Muscle tissue is divided into three primary types - skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle is organized into motor units controlled by the nervous system and allows for voluntary movement. Contraction occurs when calcium ions are released, causing the thin and thick myofilaments to interact via cross-bridges, sliding the filaments and shortening the sarcomere. The amount of tension produced depends on factors like sarcomere length, stimulation frequency, and number of motor units recruited. Energy for muscle contraction is obtained primarily through aerobic metabolism of fats and carbohydrates.

1. Muscle Tissue
• One of 4 primary tissue types, divided
into:
– skeletal muscle
– cardiac muscle
– smooth muscle
Without these muscles, nothing in the body
would move and no body movement would
occur

2. Skeletal Muscles-
Organs of skeletal muscle tissue
- are attached to the skeletal
system and allow us to move
• Muscular System- Includes only skeletal
muscles
Skeletal Muscle Structures
• Muscle tissue (muscle cells or fibers)
• Connective tissues
• Nerves
• Blood vessels

3. 6 Functions of Skeletal Muscles
1. Produce skeletal movement
2. Maintain body position and posture
3. Support soft tissues
4. Guard body openings (entrance/exit)
5. Maintain body temperature
6. Store Nutrient reserves

4. How is muscle tissue organized at
the tissue level?
Organization of Connective Tissues
Figure 10–1

5. Organization of Connective Tissues
•
•
•
•
Muscles have 3 layers of connective
tissues:
1. Epimysium-Exterior collagen layer
Connected to deep fascia
Separates muscle from surrounding tissue
2. perimysium- Surrounds muscle fiber bundles
(fascicles)
Contains blood vessel and nerve supply to
fascicles
3. endomysium

6. 3. Endomysium
• Surrounds individual muscle cells
(muscle fibers)
• Contains capillaries and nerve fibers
contacting muscle cells
• Contains satellite cells (stem cells)
that repair damage

7. Muscle Attachments
• Endomysium, perimysium, and
epimysium come together:
– at ends of muscles
– to form connective tissue attachment to
bone matrix
– i.e., tendon (bundle) or aponeurosis
(sheet)

8. Nerves
Skeletal muscles are voluntary
muscles, controlled by nerves of the
central nervous system
Blood Vessels
• Muscles have extensive vascular systems that:
– supply large amounts of oxygen
– supply nutrients
– carry away wastes

9. What are the characteristics
of skeletal muscle fibers?
• Skeletal muscle cells are called fibers
Figure 10–2

10. Skeletal Muscle Fibers
• Are very long
• Develop through fusion of mesodermal cells
(myoblasts- embryonic cells))
• Become very large
• Contain hundreds of nuclei –multinucleate
• Unfused cells are satellite cells- assist in
repair after injury

11. Organization of
Skeletal Muscle Fibers
Figure 10–3

12. The Sarcolemma
• The cell membrane of a muscle cell
• Surrounds the sarcoplasm (cytoplasm
of muscle fiber)
• A change in transmembrane potential
begins contractions
• All regions of the cell must contract
simultaneously

13. Transverse Tubules (T tubules)
• Transmit action potential – impulses
through cell
• Allow entire muscle fiber to contract
simultaneously
• Have same properties as sarcolemma
• Filled with extracellular fluid

14. Myofibrils- 1-2um in diameter
• Lengthwise subdivisions within muscle fiber
• Made up of bundles of protein filaments
(myofilaments)
• Myofilaments - are responsible for muscle
contraction
2 Types of Myofilaments
• Thin filaments:
– made of the protein actin
• Thick filaments:
– made of the protein myosin

15. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR)
• A membranous structure surrounding
each myofibril
• Helps transmit action potential to
myofibril
• Similar in structure to smooth
endoplasmic reticulum
• Forms chambers (terminal cisternae)
attached to T tubules

16. A Triad
• Is formed by 1 T tubule and 2 terminal
cisterna
Cisternae
• Concentrate Ca2+
(via ion pumps)
• Release Ca2+
into sarcomeres to begin
muscle contraction

17. Structural components of the
Sarcomeres
Figure 10–4
-The contractile
units of muscle
-Structural units
of myofibrils
-Form visible
patterns within
myofibrils

18. Muscle Striations
• A striped or striated pattern within
myofibrils:
– alternating dark, thick filaments (A bands)
and light, thin filaments (I bands)

19. M Lines and Z Lines
• M line:
– the center of the A band
– at midline of sarcomere
• Z lines:
– the centers of the I bands
– at 2 ends of sarcomere
Zone of Overlap
• The densest, darkest area on a light
micrograph
• Where thick and thin filaments overlap

20. The H Zone
• The area around the M line
• Has thick filaments but no thin
filaments
Titin
• Are strands of protein
• Reach from tips of thick filaments to
the Z line
• Stabilize the filaments

21. Sarcomere Structure
Figure 10–5

22. Sarcomere Function
• Transverse tubules encircle the
sarcomere near zones of overlap
• Ca2+ released by SR causes thin and
thick filaments to interact

23. Figure 10–6 (1 of 5)
Level 1: Skeletal Muscle
Level 2: Muscle Fascicle

24. Level 3: Muscle Fiber
Figure 10–6 (3 of 5)
Level 4: Myofibril

25. Level 5: Sarcomere
Figure 10–6 (5 of 5)

26. Muscle Contraction
• Is caused by interactions of thick and
thin filaments
• Structures of protein molecules
detemine interactions

27. A Thin Filament
Figure 10–7a

28. 4 Thin Filament Proteins
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1. F actin:
is 2 twisted rows of globular G actin
the active sites on G actin strands bind to myosin
2. Nebulin:
holds F actin strands together
3. Tropomyosin:
is a double strand
prevents actin–myosin interaction
4. Troponin:
- a globular protein
binds tropomyosin to G actin
controlled by Ca2+

29. Troponin and Tropomyosin
Initiating Contraction
Ca2+ binds to receptor on troponin
molecule
Troponin–tropomyosin complex changes
Exposes active site of F actin
Figure 10–7b

30. A Thick Filament
Contain twisted myosin subunits
Contain titin strands that recoil after stretching

31. The Mysosin Molecule
• Tail:
– binds to other myosin molecules
• Head:
– made of 2 globular protein subunits
– reaches the nearest thin filament

32. Mysosin Action
• During contraction, myosin heads:
– interact with actin filaments, forming
cross-bridges
– pivot, producing motion

33. Skeletal Muscle Contraction
• Sliding filament
theory:
– thin filaments of
sarcomere slide toward
M line
– between thick filaments
– the width of A zone
stays the same
– Z lines move closer
together
Sliding Filaments

34. What are the components
of the neuromuscular
junction, and the events
involved in the neural control
of skeletal muscles?

35. Skeletal Muscle Contraction
Figure 10–9 (Navigator)

36. The Process of Contraction
• Neural stimulation of sarcolemma:
– causes excitation–contraction coupling
• Cisternae of SR release Ca2+
:
– which triggers interaction of thick and thin
filaments
– consuming ATP and producing tension

37. Skeletal Muscle Innervation
Figure 10–10a, b (Navigator)

38. Skeletal Muscle Innervation
Figure 10–10c

39. The Neuromuscular Junction
• Is the location of neural stimulation
• Action potential (electrical signal):
– travels along nerve axon
– ends at synaptic terminal
Synaptic Terminal
• Releases neurotransmitter
(acetylcholine or ACh)
• Into the synaptic cleft (gap between
synaptic terminal and motor end plate)

40. The Neurotransmitter
• Acetylcholine or ACh:
– travels across the synaptic cleft
– binds to membrane receptors on
sarcolemma (motor end plate)
– causes sodium–ion rush into sarcoplasm
– is quickly broken down by enzyme
(acetylcholinesterase or AChE)

41. Action Potential
• Generated by increase in sodium ions
in sarcolemma
• Travels along the T tubules
• Leads to excitation–contraction
coupling

42. Excitation–Contraction Coupling
• Action potential reaches a triad:
– releasing Ca2+
– triggering contraction
• Requires myosin heads to be in
“cocked” position:
– loaded by ATP energy

43. key steps involved in contraction
of a skeletal muscle fiber
Exposing the Active Site
Figure 10–11

44. The Contraction Cycle
Figure 10–12 (1 of 4)

45. The Contraction Cycle
Figure 10–12 (2 of 4)

46. The Contraction Cycle
Figure 10–12 (3 of 4)

47. The Contraction Cycle
Figure 10–12 (Navigator) (4 of 4)

48. 5 Steps of the Contraction Cycle
1. Exposure of active sites
2. Formation of cross-bridges
3. Pivoting of myosin heads
4. Detachment of cross-bridges
5. Reactivation of myosin

49. Fiber Shortening
• As sarcomeres shorten, muscle pulls
together, producing tension
Figure 10–13

50. Contraction Duration
• Depends on:
– duration of neural stimulus
– number of free calcium ions in sarcoplasm
– availability of ATP

51. Relaxation
• Ca2+
concentrations fall
• Ca2+
detaches from troponin
• Active sites are recovered by
tropomyosin
• Sarcomeres remain contracted

52. Rigor Mortis
• A fixed muscular contraction after
death
• Caused when:
– ion pumps cease to function
– calcium builds up in the sarcoplasm

53. A Review of Muscle Contraction
Table 10–1 (1 of 2)

54. A Review of Muscle Contraction
Table 10–1 (2 of 2)

55. KEY CONCEPT
• Skeletal muscle fibers shorten as thin
filaments slide between thick filaments
• Free Ca2+
in the sarcoplasm triggers
contraction
• SR releases Ca2+
when a motor neuron
stimulates the muscle fiber
• Contraction is an active process
• Relaxation and return to resting length is
passive

56. What is the mechanism
responsible for tension
production in a muscle fiber,
and what factors determine
the peak tension developed
during a contraction?

57. Tension Production
• The all–or–none principal:
– as a whole, a muscle fiber is either
contracted or relaxed
Tension of a Single Muscle Fiber
• Depends on:
– the number of pivoting cross-bridges
– the fiber’s resting length at the time of
stimulation
– the frequency of stimulation

58. Tension and Sarcomere Length
Figure 10–14

59. Length–Tension Relationship
• Number of pivoting cross-bridges depends
on:
– amount of overlap between thick and thin fibers
• Optimum overlap produces greatest amount
of tension:
– too much or too little reduces efficiency
• Normal resting sarcomere length:
– is 75% to 130% of optimal length

60. Frequency of Stimulation
• A single neural stimulation produces:
– a single contraction or twitch
– which lasts about 7–100 msec
• Sustained muscular contractions:
– require many repeated stimuli

61. Figure 10–15a (Navigator)
Tension in a Twitch
• Length of twitch depends on type of
muscle

62. Myogram
• A graph of twitch tension development
Figure 10–15b (Navigator)

63. 3 Phases of Twitch
1. Latent period before contraction:
– the action potential moves through
sarcolemma
– causing Ca2+
release
2. Contraction phase:
–
–
calcium ions bind
tension builds to peak
3. Relaxation phase:
–
–
–
Ca2+
levels fall
active sites are covered
tension falls to resting levels

64. Treppe
• A stair-step increase in twitch tension
Figure 10–16a

65. Treppe
• Repeated stimulations immediately
after relaxation phase:
– stimulus frequency < 50/second
• Causes a series of contractions with
increasing tension

66. Wave Summation
• Increasing tension or summation of
twitches
Figure 10–16b

67. Wave Summation
• Repeated stimulations before the end
of relaxation phase:
– stimulus frequency > 50/second
• Causes increasing tension or
summation of twitches

68. • If rapid stimulation
continues and muscle
is not allowed to
relax, twitches reach
maximum level of
tension
Incomplete Tetanus
Twitches reach maximum tension

69. Complete Tetanus
• If stimulation
frequency is high
enough, muscle
never begins to
relax, and is in
continuous
contraction

70. What factors affect peak
tension production during the
contraction of an entire
skeletal muscle, and what is
the significance of the motor
unit in this process?

71. InterActive Physiology:
Contraction of Whole Muscle
PLAY
Tension Produced by
Whole Skeletal Muscles
• Depends on:
– internal tension produced by muscle fibers
– external tension exerted by muscle fibers
on elastic extracellular fibers
– total number of muscle fibers stimulated

72. Motor Units in a Skeletal Muscle
Figure 10–17

73. Motor Units in a Skeletal Muscle
• Contain hundreds of muscle fibers
• That contract at the same time
• Controlled by a single motor neuron
InterActive Physiology:
Contraction of Motor Units
PLAY

74. Recruitment (Multiple
Motor Unit Summation)
• In a whole muscle or group of muscles,
smooth motion and increasing tension
is produced by slowly increasing size or
number of motor units stimulated

75. Maximum Tension
• Achieved when all motor units reach
tetanus
• Can be sustained only a very short time
• Sustained Tension
• Less than maximum tension
• Allows motor units to rest in rotation

76. KEY CONCEPT
• Voluntary muscle contractions involve
sustained, tetanic contractions of
skeletal muscle fibers
• Force is increased by increasing the
number of stimulated motor units
(recruitment)

77. Muscle Tone
• The normal tension and firmness of a
muscle at rest
• Muscle units actively maintain body
position, without motion
• Increasing muscle tone increases
metabolic energy used, even at rest

78. What are the types of
muscle contractions,
and how do they differ?
•
•
2 Types of Skeletal
Muscle Tension
Isotonic contraction
Isometric contraction

79. Isotonic Contraction
Figure 10–18a, b

80. Isotonic Contraction
• Skeletal muscle changes length:
– resulting in motion
• If muscle tension > resistance:
– muscle shortens (concentric contraction)
• If muscle tension < resistance:
– muscle lengthens (eccentric contraction)

81. Isometric Contraction
Figure 10–18c, d

82. Isometric Contraction
• Skeletal muscle develops tension, but
is prevented from changing length
Note: Iso = same, metric = measure

83. Resistance and Speed
of Contraction
Figure 10–19

84. Resistance and Speed
of Contraction
• Are inversely related
• The heavier the resistance on a
muscle:
– the longer it takes for shortening to begin
– and the less the muscle will shorten

85. Muscle Relaxation
• After contraction, a muscle fiber
returns to resting length by:
– elastic forces
– opposing muscle contractions
– gravity

86. Elastic Forces
• The pull of elastic elements (tendons
and ligaments)
• Expands the sarcomeres to resting
length

87. Opposing Muscle Contractions
• Reverse the direction of the original
motion
• Are the work of opposing skeletal muscle
pairs
Gravity
• Can take the place of opposing muscle
contraction to return a muscle to its
resting state

88. What are the mechanisms by
which muscle fibers obtain
energy to power contractions?

89. ATP and Muscle Contraction
• Sustained muscle contraction uses a lot
of ATP energy
• Muscles store enough energy to start
contraction
• Muscle fibers must manufacture more
ATP as needed

90. ATP and CP Reserves
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP):
– the active energy molecule
• Creatine phosphate (CP):
– the storage molecule for excess ATP
energy in resting muscle

91. Recharging ATP
• Energy recharges ADP to ATP:
– using the enzyme creatine phosphokinase
(CPK)
• When CP is used up, other mechanisms
generate ATP

92. Energy Storage in Muscle Fiber
Table 10–2

93. ATP Generation
• Cells produce ATP in 2 ways:
– aerobic metabolism of fatty acids in the
mitochondria
– anaerobic glycolysis in the cytoplasm

94. Aerobic Metabolism
• Is the primary energy source of resting
muscles
• Breaks down fatty acids
• Produces 34 ATP molecules per glucose
molecule

95. Anaerobic Glycolysis
• Is the primary energy source for peak
muscular activity
• Produces 2 ATP molecules per
molecule of glucose
• Breaks down glucose from glycogen
stored in skeletal muscles

96. Energy Use and Muscle Activity
• At peak exertion:
– muscles lack oxygen to support
mitochondria
– muscles rely on glycolysis for ATP
– pyruvic acid builds up, is converted to
lactic acid

97. Muscle Metabolism
InterActive Physiology:
Muscle Metabolism
PLAY
Figure 10–20a

98. Muscle Metabolism
Figure 10–20c

99. What factors contribute to
muscle fatigue, and what are
the stages and mechanisms
involved in muscle recovery?

100. Muscle Fatigue
• When muscles can no longer perform a
required activity, they are fatigued
Results of Muscle Fatigue
1. Depletion of metabolic reserves
2. Damage to sarcolemma and sarcoplasmic
reticulum
3. Low pH (lactic acid)
4. Muscle exhaustion and pain

101. The Recovery Period
• The time required after exertion for
muscles to return to normal
• Oxygen becomes available
• Mitochondrial activity resumes

102. The Cori Cycle
• The removal and recycling of lactic acid by
the liver
• Liver converts lactic acid to pyruvic acid
• Glucose is released to recharge muscle
glycogen reserves
Oxygen Debt
• After exercise:
– the body needs more oxygen than usual to
normalize metabolic activities
– resulting in heavy breathing

103. KEY CONCEPT
• Skeletal muscles at rest metabolize
fatty acids and store glycogen
• During light activity, muscles generate
ATP through anaerobic breakdown of
carbohydrates, lipids or amino acids
• At peak activity, energy is provided by
anaerobic reactions that generate
lactic acid as a byproduct

104. Heat Production and Loss
• Active muscles produce heat
• Up to 70% of muscle energy can be lost as
heat, raising body temperature
Hormones and Muscle Metabolism
• Growth hormone
• Testosterone
• Thyroid hormones
• Epinephrine

105. How do the types of
muscle fibers relate to
muscle performance?

106. Muscle Performance
• Power:
– the maximum amount of tension produced
• Endurance:
– the amount of time an activity can be
sustained
• Power and endurance depend on:
– the types of muscle fibers
– physical conditioning

107. 3 Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
1. Fast fibers- Contract very quickly
• Have large diameter, large glycogen reserves, few
mitochondria
• Have strong contractions, fatigue quickly
2. Slow fibers-Are slow to contract, slow to fatigue
•
•
•
Have small diameter, more mitochondria
Have high oxygen supply
Contain myoglobin (red pigment, binds oxygen)
3. Intermediate fibers-Are mid-sized
•
•
Have low myoglobin
Have more capillaries than fast fiber, slower to
fatigue

108. Fast versus Slow Fibers
Figure 10–21

109. Comparing Skeletal
Muscle Fibers
Table 10–3

110. Muscles and Fiber Types
• White muscle:
– mostly fast fibers
– pale (e.g., chicken breast)
• Red muscle:
– mostly slow fibers
– dark (e.g., chicken legs)
• Most human muscles:
– mixed fibers
– pink

111. Muscle Hypertrophy
• Muscle growth from heavy training:
– increases diameter of muscle fibers
– increases number of myofibrils
– increases mitochondria, glycogen reserves
Muscle Atrophy
• Lack of muscle activity:
– reduces muscle size, tone, and power

112. What is the difference
between aerobic and
anaerobic endurance, and
their effects on muscular
performance?
Physical Conditioning –
Improves both power and
endurance

113. Anaerobic Endurance
• Anaerobic activities (e.g., 50-meter
dash, weightlifting):
– use fast fibers
– fatigue quickly with strenuous activity
• Improved by:
– frequent, brief, intensive workouts
– hypertrophy

114. Aerobic Endurance
• Aerobic activities (prolonged activity):
– supported by mitochondria
– require oxygen and nutrients
• Improved by:
– repetitive training (neural responses)
– cardiovascular training

115. KEY CONCEPT
• What you don’t use, you loose
• Muscle tone indicates base activity in motor
units of skeletal muscles
• Muscles become flaccid when inactive for
days or weeks
• Muscle fibers break down proteins, become
smaller and weaker
• With prolonged inactivity, fibrous tissue may
replace muscle fibers

116. What are the structural and
functional differences between
skeletal muscle fibers and
cardiac muscle cells?

117. Structure of Cardiac Tissue
• Cardiac muscle is
striated, found only in
the heart
Figure 10–22

118. 7 Characteristics of Cardiocytes
• Unlike skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle
cells (cardiocytes):
– are small
– have a single nucleus
– have short, wide T tubules

119. 7 Characteristics of Cardiocytes
– have no triads
– have SR with no terminal cisternae
– are aerobic (high in myoglobin,
mitochondria)
– have intercalated discs

120. Intercalated Discs
• Are specialized contact points between
cardiocytes
• Join cell membranes of adjacent
cardiocytes (gap junctions, desmosomes)
Functions of Intercalated Discs
• Maintain structure
• Enhance molecular and electrical
connections
• Conduct action potentials

121. Coordination of Cardiocytes
• Because intercalated discs link heart
cells mechanically, chemically, and
electrically, the heart functions like a
single, fused mass of cells

122. 4 Functions of Cardiac Tissue
1. Automaticity:
–
–
contraction without neural stimulation
controlled by pacemaker cells
2. Variable contraction tension:
– controlled by nervous system
3. Extended contraction time
4. Prevention of wave summation and tetanic
contractions by cell membranes

123. Role of Smooth Muscle in Body
Systems
• Forms around other tissues
• In blood vessels:
– regulates blood pressure and flow
• In reproductive and glandular systems:
– produces movements
• In digestive and urinary systems:
– forms sphincters
– produces contractions
• In integumentary system:
– arrector pili muscles cause goose bumps

124. What are the structural and
functional differences between
skeletal muscle fibers and
smooth muscle cells?

125. Structure of Smooth Muscle
• Nonstriated tissue
Figure 10–23

126. Comparing Smooth
and Striated Muscle
• Different internal organization of actin
and myosin
• Different functional characteristics

127. 8 Characteristics of
Smooth Muscle Cells
1. Long, slender, and spindle shaped
2. Have a single, central nucleus
3. Have no T tubules, myofibrils, or
sarcomeres
4. Have no tendons or aponeuroses

128. 8 Characteristics of
Smooth Muscle Cells
5. Have scattered myosin fibers
6. Myosin fibers have more heads per
thick filament
7. Have thin filaments attached to
dense bodies
8. Dense bodies transmit contractions
from cell to cell

129. Functional Characteristics
of Smooth Muscle
1. Excitation–contraction coupling
2. Length–tension relationships
3. Control of contractions
4. Smooth muscle tone

130. Excitation–Contraction Coupling
• Free Ca2+
in cytoplasm triggers
contraction
• Ca2+
binds with calmodulin:
– in the sarcoplasm
– activates myosin light chain kinase
• Enzyme breaks down ATP, initiates
contraction

131. Length–Tension Relationships
• Thick and thin filaments are scattered
• Resting length not related to tension
development
• Functions over a wide range of lengths
(plasticity)

132. Control of Contractions
• Subdivisions:
– multiunit smooth muscle cells:
• connected to motor neurons
– visceral smooth muscle cells:
• not connected to motor neurons
• rhythmic cycles of activity controlled by
pacesetter cells

133. Smooth Muscle Tone
• Maintains normal levels of activity
• Modified by neural, hormonal, or
chemical factors

134. Characteristics of Skeletal,
Cardiac, and Smooth Muscle
Table 10–4

135. SUMMARY (1 of 3)
• 3 types of muscle tissue:
– skeletal
– cardiac
– smooth
• Functions of skeletal muscles
• Structure of skeletal muscle cells:
– endomysium
– perimysium
– epimysium
• Functional anatomy of skeletal muscle fiber:
– actin and myosin

136. SUMMARY (2 of 3)
• Nervous control of skeletal muscle fibers:
– neuromuscular junctions
– action potentials
• Tension production in skeletal muscle fibers:
– twitch, treppe, tetanus
• Tension production by skeletal muscles:
– motor units and contractions
• Skeletal muscle activity and energy:
– ATP and CP
– aerobic and anaerobic energy

137. SUMMARY (3 of 3)
• Skeletal muscle fatigue and recovery
• 3 types of skeletal muscle fibers:
– fast, slow, and intermediate
• Skeletal muscle performance:
– white and red muscles
– physical conditioning
• Structures and functions of:
– cardiac muscle tissue
– smooth muscle tissue