The document discusses natural law and natural ethics. It begins by defining natural law as ethical imperatives inherent in human beings discovered through reason, differing from positive or revealed law. It then provides several definitions of natural law from different perspectives. The rest of the document discusses the principles and implications of a natural science of ethics, including:
1) Ethics are based on the natural origins of human values and moral development/conscience.
2) Human needs and values evolve based on their survival value for social species. Satisfying needs leads to self-actualization and ethical behavior.
3) Education should foster proper moral development and respect for human needs to create ethical individuals and societies.
In this work, we try to find answers, in clear and simple language that agree with the common sense of most people, to questions such as: What are the basic aspirations of human being? What are goods and values? Can we aspire to find truth, beauty, goodness, love and happiness? Is there a commonly accepted concept of good and evil? What are the motivations that move human beings to do good? Are there universal moral laws? Is man good by nature? Does the problem of moral and social evils have a solution? What is conscience? Can ethics offer a solution to current human problems?
The document discusses different perspectives on the human person from Plato, Aristotle, and other sources. Plato believed the soul consists of reason, emotion, and appetite, with reason being most important. Aristotle divided the soul into appetitive, nutritive, and rational parts. Both emphasized finding balance and living virtuously. The human person is complex and influenced by environment, family, friends, and inherent traits.
This document summarizes key concepts in ethics, including:
1) Meta-ethics addresses questions about the nature of ethics, normative ethics focuses on moral standards and principles, and applied ethics applies theory to practical issues like abortion and war.
2) Objectivism holds that values exist independently of human views while subjectivism says values are human constructs. Absolutism and relativism differ on whether morality is universal or culturally dependent.
3) Deontology judges acts by their adherence to duty while consequentialism assesses acts by their outcomes. Utilitarianism specifically aims to maximize happiness. Virtue ethics focuses on developing good character rather than rules.
The document outlines the key principles of Objectivism, Ayn Rand's philosophy. It discusses Objectivism's positions on metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and politics. Metaphysically, Objectivism holds that reality exists independently of consciousness. Epistemologically, reason is man's only means of knowledge. Ethically, each individual should pursue their own rational self-interest. Politically, Objectivism supports laissez-faire capitalism and rejects any initiation of force.
Kant's deontological ethical theory judges morality based on duties and intentions rather than outcomes. For Kant, a moral action is one performed out of a sense of duty as dictated by rationality through categorical imperatives - universal moral principles that should be applied to all similar situations. The categorical imperative comes in three forms: universalizability, respect for persons, and respect for rationality. Kant believed humans have intrinsic worth due to their rational nature, and should never be used merely as a means to an end. Kant's theory has been criticized for not adequately addressing complex situations and for dismissing the role of emotions in morality. It has also been argued that Kant does not sufficiently consider the consequences of actions.
Slideshows about nonviolence and nonviolent resolution of conflicts, economic alternatives, ecology, social change, spirituality : www.irnc.org , Slideshows in english
Democracy, citizenship and nonviolence
The 3 facets of an individual in a relation; rights and duties; the common good, commons; subsisiarity; economy, ecology and politics; ethics and politics
The document discusses several concepts from Rousseau's works, including:
1) Conflicts arise between claims of justice based on strength versus claims based on need or first possession, leading to violence.
2) Rousseau argues that justice comes from submitting to conditions imposed on others, and justice must be reciprocal to be accepted.
3) Putting the law above man is problematic, as the legislative power is essential to the state and laws must have ongoing force from the people's will to govern.
In this work, we try to find answers, in clear and simple language that agree with the common sense of most people, to questions such as: What are the basic aspirations of human being? What are goods and values? Can we aspire to find truth, beauty, goodness, love and happiness? Is there a commonly accepted concept of good and evil? What are the motivations that move human beings to do good? Are there universal moral laws? Is man good by nature? Does the problem of moral and social evils have a solution? What is conscience? Can ethics offer a solution to current human problems?
The document discusses different perspectives on the human person from Plato, Aristotle, and other sources. Plato believed the soul consists of reason, emotion, and appetite, with reason being most important. Aristotle divided the soul into appetitive, nutritive, and rational parts. Both emphasized finding balance and living virtuously. The human person is complex and influenced by environment, family, friends, and inherent traits.
This document summarizes key concepts in ethics, including:
1) Meta-ethics addresses questions about the nature of ethics, normative ethics focuses on moral standards and principles, and applied ethics applies theory to practical issues like abortion and war.
2) Objectivism holds that values exist independently of human views while subjectivism says values are human constructs. Absolutism and relativism differ on whether morality is universal or culturally dependent.
3) Deontology judges acts by their adherence to duty while consequentialism assesses acts by their outcomes. Utilitarianism specifically aims to maximize happiness. Virtue ethics focuses on developing good character rather than rules.
The document outlines the key principles of Objectivism, Ayn Rand's philosophy. It discusses Objectivism's positions on metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and politics. Metaphysically, Objectivism holds that reality exists independently of consciousness. Epistemologically, reason is man's only means of knowledge. Ethically, each individual should pursue their own rational self-interest. Politically, Objectivism supports laissez-faire capitalism and rejects any initiation of force.
Kant's deontological ethical theory judges morality based on duties and intentions rather than outcomes. For Kant, a moral action is one performed out of a sense of duty as dictated by rationality through categorical imperatives - universal moral principles that should be applied to all similar situations. The categorical imperative comes in three forms: universalizability, respect for persons, and respect for rationality. Kant believed humans have intrinsic worth due to their rational nature, and should never be used merely as a means to an end. Kant's theory has been criticized for not adequately addressing complex situations and for dismissing the role of emotions in morality. It has also been argued that Kant does not sufficiently consider the consequences of actions.
Slideshows about nonviolence and nonviolent resolution of conflicts, economic alternatives, ecology, social change, spirituality : www.irnc.org , Slideshows in english
Democracy, citizenship and nonviolence
The 3 facets of an individual in a relation; rights and duties; the common good, commons; subsisiarity; economy, ecology and politics; ethics and politics
The document discusses several concepts from Rousseau's works, including:
1) Conflicts arise between claims of justice based on strength versus claims based on need or first possession, leading to violence.
2) Rousseau argues that justice comes from submitting to conditions imposed on others, and justice must be reciprocal to be accepted.
3) Putting the law above man is problematic, as the legislative power is essential to the state and laws must have ongoing force from the people's will to govern.
Equality and justice are related but distinct concepts. Equality refers to treating all people the same, while justice considers fairness and individual circumstances and outcomes. True justice cannot be achieved through equality alone. Different cultures understand justice in varying ways based on their shared history and beliefs. Key debates around justice include whether it stems from divine commands, natural law, human design, or a balance of consequences. Theories of justice also consider how to distribute goods fairly in a society.
This document discusses the notion of a person from philosophical, legal, and theological perspectives. It defines a person as an individual with rights of self-determination and moral agency. The document also examines Maslow's hierarchy of human needs and differentiates between existential, social, esteem, and self-actualization needs. It defines conscience as the faculty of distinguishing right from wrong, and discusses various types of conscience including antecedent/consequent, right/erroneous, certain/doubtful, scrupulous, and lax conscience.
This document discusses the philosophical debate around free will and determinism from various perspectives. It covers libertarianism and how personalities develop through free will. It examines how free will can be curtailed by both internal factors like past experiences and external constraints. Determinism is explored through theories of hard determinism, soft determinism, and the principle of causality. Religious views on free will and predestination from Christian traditions are also summarized.
1 Aristotle Virtue Ethics Aristotle and .docxmercysuttle
1
Aristotle
Virtue Ethics
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Aristotle (Ancient Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης, Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC)[1] was a Greek philosopher
and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great.
His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic,
rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important
founding figures in Western philosophy.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy,
encompassing morality, aesthetics, logic, science, politics, and metaphysics.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Nicomachean Ethics
The Nicomachean Ethics /nɪˌkɒmæˈkiːən/ is the name normally given to Aristotle's best
known work on ethics.
The work, which plays a pre-eminent role in defining Aristotelian ethics, consists of ten
books, originally separate scrolls, and is understood to be based on notes from his
lectures at the Lyceum, which were either edited by or dedicated to Aristotle's son,
Nicomachus.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
The theme of the work is the Socratic question which had previously been explored in Plato's
works, of how men should best live. In his Metaphysics, Aristotle described how Socrates turned
philosophy to human questions, whereas Pre-Socratic philosophy had only been theoretical.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Ethics, as now separated out for discussion by Aristotle, is practical rather than theoretical, in
the original Aristotelian senses of these terms. In other words it is not only a contemplation
about good living, but also aims to create good living.
Link to an electronic version of Nicomachean Ethics
2
http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/nicomachaen.html
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Aristotle begins the work by positing that there exists some ultimate good toward which, in the
final analysis, all human actions ultimately aim. The necessary characteristics of the ultimate
good are that it is complete, final, self-sufficient and continuous.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
This good toward which all human actions implicitly or explicitly aim is happiness ‹ in Greek,
"eudaimonia," which can also be translated as blessedness or living well, and which is not a
static state of being but a type of activity.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Ethical virtue "is a habit disposed toward action by deliberate choice, being at the mean relative
to us, and defined by reason as a prudent man would define it." Each of the elements of this
definition is important.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Virtue is not simply an isolated action but a habit of acting well. For an action to be virtuous a
person must do it deliberately, kn ...
Kant's perspective of duty-based ethics is argued to be the most moral in light of strong ethical leadership. According to Kant, an action is only truly moral if the motivation behind it is pure, without ulterior motives. Moral actions are judged by reasoning rather than consequences. This perspective has three implications: 1) Radical egalitarianism, where those who make laws are also subject to them, ensuring equal treatment. 2) Categorical imperatives as autonomous legislation, where one puts themselves in others' shoes to avoid injustice. 3) Using reason and critical thinking to objectively define morality, separating it from human emotion.
Virtue ethics is a moral theory that measures morality based on virtues, or good character attributes. There are three main strands of virtue ethics: eudaimonism focuses on well-being, the ethics of care emphasizes relationships and community, and agent-based theories evaluate actions based on the character of the agent. Aristotle was influential in virtue ethics, believing virtues are developed through habit and happiness comes from exercising reason and virtues like courage and justice. Natural law theory holds that moral and legal standards derive authority from considerations of moral merit.
This document provides information about an ethics course at Hong Kong Baptist University. It includes the course outline, instructor details, an overview of contractarianism as presented in the first lecture, and topics that will be covered in the second lecture on current social contract theories of ethics. Specifically, it discusses two main forms of contemporary social contract theory - interest-based contractarianism focusing on mutual advantage, and Kantian contractarianism emphasizing impartial moral status.
(1) A human person possesses characteristics like freedom that allow them to direct their own development and self-fulfillment. Freedom is the capacity to act or not act by one's own choice without compulsion.
(2) There are philosophical insights on freedom, including that it is a gift inherent to humans, complementary to reason by requiring practical rationality, and absolute though still existing within restrictions. Freedom also demands responsibility for one's choices and their consequences.
(3) Culture influences moral development by defining norms, setting boundaries, generating identity and moral character, and identifying authorities through shared experiences, beliefs, values, and norms transmitted across generations.
The Biological Basis of MoralityDo we invent our moral absolutes.docxmattinsonjanel
The Biological Basis of Morality
Do we invent our moral absolutes in order to make society workable? Or are these enduring principles expressed to us by some transcendent or Godlike authority? Efforts to resolve this conundrum have perplexed, sometimes inflamed, our best minds for centuries, but the natural sciences are telling us more and more about the choices we make and our reasons for making them
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· EDWARD O. WILSON
· APRIL 1998 ISSUE
CENTURIES of debate on the origin of ethics come down to this: Either ethical principles, such as justice and human rights, are independent of human experience, or they are human inventions. The distinction is more than an exercise for academic philosophers. The choice between these two understandings makes all the difference in the way we view ourselves as a species. It measures the authority of religion, and it determines the conduct of moral reasoning.
The two assumptions in competition are like islands in a sea of chaos, as different as life and death, matter and the void. One cannot learn which is correct by pure logic; the answer will eventually be reached through an accumulation of objective evidence. Moral reasoning, I believe, is at every level intrinsically consilient with -- compatible with, intertwined with -- the natural sciences. (I use a form of the word "consilience" -- literally a "jumping together" of knowledge as a result of the linking of facts and fact-based theory across disciplines to create a common groundwork of explanation -- because its rarity has preserved its precision.)
Every thoughtful person has an opinion on which premise is correct. But the split is not, as popularly supposed, between religious believers and secularists. It is between transcendentalists, who think that moral guidelines exist outside the human mind, and empiricists, who think them contrivances of the mind. In simplest terms, the options are as follows: I believe in the independence of moral values, whether from God or not, and I believe that moral values come from human beings alone, whether or not God exists.
Theologians and philosophers have almost always focused on transcendentalism as the means to validate ethics. They seek the grail of natural law, which comprises freestanding principles of moral conduct immune to doubt and compromise. Christian theologians, following Saint Thomas Aquinas's reasoning in Summa Theologiae, by and large consider natural law to be an expression of God's will. In this view, human beings have an obligation to discover the law by diligent reasoning and to weave it into the routine of their daily lives. Secular philosophers of a transcendental bent may seem to be radically different from theologians, but they are actually quite similar, at least in moral reasoning. They tend to view natural law as a set of principles so powerful, whatever their origin, as to be self-evident to any rational person. In short, transcendental views are fundamentally t ...
Criminal Psychology. http://www.gloucestercounty-va.com Now here is some very interesting history about criminal behavior. How to identify it and warning signs. Visit us for super content.
This document provides an overview of historical morality and ethics in Western philosophy. It discusses early Greek philosophers like Pythagoras, Democritus, and Anaxagoras. It then focuses on Socrates and his emphasis on virtue being knowledge. Post-Socratic schools are also summarized, including Cynicism emphasizing simplicity, Stoicism pursuing virtue and indifference, Hedonism viewing pleasure as the good, and Epicureanism seeing mental pleasures as superior to sensual ones.
This document discusses different approaches to business ethics and morality, including utilitarianism, Kantian deontology, and Buddhist compassion. It analyzes the strengths and weaknesses of each approach. Utilitarianism is said to improperly allow sacrificing individuals for the greater good. Kantian deontology makes morality too logical rather than emotional. The author ultimately advocates an approach based on treating all individuals as inherently valuable and acting with compassion, recognizing that all people suffer and act out of needs, not malice.
Business ethics & professional responsibility00تعرفون الحق و الحق يحرركمIbrahimia Church Ftriends
This document discusses business ethics and decision-making. It notes that unethical behavior in business is not new, citing examples from ancient texts. Business ethics involves making moral decisions that consider stakeholders. Ethical decision-making takes many factors into account and follows steps like gathering facts and weighing consequences. The document contrasts ethical absolutism, which believes in universal moral principles, with relativism, which says what is right varies by context. It discusses problems with relativism like justifying oppression and avoiding moral accountability. Overall, the document provides background on debates around ethical decision-making in business.
The Ring of Gyges” byPlatoRelief of PlatoThoemmes Press.docxlillie234567
“The Ring of Gyges” by
Plato
Relief of PlatoThoemmes Press
About the author. . . . Other than anecdotal accounts, not much is known
about Plato’s early life. The association with his friend and mentor Socrates
was undoubtedly a major influence. Plato’s founding of the Academy, a
school formed for scientific and mathematical investigation, not only es-
tablished the systematic beginning of Western science but also influenced
the structure of higher education from medieval to modern times. Plutarch
once wrote, “Plato is philosophy, and philosophy is Plato.”
About the work. . . . Glaucon, the main speaker of this reading from Plato’s
Republic,1 expresses a widely and deeply-held ethical point of view known
as egoism—a view taught by a Antiphon, a sophistic contemporary of
Socrates. Egoistic theories are founded on the belief that everyone acts
only from the motive of self-interest. For example, the egoist accounts for
the fact that people help people on the basis of what the helpers might get
in return from those helped or others like them. This view, neither rep-
resentative of Plato’s nor of Socrates’s philosophy, is presented here by
Glaucon as a stalking horse for the development of a more thoroughly
developed ethical theory. Although Socrates held that everyone attempts
to act from the motive of “self-interest,” his interpretation of that motive
is quite different from the view elaborated by Glaucon because Glaucon
1. Plato.The Republic. Trans. by Benjamin Jowlett, Book II, 358d—361d.
1
“The Ring of Gyges” by Plato
seems unaware of the attendant formative effects on the soul by actions
for short-term pleasure.
From the reading. . .
“. . . those who practice justice do so involuntarily and because they
have not the power to be unjust. . . ”
Ideas of Interest from “The Ring of
Gyges”
1. According to the Glaucon’s brief, why do most persons act justly?
Explain whether you think Glaucon’s explanation is psychologically
correct.
2. If a person could be certain not only that an action resulting in per-
sonal benefit would not be discovered but also that if this action were
discovered, no punishing consequences would follow, then would there
any reason for that person to act morally?
3. Is it true that sometimes our self-interest is served bynotacting in our
self-interest? Fyodor Dostoevsky writes:
Advantage! What is advantage? And will you take it upon yourself to
define with perfect accuracy in what the advantage of a man consists?
And what if it so happens that a man’s advantage,sometimes, not only
may, but even must, consist in his desiring in certain cases what is harm-
ful to himself and not advantageous.2
Construct an example illustrating this view, and attempt to resolve the
paradoxical expression of the question.
2. Fyodor Dostoevsky.Notes from Underground. Trans. Constance Garnett. 1864.
2 Reading For Philosophical Inquiry: A Brief Introduction
“The Ring of Gyges” by Plato
4. Quite often people are pleased when the.
This document provides an excerpt from Peter Singer's book Animal Liberation discussing speciesism and the principle of equal consideration of interests. Singer argues that just as racism and sexism violate the basic principle of equality by favoring the interests of one's own race or sex, speciesism favors the interests of humans over other species. He asserts that if a being can suffer, their suffering merits equal consideration regardless of species. The document advocates extending the basic moral principle of equality beyond humans to other animals based on their ability to experience pain and suffering.
This document discusses the foundational principles of morality. It defines morality as referring to whether human acts are right or wrong according to moral norms. A foundational moral principle is the universal norm upon which all other principles of right and wrong actions are based, and is seen as "do good and avoid evil." The document examines expressions of this principle in different religions and traditions, such as the Golden Rule in Christianity, precepts of non-harming in Buddhism, and pillars of Islam. It stresses that teachers should uphold high moral character in adhering to ethical principles of being fully human, loving, virtuous, and morally mature.
This document discusses the study of ethics. It defines ethics as the science of morality of human acts, derived from the Greek word meaning characteristic way of living. It discusses two ethical systems - the atheistic approach which assumes only matter exists, and the theistic approach which begins with God as the supreme lawgiver. Professional ethics regulates professions through moral codes of ethics. Human acts are defined as actions performed knowingly and freely, while acts of man are involuntary. Elicited acts are performed by the will without being bodily externalized, while commanded acts are done by mental or bodily powers under the will's command.
This document discusses business ethics and decision-making. It begins by noting that unethical behavior in business is not new, citing examples from ancient texts. It then defines business ethics as involving moral decision-making by people in business. The document outlines several factors that can influence ethical decision-making, such as issue intensity, personal moral philosophy, and organizational culture. It provides an 8-step process for sound, ethical decision-making. Finally, it discusses the differences between ethical absolutism and relativism, noting problems with the relativist approach.
This document discusses the concept of virtue ethics and how it relates to amoral and psychopathic individuals. It argues that while virtue ethics can explain what makes someone virtuous, it fails to account for those who are not virtuous like amoralists and psychopaths. Amoralists and psychopaths are still rational beings capable of virtuous acts, but they do not possess truly virtuous character and are ultimately motivated by self-interest rather than morality. A key example used is the character Hannibal Lecter, who portrays virtuous traits but is ultimately a psychopath who commits immoral acts to satisfy his own desires.
This document summarizes four philosophy journal entries by Camille Taylor discussing topics from class including:
- What defines being human and what defines justice
- Arguments about justice and the good life presented by characters in Plato's Republic
- How the city provides order, safety, and context for citizens to pursue their potential
- Comparisons between work, leisure, luxury and the development of skills and the city
Key topics discussed include logos as a uniquely human trait, Thrasymachus' view of justice, and the notion that dogs are more philosophical than humans in their ability to distinguish friends from foes.
Chandra Dev: Unveiling the Mystery of the Moon GodExotic India
Shining brightly in the sky, some days more than others, the Moon in popular culture is a symbol of love, romance, and beauty. The ancient Hindu texts, however, mention the Moon as an intriguing and powerful being, worshiped by sages as Chandra.
Lucid Dreaming: Understanding the Risks and Benefits
The ability to control one's dreams or for the dreamer to be aware that he or she is dreaming. This process, called lucid dreaming, has some potential risks as well as many fascinating benefits. However, many people are hesitant to try it initially for fear of the potential dangers. This article aims to clarify these concerns by exploring both the risks and benefits of lucid dreaming.
The Benefits of Lucid Dreaming
Lucid dreaming allows a person to take control of their dream world, helping them overcome their fears and eliminate nightmares. This technique is particularly useful for mental health. By taking control of their dreams, individuals can face challenging scenarios in a controlled environment, which can help reduce anxiety and increase self-confidence.
Addressing Common Concerns
Physical Harm in Dreams Lucid dreaming is fundamentally safe. In a lucid dream, everything is a creation of your mind. Therefore, nothing in the dream can physically harm you. Despite the vividness and realness of the dream experience, it remains entirely within your mental landscape, posing no physical danger.
Mental Health Risks Concerns about developing PTSD or other mental illnesses from lucid dreaming are unfounded. As soon as you wake up, it's clear that the events experienced in the dream were not real. On the contrary, lucid dreaming is often seen as a therapeutic tool for conditions like PTSD, as it allows individuals to reframe and manage their thoughts.
Potential Risks of Lucid Dreaming
While generally safe, lucid dreaming does come with a few risks as well:
Mixing Dream Memories with Reality Long-term lucid dreamers might occasionally confuse dream memories with real ones, creating false memories. This issue is rare and preventable by maintaining a dream journal and avoiding lucid dreaming about real-life people or places too frequently.
Escapism Using lucid dreaming to escape reality can be problematic if it interferes with your daily life. While it is sometimes beneficial to escape and relieve the stress of reality, relying on lucid dreaming for happiness can hinder personal growth and productivity.
Feeling Tired After Lucid Dreaming Some people report feeling tired after lucid dreaming. This tiredness is not due to the dreams themselves but often results from not getting enough sleep or using techniques that disrupt sleep patterns. Taking breaks and ensuring adequate sleep can prevent this.
Mental Exhaustion Lucid dreaming can be mentally taxing if practiced excessively without breaks. It’s important to balance lucid dreaming with regular sleep to avoid mental fatigue.
Lucid dreaming is safe and beneficial if done with caution. It has many benefits, such as overcoming fear and improving mental health, and minimal risks. There are many resources and tutorials available for those interested in trying it.
Equality and justice are related but distinct concepts. Equality refers to treating all people the same, while justice considers fairness and individual circumstances and outcomes. True justice cannot be achieved through equality alone. Different cultures understand justice in varying ways based on their shared history and beliefs. Key debates around justice include whether it stems from divine commands, natural law, human design, or a balance of consequences. Theories of justice also consider how to distribute goods fairly in a society.
This document discusses the notion of a person from philosophical, legal, and theological perspectives. It defines a person as an individual with rights of self-determination and moral agency. The document also examines Maslow's hierarchy of human needs and differentiates between existential, social, esteem, and self-actualization needs. It defines conscience as the faculty of distinguishing right from wrong, and discusses various types of conscience including antecedent/consequent, right/erroneous, certain/doubtful, scrupulous, and lax conscience.
This document discusses the philosophical debate around free will and determinism from various perspectives. It covers libertarianism and how personalities develop through free will. It examines how free will can be curtailed by both internal factors like past experiences and external constraints. Determinism is explored through theories of hard determinism, soft determinism, and the principle of causality. Religious views on free will and predestination from Christian traditions are also summarized.
1 Aristotle Virtue Ethics Aristotle and .docxmercysuttle
1
Aristotle
Virtue Ethics
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Aristotle (Ancient Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης, Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC)[1] was a Greek philosopher
and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great.
His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic,
rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important
founding figures in Western philosophy.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy,
encompassing morality, aesthetics, logic, science, politics, and metaphysics.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Nicomachean Ethics
The Nicomachean Ethics /nɪˌkɒmæˈkiːən/ is the name normally given to Aristotle's best
known work on ethics.
The work, which plays a pre-eminent role in defining Aristotelian ethics, consists of ten
books, originally separate scrolls, and is understood to be based on notes from his
lectures at the Lyceum, which were either edited by or dedicated to Aristotle's son,
Nicomachus.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
The theme of the work is the Socratic question which had previously been explored in Plato's
works, of how men should best live. In his Metaphysics, Aristotle described how Socrates turned
philosophy to human questions, whereas Pre-Socratic philosophy had only been theoretical.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Ethics, as now separated out for discussion by Aristotle, is practical rather than theoretical, in
the original Aristotelian senses of these terms. In other words it is not only a contemplation
about good living, but also aims to create good living.
Link to an electronic version of Nicomachean Ethics
2
http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/nicomachaen.html
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Aristotle begins the work by positing that there exists some ultimate good toward which, in the
final analysis, all human actions ultimately aim. The necessary characteristics of the ultimate
good are that it is complete, final, self-sufficient and continuous.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
This good toward which all human actions implicitly or explicitly aim is happiness ‹ in Greek,
"eudaimonia," which can also be translated as blessedness or living well, and which is not a
static state of being but a type of activity.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Ethical virtue "is a habit disposed toward action by deliberate choice, being at the mean relative
to us, and defined by reason as a prudent man would define it." Each of the elements of this
definition is important.
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Virtue is not simply an isolated action but a habit of acting well. For an action to be virtuous a
person must do it deliberately, kn ...
Kant's perspective of duty-based ethics is argued to be the most moral in light of strong ethical leadership. According to Kant, an action is only truly moral if the motivation behind it is pure, without ulterior motives. Moral actions are judged by reasoning rather than consequences. This perspective has three implications: 1) Radical egalitarianism, where those who make laws are also subject to them, ensuring equal treatment. 2) Categorical imperatives as autonomous legislation, where one puts themselves in others' shoes to avoid injustice. 3) Using reason and critical thinking to objectively define morality, separating it from human emotion.
Virtue ethics is a moral theory that measures morality based on virtues, or good character attributes. There are three main strands of virtue ethics: eudaimonism focuses on well-being, the ethics of care emphasizes relationships and community, and agent-based theories evaluate actions based on the character of the agent. Aristotle was influential in virtue ethics, believing virtues are developed through habit and happiness comes from exercising reason and virtues like courage and justice. Natural law theory holds that moral and legal standards derive authority from considerations of moral merit.
This document provides information about an ethics course at Hong Kong Baptist University. It includes the course outline, instructor details, an overview of contractarianism as presented in the first lecture, and topics that will be covered in the second lecture on current social contract theories of ethics. Specifically, it discusses two main forms of contemporary social contract theory - interest-based contractarianism focusing on mutual advantage, and Kantian contractarianism emphasizing impartial moral status.
(1) A human person possesses characteristics like freedom that allow them to direct their own development and self-fulfillment. Freedom is the capacity to act or not act by one's own choice without compulsion.
(2) There are philosophical insights on freedom, including that it is a gift inherent to humans, complementary to reason by requiring practical rationality, and absolute though still existing within restrictions. Freedom also demands responsibility for one's choices and their consequences.
(3) Culture influences moral development by defining norms, setting boundaries, generating identity and moral character, and identifying authorities through shared experiences, beliefs, values, and norms transmitted across generations.
The Biological Basis of MoralityDo we invent our moral absolutes.docxmattinsonjanel
The Biological Basis of Morality
Do we invent our moral absolutes in order to make society workable? Or are these enduring principles expressed to us by some transcendent or Godlike authority? Efforts to resolve this conundrum have perplexed, sometimes inflamed, our best minds for centuries, but the natural sciences are telling us more and more about the choices we make and our reasons for making them
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
· EDWARD O. WILSON
· APRIL 1998 ISSUE
CENTURIES of debate on the origin of ethics come down to this: Either ethical principles, such as justice and human rights, are independent of human experience, or they are human inventions. The distinction is more than an exercise for academic philosophers. The choice between these two understandings makes all the difference in the way we view ourselves as a species. It measures the authority of religion, and it determines the conduct of moral reasoning.
The two assumptions in competition are like islands in a sea of chaos, as different as life and death, matter and the void. One cannot learn which is correct by pure logic; the answer will eventually be reached through an accumulation of objective evidence. Moral reasoning, I believe, is at every level intrinsically consilient with -- compatible with, intertwined with -- the natural sciences. (I use a form of the word "consilience" -- literally a "jumping together" of knowledge as a result of the linking of facts and fact-based theory across disciplines to create a common groundwork of explanation -- because its rarity has preserved its precision.)
Every thoughtful person has an opinion on which premise is correct. But the split is not, as popularly supposed, between religious believers and secularists. It is between transcendentalists, who think that moral guidelines exist outside the human mind, and empiricists, who think them contrivances of the mind. In simplest terms, the options are as follows: I believe in the independence of moral values, whether from God or not, and I believe that moral values come from human beings alone, whether or not God exists.
Theologians and philosophers have almost always focused on transcendentalism as the means to validate ethics. They seek the grail of natural law, which comprises freestanding principles of moral conduct immune to doubt and compromise. Christian theologians, following Saint Thomas Aquinas's reasoning in Summa Theologiae, by and large consider natural law to be an expression of God's will. In this view, human beings have an obligation to discover the law by diligent reasoning and to weave it into the routine of their daily lives. Secular philosophers of a transcendental bent may seem to be radically different from theologians, but they are actually quite similar, at least in moral reasoning. They tend to view natural law as a set of principles so powerful, whatever their origin, as to be self-evident to any rational person. In short, transcendental views are fundamentally t ...
Criminal Psychology. http://www.gloucestercounty-va.com Now here is some very interesting history about criminal behavior. How to identify it and warning signs. Visit us for super content.
This document provides an overview of historical morality and ethics in Western philosophy. It discusses early Greek philosophers like Pythagoras, Democritus, and Anaxagoras. It then focuses on Socrates and his emphasis on virtue being knowledge. Post-Socratic schools are also summarized, including Cynicism emphasizing simplicity, Stoicism pursuing virtue and indifference, Hedonism viewing pleasure as the good, and Epicureanism seeing mental pleasures as superior to sensual ones.
This document discusses different approaches to business ethics and morality, including utilitarianism, Kantian deontology, and Buddhist compassion. It analyzes the strengths and weaknesses of each approach. Utilitarianism is said to improperly allow sacrificing individuals for the greater good. Kantian deontology makes morality too logical rather than emotional. The author ultimately advocates an approach based on treating all individuals as inherently valuable and acting with compassion, recognizing that all people suffer and act out of needs, not malice.
Business ethics & professional responsibility00تعرفون الحق و الحق يحرركمIbrahimia Church Ftriends
This document discusses business ethics and decision-making. It notes that unethical behavior in business is not new, citing examples from ancient texts. Business ethics involves making moral decisions that consider stakeholders. Ethical decision-making takes many factors into account and follows steps like gathering facts and weighing consequences. The document contrasts ethical absolutism, which believes in universal moral principles, with relativism, which says what is right varies by context. It discusses problems with relativism like justifying oppression and avoiding moral accountability. Overall, the document provides background on debates around ethical decision-making in business.
The Ring of Gyges” byPlatoRelief of PlatoThoemmes Press.docxlillie234567
“The Ring of Gyges” by
Plato
Relief of PlatoThoemmes Press
About the author. . . . Other than anecdotal accounts, not much is known
about Plato’s early life. The association with his friend and mentor Socrates
was undoubtedly a major influence. Plato’s founding of the Academy, a
school formed for scientific and mathematical investigation, not only es-
tablished the systematic beginning of Western science but also influenced
the structure of higher education from medieval to modern times. Plutarch
once wrote, “Plato is philosophy, and philosophy is Plato.”
About the work. . . . Glaucon, the main speaker of this reading from Plato’s
Republic,1 expresses a widely and deeply-held ethical point of view known
as egoism—a view taught by a Antiphon, a sophistic contemporary of
Socrates. Egoistic theories are founded on the belief that everyone acts
only from the motive of self-interest. For example, the egoist accounts for
the fact that people help people on the basis of what the helpers might get
in return from those helped or others like them. This view, neither rep-
resentative of Plato’s nor of Socrates’s philosophy, is presented here by
Glaucon as a stalking horse for the development of a more thoroughly
developed ethical theory. Although Socrates held that everyone attempts
to act from the motive of “self-interest,” his interpretation of that motive
is quite different from the view elaborated by Glaucon because Glaucon
1. Plato.The Republic. Trans. by Benjamin Jowlett, Book II, 358d—361d.
1
“The Ring of Gyges” by Plato
seems unaware of the attendant formative effects on the soul by actions
for short-term pleasure.
From the reading. . .
“. . . those who practice justice do so involuntarily and because they
have not the power to be unjust. . . ”
Ideas of Interest from “The Ring of
Gyges”
1. According to the Glaucon’s brief, why do most persons act justly?
Explain whether you think Glaucon’s explanation is psychologically
correct.
2. If a person could be certain not only that an action resulting in per-
sonal benefit would not be discovered but also that if this action were
discovered, no punishing consequences would follow, then would there
any reason for that person to act morally?
3. Is it true that sometimes our self-interest is served bynotacting in our
self-interest? Fyodor Dostoevsky writes:
Advantage! What is advantage? And will you take it upon yourself to
define with perfect accuracy in what the advantage of a man consists?
And what if it so happens that a man’s advantage,sometimes, not only
may, but even must, consist in his desiring in certain cases what is harm-
ful to himself and not advantageous.2
Construct an example illustrating this view, and attempt to resolve the
paradoxical expression of the question.
2. Fyodor Dostoevsky.Notes from Underground. Trans. Constance Garnett. 1864.
2 Reading For Philosophical Inquiry: A Brief Introduction
“The Ring of Gyges” by Plato
4. Quite often people are pleased when the.
This document provides an excerpt from Peter Singer's book Animal Liberation discussing speciesism and the principle of equal consideration of interests. Singer argues that just as racism and sexism violate the basic principle of equality by favoring the interests of one's own race or sex, speciesism favors the interests of humans over other species. He asserts that if a being can suffer, their suffering merits equal consideration regardless of species. The document advocates extending the basic moral principle of equality beyond humans to other animals based on their ability to experience pain and suffering.
This document discusses the foundational principles of morality. It defines morality as referring to whether human acts are right or wrong according to moral norms. A foundational moral principle is the universal norm upon which all other principles of right and wrong actions are based, and is seen as "do good and avoid evil." The document examines expressions of this principle in different religions and traditions, such as the Golden Rule in Christianity, precepts of non-harming in Buddhism, and pillars of Islam. It stresses that teachers should uphold high moral character in adhering to ethical principles of being fully human, loving, virtuous, and morally mature.
This document discusses the study of ethics. It defines ethics as the science of morality of human acts, derived from the Greek word meaning characteristic way of living. It discusses two ethical systems - the atheistic approach which assumes only matter exists, and the theistic approach which begins with God as the supreme lawgiver. Professional ethics regulates professions through moral codes of ethics. Human acts are defined as actions performed knowingly and freely, while acts of man are involuntary. Elicited acts are performed by the will without being bodily externalized, while commanded acts are done by mental or bodily powers under the will's command.
This document discusses business ethics and decision-making. It begins by noting that unethical behavior in business is not new, citing examples from ancient texts. It then defines business ethics as involving moral decision-making by people in business. The document outlines several factors that can influence ethical decision-making, such as issue intensity, personal moral philosophy, and organizational culture. It provides an 8-step process for sound, ethical decision-making. Finally, it discusses the differences between ethical absolutism and relativism, noting problems with the relativist approach.
This document discusses the concept of virtue ethics and how it relates to amoral and psychopathic individuals. It argues that while virtue ethics can explain what makes someone virtuous, it fails to account for those who are not virtuous like amoralists and psychopaths. Amoralists and psychopaths are still rational beings capable of virtuous acts, but they do not possess truly virtuous character and are ultimately motivated by self-interest rather than morality. A key example used is the character Hannibal Lecter, who portrays virtuous traits but is ultimately a psychopath who commits immoral acts to satisfy his own desires.
This document summarizes four philosophy journal entries by Camille Taylor discussing topics from class including:
- What defines being human and what defines justice
- Arguments about justice and the good life presented by characters in Plato's Republic
- How the city provides order, safety, and context for citizens to pursue their potential
- Comparisons between work, leisure, luxury and the development of skills and the city
Key topics discussed include logos as a uniquely human trait, Thrasymachus' view of justice, and the notion that dogs are more philosophical than humans in their ability to distinguish friends from foes.
Chandra Dev: Unveiling the Mystery of the Moon GodExotic India
Shining brightly in the sky, some days more than others, the Moon in popular culture is a symbol of love, romance, and beauty. The ancient Hindu texts, however, mention the Moon as an intriguing and powerful being, worshiped by sages as Chandra.
Lucid Dreaming: Understanding the Risks and Benefits
The ability to control one's dreams or for the dreamer to be aware that he or she is dreaming. This process, called lucid dreaming, has some potential risks as well as many fascinating benefits. However, many people are hesitant to try it initially for fear of the potential dangers. This article aims to clarify these concerns by exploring both the risks and benefits of lucid dreaming.
The Benefits of Lucid Dreaming
Lucid dreaming allows a person to take control of their dream world, helping them overcome their fears and eliminate nightmares. This technique is particularly useful for mental health. By taking control of their dreams, individuals can face challenging scenarios in a controlled environment, which can help reduce anxiety and increase self-confidence.
Addressing Common Concerns
Physical Harm in Dreams Lucid dreaming is fundamentally safe. In a lucid dream, everything is a creation of your mind. Therefore, nothing in the dream can physically harm you. Despite the vividness and realness of the dream experience, it remains entirely within your mental landscape, posing no physical danger.
Mental Health Risks Concerns about developing PTSD or other mental illnesses from lucid dreaming are unfounded. As soon as you wake up, it's clear that the events experienced in the dream were not real. On the contrary, lucid dreaming is often seen as a therapeutic tool for conditions like PTSD, as it allows individuals to reframe and manage their thoughts.
Potential Risks of Lucid Dreaming
While generally safe, lucid dreaming does come with a few risks as well:
Mixing Dream Memories with Reality Long-term lucid dreamers might occasionally confuse dream memories with real ones, creating false memories. This issue is rare and preventable by maintaining a dream journal and avoiding lucid dreaming about real-life people or places too frequently.
Escapism Using lucid dreaming to escape reality can be problematic if it interferes with your daily life. While it is sometimes beneficial to escape and relieve the stress of reality, relying on lucid dreaming for happiness can hinder personal growth and productivity.
Feeling Tired After Lucid Dreaming Some people report feeling tired after lucid dreaming. This tiredness is not due to the dreams themselves but often results from not getting enough sleep or using techniques that disrupt sleep patterns. Taking breaks and ensuring adequate sleep can prevent this.
Mental Exhaustion Lucid dreaming can be mentally taxing if practiced excessively without breaks. It’s important to balance lucid dreaming with regular sleep to avoid mental fatigue.
Lucid dreaming is safe and beneficial if done with caution. It has many benefits, such as overcoming fear and improving mental health, and minimal risks. There are many resources and tutorials available for those interested in trying it.
Lesson 12 - The Blessed Hope: The Mark of the Christian.pptxCelso Napoleon
Lesson 12 - The Blessed Hope: The Mark of the Christian
SBS – Sunday Bible School
Adult Bible Lessons 2nd quarter 2024 CPAD
MAGAZINE: THE CAREER THAT IS PROPOSED TO US: The Path of Salvation, Holiness and Perseverance to Reach Heaven
Commentator: Pastor Osiel Gomes
Presentation: Missionary Celso Napoleon
Renewed in Grace
Trusting God's Providence | Verse: Romans 8: 28-31JL de Belen
Trusting God's Providence.
Providence - God’s active preservation and care over His creation. God is both the Creator and the Sustainer of all things Heb. 1:2-3; Col. 1:17
-God keep His promises.
-God’s general providence is toward all creation
- All things were made through Him
God’s special providence is toward His children.
We may suffer now, but joy can and will come
God can see what we cannot see
Sanatan Vastu | Experience Great Living | Vastu ExpertSanatan Vastu
Santan Vastu Provides Vedic astrology courses & Vastu remedies, If you are searching Vastu for home, Vastu for kitchen, Vastu for house, Vastu for Office & Factory. Best Vastu in Bahadurgarh. Best Vastu in Delhi NCR
The Book of Samuel is a book in the Hebrew Bible, found as two books in the Old Testament. The book is part of the Deuteronomistic history, a series of books that constitute a theological history of the Israelites and that aim to explain God's law for Israel under the guidance of the prophets.
The Vulnerabilities of Individuals Born Under Swati Nakshatra.pdfAstroAnuradha
Individuals born under Swati Nakshatra often exhibit a strong sense of independence and adaptability, yet they may also face vulnerabilities such as indecisiveness and a tendency to be easily swayed by external influences. Their quest for balance and harmony can sometimes lead to inner conflict and a lack of assertiveness. To know more visit: astroanuradha.com
2nd issue of Volume 15. A magazine in urdu language mainly based on spiritual treatment and learning. Many topics on ISLAM, SUFISM, SOCIAL PROBLEMS, SELF HELP, PSYCHOLOGY, HEALTH, SPIRITUAL TREATMENT, Ruqya etc.A very useful magazine for everyone.
Heartfulness Magazine - June 2024 (Volume 9, Issue 6)heartfulness
Dear readers,
This month we continue with more inspiring talks from the Global Spirituality Mahotsav that was held from March 14 to 17, 2024, at Kanha Shanti Vanam.
We hear from Daaji on lifestyle and yoga in honor of International Day of Yoga, June 21, 2024. We also hear from Professor Bhavani Rao, Dean at Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham University, on spirituality in action, the Venerable BhikkuSanghasena on how to be an ambassador for compassion, Dr. Tony Nader on the Maharishi Effect, Swami Mukundananda on the crossroads of modernization, Tejinder Kaur Basra on the purpose of work, the Venerable GesheDorjiDamdul on the psychology of peace, the Rt. Hon. Patricia Scotland, KC, Secretary-General of the Commonwealth, on how we are all related, and world-renowned violinist KumareshRajagopalan on the uplifting mysteries of music.
Dr. Prasad Veluthanar shares an Ayurvedic perspective on treating autism, Dr. IchakAdizes helps us navigate disagreements at work, Sravan Banda celebrates World Environment Day by sharing some tips on land restoration, and Sara Bubber tells our children another inspiring story and challenges them with some fun facts and riddles.
Happy reading,
The editors
Astronism, Cosmism and Cosmodeism: the space religions espousing the doctrine...Cometan
This lecture created by Brandon Taylorian (aka Cometan) specially for the CESNUR Conference held Bordeaux in June 2024 provides a brief introduction to the legacy of religious and philosophical thought that Astronism emerges from, namely the discourse on transcension started assuredly by the Cosmists in Russia in the mid-to-late nineteenth century and then carried on and developed by Mordecai Nessyahu in Cosmodeism in the twentieth century. Cometan also then provides some detail on his story in founding Astronism in the early twenty-first century from 2013 along with details on the central Astronist doctrine of transcension. Finally, the lecture concludes with some contributions made by space religions and space philosophy and their influences on various cultural facets in art, literature and film.
Astronism, Cosmism and Cosmodeism: the space religions espousing the doctrine...
Definition of natural law
1. DEFINITION OF NATURAL LAW:
The term natural law is used to mean a body of ethical imperatives supposedly
inherent in human beings and discovered by human reason. It therefore differs from
statute law, from supernaturally revealed law, and even from so-called "laws of
nature."
The word "natural" is, of course, highly ambiguous. Even "natural law" has been
defined in various ways; it now means different things to different people. Some find
the notion lacking in precise content. Others say natural law changes with an evolving
society. Others distinguish between "good and bad natural laws."
Natural laws are Cosmic laws that are not made by humans.
These laws may not be specifically taught to us but are felt by all at a subconscious level,
as if genetically programmed in our psyche. For instance, whether or not specified by
law, we are all aware that murder is not fair!
These laws apply to all human beings at all times, irrespective of Nature imparted
differences like gender and race or man-made categorizations like religion, region,
culture, caste, creed, language, etc.
Natural laws are, as such, moral codes which we collectively know as the conscience.
Anything which does not conform to these codes comes across as immoral or unfair and
all human beings, possessing average intelligence and emotional quotients, when faced
with the commission of such unfair acts suffer from what we call a guilty conscience,
whether or not we admit it.
In ancient times, the validity and righteousness of the positive laws of some of the most
glorious civilizations, such as the Greeks, were tested by pitching them against and
comparing them with the natural laws. While drafting the laws of any nation, effort was
always made to conform the positive laws as close to the natural laws as possible.
The nineteen natural laws are given below:
1. ....every man ought to endeavor peace, as far as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he
cannot obtain it, that he may seek and use all helps and advantages of war.
2. ...a man be willing, when others are so too, as far forth, as for peace, and defense of
himself he shall think it necessary, to lay down this right to all things; and be contented
with so much liberty against other men, as he would allow other men against himself.
3. ...men perform their covenants made.
4. ...a man which receiveth benefit from another of mere grace, endeavor that he which
giveth it, have no reasonable cause to repent him of his good will.
5. ...every man strive to accommodate himself to the rest.
6. ...upon caution of the future time, a man ought to pardon the offences past of them that
repenting, desire it.
7. ...in revenges, men look not at the greatness of the evil past, but the greatness of the good
to follow.
8. ...no man by deed, word, countenance, or gesture, declare hatred or contempt of another.
2. 9. ...every man acknowledge another for his equal by nature.
10. ...at the entrance into the conditions of peace, no man require to reserve to himself any
right, which he is not content should be reserved to every one of the rest.
11. ...if a man be trusted to judge between man and man, that he deal equally between them.
12. ...such things as cannot be divided, be enjoyed in common, if it can be; and if the quantity
of the thing permit, without stint; otherwise proportionably to the number of them that
have right.
13. ...the entire right, or else...the first possession... of any object which ...can neither be
divided nor enjoyed in common... may be decided upon by a method of lottery.
14. ...those things which cannot be enjoyed in common, nor divided, ought to be adjudged to
the first possessor; and in some cases to the first born, as acquired by lot.
15. ...all men that mediate peace be allowed safe conduct.
16. ...they that are at controversie, submit their Right to the judgment of an Arbitrator.
17. ...no man is a fit Arbitrator in his own cause.
18. It is immoral/ incorrect for any person to take upon the responsibility of a judge in any
case in which greater profit, or honor, or pleasure apparently ariseth [for him] out of the
victory of one party, than of the other.
19. In case of a dispute regarding the facts of the case, it is the duty of the judge to give equal
weight to the testimony of both parties. In the absence of adequate evidence, such a judge
should pass verdict on the case based upon the testimony of other witnesses.
NATURAL SCIENCE OF ETHICS:
The natural science of ethics is based on the natural origins of human values. A natural 'science
of values' or 'moral science' is the science of moral development i.e. development of moral
consciousness or 'conscience'. The human conscience is the natural source of moral knowledge
or 'morality’. The principles for morality and ethical values which are prescribed by religions can
be found within the biology of human nature. Unlike fixed philosophical systems, natural ethics
are flexible.
"Scientists and humanists should consider together the possibility that the time
has come for ethics to be removed temporarily from the hands of the
philosophers and bioligicized." (Wilson, E. Sociobiology: The New Synthesis Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press, l975, 562)
The human species is a social species and the human organism is a
social organism:
Understanding is possible between individuals who are morally free, living in love and
understanding of the will of the other - also morally free. Freedom in this sense means obedience
to one's own conscience (fully developed and therefore fully 'human') Individuals who are not
free in this sense submit themselves to control. The sources of norms for ethical conduct are to
be found in human nature. Violation of natural moral norms results in mental and emotional
3. disintegration. The character structure of the mature and integrated personality - the 'productive'
character - constitutes the source and the basis of 'virtue'. 'Vice' is the indifference to one's own
self and self-mutilation. 'Self-love' and the affirmation of one's true self are the supreme values
of humanistic ethics. For the human organism to have confidence in values, he must know
himself and the capacity of his nature for goodness and productiveness. The science of ethics is
the systematic investigation into the real nature of the individual human organism as a member
of the human species.. The 'science of ethics' refers to the study of intrinsic and instinctive
natural valuing process as a part of normal human development... a 'science of values'...moral
science...
The search for guiding values for ethical living is the subject of the natural 'science of ethics'.
Development of morality is naturally revealed with the unfolding of human potential in a
normal process of psychological and moral development. Moral development is a function of
development of the biologically intrinsic moral consciousness or 'conscience’. The conscience is
the inner voice of a person's sense of responsibility, strength, courage and needs... the guiding
values of free will... the personal decision making process which is based on the organism's
inherent tendency for growth toward spiritual independence of maturity or 'self-actualization'.
'Self-actualization' can be characterized in terms of ethical values for communal living... values
for effective socialization or 'social values'. Social values of ethical behavior originate in a
natural valuing system which is intrinsic to the organism. Ethical values are 'operative values'.
Natural ethics is based on the natural valuing process of the human organism ... based on the
natural laws of human nature and human existence. For proper growth and development,
instinctive needs must be understood and respected. The natural valuing process and the
biological basis of morality. 'Universal human ethics' or 'humanistic ethics', 'intrinsic conscience
the natural valuing process is a part of normal human development. From a holistic perspective,
an individual's values system is the product of the totality of the individual's thought processes
within the context the individual's experiences in the changing social environment... The
principles for morality and ethical values which are prescribed by religions and philosophies can
be found within the biology of human nature. The natural system of ethics - natural ethics - is
flexible, unlike philosophical systems which are fixed.
As operative values human ethical values result from the intrinsic valuing process of the
human organism... also known as the “naturalistic” or “organism value system” which is shared
by all members of the human species. The human species is a social species which depends for
socialization and survival on the social values or 'virtues'. The virtues are natural ethical values
which are essential for creative and adaptive socialization. The human organism is a moral or
ethical being. The system of natural ethics evolved by a process of natural selection during the
course of human evolution.
A natural science of ethics is the systematic investigation into the biological basis of morality in
the evolution of social values i.e. morals or 'ethics'. Ethics is a function of the real nature of the
human organism as a member of a social species.
4. Ethical behavior is rooted in the morals of the rational human conscience. Development of the
conscience is a function of human psychological, emotional, intellectual and moral development.
The biologically based constitutional ethical impulses which are revealed in normal development
and which enable the individual to adjust to the realities of the social environment are 'natural
ethics'.
Natural ethics is a function of moral consciousness or rational
'conscience’:
It is the human conscience which constitutes the biological basis of morality and ethics. The
conscience is the natural source of ethical principles for guidance in the solution of human
problems. The human organism depends on the conscience in its efforts to adapt to the realities
of a changing social environment. The conscience is a biological mechanism which enables the
individual to make accurate evaluations of social conditions while at the same time preserving
the integrity of the personality. As the source of natural values and ethical behaviour, the
conscience is the unconscious perception of human nature and human needs. Analysis of the
conscience as a natural system of ethics is based on the understanding of human motives for
behavior i.e. 'human needs'. Human needs include the most urgent 'lower' needs - physiological
and psychological needs - and the less urgent 'higher' needs - the spiritual needs of the value-life
i.e. 'met needs'.
Spiritual needs or 'met needs':
The met needs are the biologically based constitutional ethical impulses revealed during
harmonious human development...... the spiritual needs of the value-life.
They are the guiding moral or 'ethical' values of humanness - the 'divine' values of the moral
being. also known as 'Being-values' or 'B-Values' - 'Being needs' (B-needs) the needs for truth,
beauty, goodness, justice, transcendence, wholeness, perfection, truth, 'love' as human
fellowship, justice, aliveness, richness, simplicity, uniqueness, self-sufficiency etc. They must be
satisfied for a person to become mature, to express the potentialities of human nature, to become
fully 'human'. Individuals who have had their lower needs gratified during normal growth are
less dependent on others for the gratification of the higher needs for spiritual growth, creation
and production. The individual who is motivated by the Being needs for growth, is 'growth
motivated.' The growth motivated individual relies on their inner resources and is independent of
others for the gratification of growth needs.
Motivation by the met needs for ethical living is 'met motivation’. A full definition of human
nature includes met motivation by the met needs because it is biologically based and instinctive.
Human needs for ethical living must be met for effective socialization, adaptation and survival...
survival value of 'virtue'. Human needs have evolved on the basis of their survival value to the
organism in a changing social environment. They determine the individual's full functioning as a
socially intelligent being. Social intelligence and adaptation depend on proper growth and
development. Individuals whose needs are met can be described by those human attributes, the
5. ethical values, which have survival value for the human organism as a social organism. They
enable the individual to adjust to the realities of a social environment -self-respect, self-
directedness, self-discipline, sense of purpose, sense of worthiness and so on. Ethical values for
communal living are characteristic of maturity and self-actualization. With complete growth,
individuals become self-actualized. 'Self-actualizing' individuals are autonomous... self-
sufficient.
The self-actualizing individual:
Self-actualizing individuals are self-transcending living in the realm of ethical values. Obeying
their own conscience, they experience 'true' freedom. They are detached and private and resist
enculturation. They are spontaneous and enjoy life in all its aspects, reacting with fresh
appreciation and richness. They make decisions in their own 'true' interest while leading ethical
lives. They are problem-centered, making personal decisions on the basis of B-needs, thus
making choices which are in the 'true' interest of society. They are responsible to themselves and
to others as well. They have democratic 'character structure' and identify with the human species.
They accept their own nature and maintain their personal integrity while adapting to social
changes. They have a non-judgmental, non-interfering attitude towards others perceiving them as
unique individuals with their own intrinsic qualities. Their comprehensive understanding of other
people makes for meaningful interpersonal relations and successful adaptation to social changes.
They enjoy the pleasure of insight and experience high frequencies of so called 'peak-
experiences'. They have a capacity to perceive reality holistically... objective 'holistic
perception'. Holistic perception leads to holistic reasoning - transcending opposites, dichotomies,
polarities, contradictions and incompatibilities perceiving these as interpenetrating facets of a
whole. They are creative and productive and define their full individuality in their 'work'.
Psychological wholeness and personality integration achieved through proper development of the
intrinsic human conscience is the basis of social intelligence. Failure to satisfy human needs
leads to undeveloped conscience and pathologies of diminished humanness. A culture which
recognizes and respects the human needs for socialization and provides the necessary conditions
for fostering proper human growth and development is a 'healthy culture'. As a result of
culturally fostered human development, the individual becomes 'self-actualized' - living
according to the 'higher' ethical values of a rational conscience. Ethical individuals can live
together in peace and justice because they naturally do what is right and necessary for communal
living.
Implications for education:
Education for ethics is education for moral knowledge of a rational conscience. Intrinsic
conscience must be properly developed for ethical living. Development of the conscience is a
part of normal human development growth with total freedom and love. The process of
education for proper human development involves the fostering of an individual's instinctive
responsibility to himself and his own needs. It therefore depends on the creation of an
environment which fosters self-discipline, self-actualization and the full development of
'humanness,' the natural ethical core of every human being. A healthy social and cultural
environment which recognizes and respects the individual's human needs can provide the
6. necessary conditions for fostering proper human growth and development. the individual
becomes self-actualized as the result of a culturally fostered human development... living
according to the higher Being values which comprise his natural system of ethics. The self-
actualized individual lives in accordance with natural biological laws and the evolutionary
process.
REFERENCES:
http://www.leaderu.com/ftissues/ft9501/articles/henry.html
http://www.holisticeducator.com/naturalethics.htm
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/natural-law-theory.html
http://spemc.org/resources/presentation_020509.pdf
http://josephevers.blogspot.com/