation and to deny citizens the First-Amendment
privilege of peaceful assembly and protest.”

was
the passage of two acts of legislation.
-352, 78 Stat.
241, enacted July 2, 1964) was a landmark piece of
legislation in the United States[1] that outlawed
major forms of discrimination against racial, ethnic,
national and religious minorities and women.[2] It
ended unequal application of voter registration
requirements and racial segregation in schools, at the
workplace and by facilities that served the general
public ("public accommodations").
http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham.h
tml
http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham.h
tml
20
–
1973aa-6)[1] is a landmark piece of national

legislation in the United States that outlawed
discriminatory voting practices that had been
responsible for the widespread disenfranchisement of
African Americans in the U.S
peal of the Civil Rights Movement has
influenced:
-War Movement
-Poverty Movement
In lieu of this weeks class you will complete an essay exam
based on last weeks lectures and class discussions. Answer all
three of the questions below. (Do NOT retype the question on
your paper.) Simply type your answer corresponding to
questions 1,2,3. Each essay must be one full typed page each,
double-spaced in Times New Roman, size 12 font. Be sure to
label your paper with your name, the date and course section
number ALL on the first top line. You will be PENALIZED for
using more than one line for this data.) Please number your
pages.
Due: 12 noon on Wednesday, June 10, 2015.
*** A PDF of the lecture notes has been attached.

1) If you were forced to choose, which one of the virtues in
Aristotle’s ethics system would you identify as the most
essential for living the most moral life possible? Why?
2) Kant suggests that moral decision making should be purely
rational and devoid of emotion. Discuss potential social and
psychological consequences of making purely (without emotions
or intuition) rational moral decisions?
3) Use the utilitarian formula (Greatest pleasure/ Least
pain) to discuss the moral appropriateness of euthanasia, the
practice of ending a life in order to relieve suffering.

Aristotle and Virtue Ethics: The Mean and Happiness

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