MSCIII_Forensic anthropology_Final.pptx

FORENSIC
ANTHROPOLOGY
Dr. Suchita Rawat (MSc, MPhil, PhD)

Forensic Genetics and Anthropology
Course Objectives
● To gain understanding of the use of genetics in forensic science
● To enable the analysis of forensic anthropological evidence
Course Outcomes
After the successful completion of the course, the student will be able to:
CO1 : describe the concepts of genetics
CO2 : appraise the techniques of forensic genetics
CO3 : summarize the procedures involved in forensic anthropology
CO4 : evaluate somatoscopic and somatometric characteristics
CO5 : prepare the procedure for facial reconstruction

Unit /Topic No. OF
HOURS
TEACHING METHODOLOGY TIME OF
COMPLETION
Unit 1: Introduction to Mendelian and
Population Genetics
12 Mapped to Ms. Aditi Mishra
Unit 2: Forensic Genetics 12 Mapped to Ms. Aditi Mishra
Unit 3: Forensic Anthropology 12 Participatory TL: Interactive
Lecture, One minute presentation,
Guided library work,
Technical presentation
Aug 28- Aug 31,
2023
Unit 4: Personal Identification Using
Somatoscopy and Somatometry
14 Participatory TL: Interactive
Oct 3 – Oct 6, 2023
Unit 5: Facial Superimposition and
Facial Reconstruction
10 Participatory TL: Interactive
Oct 30 – Oct 31,
2023

Seminar & Activity –For PG Courses
List of Activity
Assignment Topics (5 marks) : Students have to appraise the forensic relevance of Portrait Parle/Bertillon system or
using a schematic diagram illustrate the steps of facial reconstruction (2D/3D)

Mini group projects topics (10 marks):
 To investigate for sexual dimorphism in somatoscopic and somatometric characteristics
To investigate ethic differences in somatoscopic and somatometric characteristics
Assessment criteria
Introduction (2 marks)
ROL (3 marks)
Methodology (3 marks)
Results and discussion (2 marks)

Skill Development Activity
Problem Solving TL: Subject related Exercises, online QUIZ
Experiential TL: Article Review

Forensic Anthropology is ??????
(A) Is a field of applied physical
anthropology.
identification of
(B) Specializes in
human skeleton remains for legal
purposes.
(C)Specializes in identification of
murder victims, age, sex and ethnicity.
(D) All of the above.
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

Yasser Arafat (1929-2004)
Zachary Taylor (1784-1850)
Revisiting Cause Of Death!!
Lee Harvey Oswald (1939-1963)
Jesse James (1847-1882)
Establish and Confirm Identity!!
Source: https://www.everplans.com/articles/9-famous-people-who-were-exhumed-from-their-graves
Salvador Dalí (1904-1989)
Paternity dispute!!

Techniques for recovering skeletonised human remains
AND
skeletal processing and preparation

Locating Human Remains
The Search for Buried Evidence
• Witness Statements
• Visual Clues: Basic Principles
• Surface Changes
• Search/Cadaver Dogs
• Remote Sensing (Aerial imagery, Light detection
and ranging and thermal imaging
• Geophysical Techniques
Topsoil Removal
Confirming the Presence of a Grave and/or Human
Remains (Ground Probes, Test Trenching)
Excavation and Exhumation

Locating Human Remains
● located by chance (people walking
their dogs , result of tidal changes
etc)
● proactive investigations for
suspicious burial

(Witness Statements)
 obtain statements from anyone who may
have witnessed the burial and hence aids
in narrowing down a search area
 Limitations:
 witness at the time of the clandestine burial
(e.g., stress/ fear, light, distance, etc.)
 Passage of time between the event and
witness interview.
 Consequently, witness to indicate the
general area where a grave is supposed to
be but be unable to pinpoint the exact
location of the burial

(Visual Clues: Basic Principles )
 When bodies or other evidence are
buried the act of digging rearranges
the existing strata resulting in easy
identification of changes to ground
surface contours, soil color,
and/or vegetation growth.

O layer: Decaying organic matter
(Humus)
A(Topsoil) layer: Humus and Mineral
particles
E layer :Sand and Silt
B layer : Leached Clay and Mineral C
layer : Partially broken up rock
R layer: solid Rock Layer

 vegetation modification (graphic and
microflora analysis indicates
subsurface disturbance)
 vegetation adjacent or near burial may
be damaged or killed
(Surface Changes )
Reference: Blau, S., & Sterenberg, J. (2016).

 Vegetation growth Change (vegetation
growth /reduce vegetation growth)
 Shallow depression and surface
cracking of soil surface seen as the
process of cadaver decomposition.
 Body or skeleton exposed to surface
(Shallow grave with recent disturbance)
 Larger mass graves may also contain
imported foreign soils from secondary
graves, which contain seeds and pollen
from their primary location.
(Surface Changes )
Reference: Blau, S., & Sterenberg, J. (2016).

(Search/Cadaver Dogs )
 Cadaver or ‘air-scent’ dogs are specially trained dogs
are able to smell or sniff out decomposing material.
 Limitations:
• certain weather conditions, i.e., extreme cold or heat
causes discomfort to the dogs and has a tendency to
affect their ability to locate a scent.
• Factors such as humidity, wind speed, and ground
moisture also affect the dogs’ ability to locate a scent
from a distance.

(Remote Sensing )
 Aerial imagery : elevated perspective and relies
upon indications of digging activity or potential
graves standout from their general background
An example of the use of aerial imagery to identify sites of
disturbance is the detection of contemporary mass graves
created during the 1990s Balkans conflict. The detection
of these large sites relied heavily on aerial imaging
supplied by government agencies. Aerial photographs of
the greater Srebrenica area of Eastern Bosnia taken by
U2 spy planes were analyzed for signs of possible
disturbance Reference: Blau, S., & Sterenberg, J. (2016).

(Light detection and ranging and thermal imaging )
● Infrared/thermal imaging may be employed as a means
of locating buried remains and may be especially useful if
the victim has been recently killed and buried in a shallow
grave.
● A decaying body can generate temperature differences
between it and the surrounding soil (Time dependent/
season dependent).
How Does Thermal Imaging Work?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Re_DtZrsXbs

The Search for Buried Evidence (Geophysical Remote sensing )
 relies on sensing and detecting disturbances within the various physical
properties of the earth.
 Geophysical prospection uses passive, for example, magnetic field mapping,
soil resistance(resistivity), conductivity, ground penetrating radar.
 Limitations:
• The equipment required to undertake a geophysical survey can incur an
additional cost to an investigation, requires specialist operators and can
generally be only undertaken in good, clear weather.
• To date no geophysical techniques has the ability to locate individual bodies,
however, the general size, shape and depth of a disturbance can be
accurately mapped, the effectiveness of each technique depending on the
search environment(i.e., soil type, moisture, topography, etc.)
• As an example, electrical resistance meters (resistivity) work better in
relatively damp environments while magnotometry may be affected if there
is metal debris (e.g., nails, wire fences, etc.) on or near the survey area.

Principles of skeletal processing and preparation
 forensic anthropological (direct
observation and analysis of the outer
surfaces and sometimes internal
properties) of bones and teeth.
 human remains with soft tissue
(D/M/F) or other adhering material
(such as soil) obscuring the skeletal
remains.
 Bones damaged due to taphonomic
processes or trauma before recovery
 single person or more than one
individual.
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

Processing and Preparing Remains
processing reconstruction commingling Sampling Preservation

Processing methods
 Documented (notes and photography)
 Radiography (locating additional material
evidence )
 If clothing, personal effects, or evidence
(e.g., a ligature around the neck or a
projectile within the cranium) carefully
documented prior to removal, and retained
(by other forensic specialists)
 decomposed and mummified skin may
retain evidence of tattoos or prior
surgery
Source: Christensen, A. M., Passalacqua, N. V., & Bartelink, E. J. (2019

Maceration
(cold/Hot water
maceration)
Carrion insects
(mealworms
Mealworms (larvae
of Tenebrio
molitor) and
dermestid beetles)
Chemical approaches
bleaching agents ,hydrogen
peroxide, antiform, sodium
hypochlorite, and papain,
water & ammonia, bleach and
acetone
Source: Christensen, A. M., Passalacqua,
N. V., & Bartelink, E. J. (2019

Skeletal reconstruction
 restoring to their original dimensions allow
metric analyses and help to visualize and
clarify fractures and trauma patterns (their
cause).
 not necessary to physically affix or adhere
fragments together / only for completely dry
bone/ physical match
 Temporary methods (tape, wax, or clay)
 Permanent methods/ reversible (e.g.,
adhesives such as Paraloid B-72®, an
acrylic resin)

Commingling
 Detection (no. of bones, biological
parameters, size, sex, visual pair
matching, articulation, osteometric sorting,
taphonomy (color and condition), and
DNA (mitochondrial or nuclear DNA
sequences)
 Minimum number of individuals (Bones
and fragmentary remains)
 Most Likely Number of Individuals
MLNI = [(L + 1) (R + 1) / (P + 1)] − 1
R=Right, L=left, P= Pairs

Skeletal sampling
 If soft tissue such as muscle,
brain, etc (prior skeletal
processing).
 removal of a small window of
bone bones or bone portions
(lack useful for identification
features, trauma, or disease)

Skeletal preservation
● returned directly to investigators or funeral homes in
paper bags or cardboard boxes
● Skeletons awaiting identification , donated for teaching
or research purposes or bone specimens retained as
evidence (retained for longer periods of time)
● Precautions:
● acid free storage boxes
● padding of storage containers
● prevent access by insects or other animals such as
rodents
● avoiding excessive temperature and humidity of the
storage area.

Preservation of the features of skeletal
remains
 Chemical preservatives (consolidant)
 Casting methods i.e. plasters, plastics, and
epoxies (Latex and silicon impressions)
 Laser scanning and three-dimensional
printing, although more expensive
produces high-quality replica.

REFERENCE
 Christensen, A. M., Passalacqua, N. V., & Bartelink, E. J. (2019). Forensic anthropology: current methods and
practice.Academic Press.
 Burns, K. R. (2015). Forensic anthropology training manual. Routledge.

Analysing the differences between animal and human
bones.
● Differential Skeletal Anatomy of Humans and Animals: Cranium
● Differential Skeletal Anatomy of Humans and Animals: Dentition
● Differential Skeletal Anatomy of Humans and Animals: Post cranium

HUMAN ANIMAL
Large bulbous vault, small face Small vault, large face
Vault relatively smooth Pronounced muscle markings, sagittal crest Inferior
Inferior Foramen Magnum Posterior Foramen Magnum
Chin present Chin absent
Orbits at front, above nasal aperture Orbits at sides, posterior to nasal aperture
"U"- shaped mandible (no midline separation) "V"- shaped mandible (separates at midline)
Differential Skeletal Anatomy of Humans and Animals: Cranium

HUMAN ANIMAL
Omnivorous Carnivorous; Herbivorous; Omnivorou
Dental formula 2:1:2:3 Basic dental formula 3:1:4:3
incisors (maxillary) are larger than other
mammals
Horse maxillary incisors are larger
than human
incisors
Canines small Carnivores have large conical
canines; Herbivores have small or
missing canines
Premolars and molars have low,
rounded cusps divided by distinct
grooves
Carnivores have sharp, pointed
molars and premolar teeth;
Herbivores have broad, flat
premolars and molars with parallel
furrows and ridges
Differential Skeletal Anatomy of Humans and Animals: Dentition

Differential Skeletal Anatomy of Humans and Animals: Post cranium
Human Animal
Upper limbs less robust Robust upper limbs
Radius and ulna are separate bones Radius and ulna often fused
Large, flat and broad vertebral bodies with short
spinous
processes
Small vertebral bodies with convex/ concave
surfaces and
long spinous processes
Sacrum with 5 fused vertebrae, short and broad Sacrum with 3 or 4 fused vertebrae, long and
narrow
Pelvis is broad and short, bowl - shaped Pelvis is long and narrow, blade - shaped
Femur is longest bone in body, lineaaspera is
singular
feature
Femur is similar length to other limb bones,
lineaaspera
double or plateau
Separate tibia and fibula Tibia and fibula are often fused
Foot is long and narrow, weight borne on heel
and toes
Foot is broad, weight borne mainly on toes

TRAIT MALE FEMALE
General size Larger, more massive Smaller, slender
Long bones Ridges, depression and process are
more prominent. Bones of arms and
legs are 8% longer
Less prominent
Shaft of long bones Rougher Smoother, thinner with relatively wider
medullary cavity
Articular surface Larger Smaller
Metacarpal bones Longer and broader Shorter and narrower
Weight 4.5 kg 2.75 kg
Comparison of Male and Female Skeleton

TRAIT MALE FEMALE
General Appearance Larger, longer Smaller, lighter, walls thinner
Architecture Rugged, muscle ridges more marked,
especially in occipital and temporal areas
Smooth
Glabella More prominent Small or absent
Forehead Steeper less rounded Vertical, round, full
Orbits Square, set lower on the face, relatively
smaller, rounded margins
Rounded higher, relatively larger, sharper
margins
Supraorbital ridges Prominent Less prominent or absent
Zygomatic arch More prominent Less prominent
Nasal aperture Higher and narrower. Margins sharp Lower and broader
Frontal eminences Small Large
Parietal eminences Small Large
Occipital area Muscle lines and protuberance prominent Not prominent
Comparison of Male and Female Skull

TRAIT MALE FEMALE
Occipital area Muscle lines and protuberance
prominent
Not prominent
Mastoid process Medium to large, round, blunt. Small to medium, smooth, pointed
Palate Larger, broader, tends more to be u-
shape.
Smaller, tends more to be parabolic
shape
Foramen magnum Relatively large and long Relatively small and round
Mandible Larger and thicker Smaller and thinner
Ascending ramus Greater breath Smaller breath
Mandible Condyles Larger Smaller
Angle of body and
ramus
Less obtuse (under 125º) More obtuse, and not prominent
Teeth Larger Smaller
Comparison of Male and Female Skull

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o3GvTnCuOIY

Comparison of Male and Female Pelvis
Trait Male Female
Bony framework Massive, rougher, marked
muscle sites.
Less massive, slender,
smoother
General Deep funnel Flat bowl
Acetabulum Large and directed laterally Small and directed antero-
laterally
Obturator Foramen Large, often oval with base
upward
Small, triangular with apex
forward
Body of pubis Narrow, triangular Broad, square, pits on
posterior surface if borne
children
Ramus of pubis It is like continuation of body of
pubis.
Has a constricted or
narrowed appearance
and is short and thick
Sacrum Longer, narrower, with more
evenly distributed curvatures,
prominently well marked.
Body of first sacral vertebra
larger. Shorter, wider,
upper half almost straight,
curve forward in lower half,
prominently less marked.
Coccyx Less movable More movable

Trait Male Female
Pre-auricular sulcus
(attachment of anterior
sacroiliac ligament)
Not frequent, narrow, shallow More frequent, broad and deep
Greater sciatic notch Smaller, narrower, deeper Larger, wider, shallower

Trait Male Female
Symphysis High Low and distance between
two pubic tubercles greater.
The dorsal border is irregular
and shows depressions or
pits (scars of parturition)
Subpubic
angle
V-shaped, sharp angle 70º
to 75º
U-shaped, rounded, broader
angle, 90 to 100º
Pelvic brim Heart shaped Circular or elliptical, more
spacious, diameter longer
Pelvic inlet Conical and funnel shaped Broad and rounded

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K4jShowlAOU

Sex Determination from Long Bone
Measurements & Morphology

Male vs. female (greater in males)
Maximum length
Maximum Vertical Diameter of the Head
Maximum Transverse Diameter of the Head
Bone weight (in gm)

Maximum length
Maximum Transverse Diameter of the
Less curve of bone for males than female

Maximum length
Bone weight
Size
Shape of head of bone less globular

Maximum length
Bicondylar width
Maximum Trochanteric length
Angle formed by neck & Shaft axis If low
denotes masculine character

Maximum length
Bicondylar width
Weight

Diameter of middle of bone
Bone weight

Glenoid breadth
Total spine length
Weight

Male Female
The thoracic cage is longer
and narrower.
It is shorter and wider.
Ribs are thicker and
comparatively massive in
texture.
Ribs are thinner and
delicate in texture.
Ribs have lesser curvatures. Ribs have greater
curvatures.
Manubrium Manubrium is
somewhat smaller.
It is somewhat bigger.

 Sutures of the skull, also known as cranial
sutures, are fibrous joints with a fracture-like
appearance found between the bones of the skull.
 Sutures are formed during embryonic
development.
 They are sites for bone expansion, ensuring
craniofacial growth during the embryonic,
postnatal, and later growth periods.
 The cranial sutures ossify at different rates, but
most sutures have ossified by the age of 20.
 Sutures of an adult skull are categorized
as synarthroses ( a type of joint that, under
normal circumstances, is immobile.)

Figuíe 1: Vault sutuíe closuíe stages. Illustíation of degíees of closuíe foí
sagittal sutuíe at obelion.
0 open; there is no evidence of any
ectocranial closure
1 minimal closure; the score is
assigned to any minimal to moderate
closure, from single bony bridge to
about 50% synostosis
2 significant closure; there is a
marked degree of closure but some
portions still not completely fused
3 complete obliteration; the site is
completely fused.

 In neonates, the sutures are incompletely fused,
leaving membranous gaps
called fontanelles.
 Fontanelles are also often called soft spots.
Fontanelle Location closure
frontal fontanelle
(anterior
fontanelle)*
at the junction of the
coronal and sagittal
sutures.
closes between 12
and 18 months of
age
occipital fontanelle
( posterior
fontanelle)*
at the junction
between the sagittal
and lambdoid
suture
closes at 6-8 month
of birth
sphenoid
fontanelle (2)
located between
the sphenoid, temp
oral, frontal,
and parietal bones.
closes at 2 months
after birth
mastoid
fontanelle (2)
situated between the
temporal, occipital,
and parietal bones.
closes at 2 months
after birth

 The metopic suture is present in
newborns.
 The metopic suture divides the
frontal
bone along the midline.
 Metopic suture closes at 2-4 years
but may extend up to six years.

Sutures of neurocranium
Sutures Location ossification
sagittal suture (2) formed by the
two parietal
bones articulating
with each other.
Fusion begins
around 25 years &
completed by 30 -
35 Years
Coronal suture (2) formed at the junction
between the parietal
bones and frontal
bone.
Fusion begins around
28 years & completed
by 35 - 40 Years
lambdoid
suture (2)
formed at the
articulation
between the
occipital bone
and parietal
bones.
Fusion begins
around 30 years &
completed by 50 -
55 Years
squamous suture (2) formed by the
parietal bone and
temporal bone.
Fusion begins around
50 - 55 years &
completed by 70 Years

Sutures Location ossification
Occipito-mastoid
suture (2)
Formed by the
articulation of
the occipital
bone and the
temporal
bone's
mastoid part
Fusion begins
around 60 - 65
years &
completed by 80
Years
Parieto-mastoid
suture (2)
formed at the
Junction
between the
parietal and
temporal
bones.
Fusion begins
around 60 - 65years
& completed by 80 -
82 Years
Spheno
Parietal suture
(2)
suture between
parietalbone and
the sphenoid
bone.
Fusion begins
around 60 - 65
years &
completed by 80
- 85 Years

Landmark location Fusion
bregma It is the intersection of the
coronal and sagittal sutures.
site of the frontal fontanelle in
neonates and young children,
which usually fuses around
the age of 2.
lambda formed at the convergence
between the sagittal and
lambdoid sutures.
site for the occipital
fontanelle was located, which
usually closes around 2
months of age.
obelion is formed at the intersection of
the sagittal suture and an
imaginary line that connects
the two parietal foramina.
-
suture-associated landmarks

Landmark location
Asterion (2) site of
the previously located
mastoid fontanelle
at the junction of the
parietomastoid,
occipitomastoid and
lambdoid sutures.
closes by 80 years
Pterion (2) H-shaped point of junction
between four bones:
the sphenoid, temporal, fr
ontal and parietal bone.
starts closing at 40 years and
completely closes by 65 years
Asterion
suture-associated landmarks

Skeletal Age and Ossification
 The human bones develop from a number of ossification centers.
 At 11- 12th week of intrauterine life, there are 806 ossification centers that at
birth are reduced to about 450.
 Adult human is made up of 206 bones.
determination
of age
time of appearance of center of ossification
process of union of the epiphysis with the
diaphysis at the metaphysis
Limitations: Hereditary factors Growth and
development Geographical variation Climate
Dietary habits Association with diseases

Ossification of bones
Centers of bones Appearance Fusion
Clavicle - Medial
end
15-19 years 20-22 years

Sternum 5 month IUL 60-70 years
Manubrium Body
 Ist segment)
 IInd segment
 IIIrd segment
 IVth segment
5 month IUL
7 month IUL
7 month IUL
10 month IUL
14-25 years from
below upwards;
3rd and 4th -15
years
2 nd & 3rd -20
years
1 st & 2nd -25
years
Xiphoid process 3 years >40 years with
the body

Humerus (upper end)
 Head
 Greater tubercle
 Lesser tubercle
1 year
3 years
5 years
18 years
4-5 years with head
5-7 years with
greater tubercle
Humerus (Lower end)
 Medial Epicondyle
 Capitulum
 Trochlea
 Lateral Epicondyle
5-6 years
1 year
9-10 years
10-12 years
Capitulum, trochlea
& lateral epicondyle
form conjoint tendon
at 14 years, unites
with shaft at 15
years Medial
epicondyle unites at
16 years

Centers of bones Appearanc
e
Fusion
Scapula
Coracoid base
Acromion
process
10-11 year
14-15 year
14-15 years
17-18 years

Centers of
bones
Appearance Fusion
Radius
Upper end
Lower end
5-6 years
1-2 years
15-16 years
18-19 years
Ulna
Upper end
Lower end
8-9 years
5-6 years
16-17 years
18-19 years

Head of Ist
metacarpal
Head other
metacarpals
2 years
1½ to 2½
years
15-17 years
15-19 years

Hip bone
• Iliac crest
• Ischial tuberosity
• Sacrum
14-15 years
15-16 years
8 months
IUL
18-20
years 20-
22 years
25 years
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

Femur (Upper end)
• Head
• Greater trochanter
• Lesser trochanter
Femur (Lower end)
1 year
4 years
14 years
9 month IUL
17-18 years
17 years
15-17 years
17-18 years

Centers of
bones
Appearance Fusion
Tibia
• Upper end
• Lower end
9 month IUL
1 year
16-17 years
16 years

Type of bone Age of ossification
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Capitate
Hamate
Pisiform
Triquetrum
Lunate
Capitate
4-5 months
4-5 months
2 months
3 months
9-12 years
3 months
4 months
2 months
2 months

Type of bone Age of ossification
Calcaneum
Cuboid
Lateral cuneiform
Medial cuneiform
Intermediate
cuneiform
Navicular
Talus
5 months
10 months
1 year
2 years
3 years
3 years
7 months

 Non dominant hand
 Widely spread of fingers
 Focus at carpal
 Maturation (proximal to
distal) & fusion (distal
side)
 Carpal
 Phalanges
 Radius ulna (terminal
fusion)
 Girls have advance age 1-2
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uxJ11zyhQ1Q

Distal Phalanx (appearance)

ULNA

RADIUS

Maturation score for estimation of skeletal age:
● To minimize the errors of epiphyseal union, Mckern and Stewart in 1957 suggested a
scheme of scoring involving seven combinations of various segments.
● The total score is applied to the prediction equation for more accurate age estimation.
Degree of union Scoring
No union
¼ th union
½ union
¾ th union
Complete union
1
2
3
4
5

1. Crown: covered by enamel
(hydroxyapatite). The shape of the
crown varies depending on the type
of tooth (incisor, canine, premolar, or
molar) and its function.
2. Gumline: Also known as the gingival
line
3. Neck: The neck of the tooth is the
area between the crown and the root
where the tooth narrows. It is also
referred to as the cervical region.
4. Root: Below the gumline, teeth have
one or more roots, which anchor the
tooth to the jawbone. The number of
roots varies with tooth type, with
molars typically having multiple roots
and incisors usually having just one.
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

1. Dentin: Beneath the enamel, a hard tissue
that forms the bulk of the tooth's structure.
2. Pulp: The pulp is the innermost part of the
tooth, located within the crown and root
canals. It contains blood vessels, nerves,
and connective tissues.
3. Cementum: Cementum covers the tooth's
roots and helps anchor it to the jawbone
through the periodontal ligament. It is not as
hard as enamel but is essential for tooth
stability.
4. Periodontal Ligament (PDL): The PDL is a
connective tissue that surrounds the tooth
roots and attaches them to the jawbone. It
also allows for slight mobility of teeth,
which is necessary for functions like
chewing.
5. Alveolar Bone: The alveolar bone is the bony
socket in the jawbone in which each tooth is
embedded..

● Upper and lower second deciduous molars
resemble first permanent molars in the same
quadrant.
● Upper first deciduous molars vaguely
resemble upper premolars.
● Lower first deciduous molars are odd and
unique unto themselves
● Upper molars : 3 roots
● Lower molars : 2 roots

TEMPORARY TEETH PERMENENT TEETH
Small, narrow, light and
delicate
Big, broad, heavy and strong
Crowns china- white in color Crowns ivory – white in color
.Neck more constricted Neck less constricted
Edges serrated Edges are not serrated
Anterior teeth vertical Anterior teeth usually
inclined somewhat forward
Molars are usually larger.
Their crowns are flat, and
their roots are smaller and
more divergen
Premolars which replace the
temporary molars are usually
smaller; their crowns have
cusps which sharply
differentiate them. Their
roots are bigger and
relatively straight.

Growth Pattern
13 to 16 weeks IU : Calcification of primary teeth begins
in utero
18 to 20 weeks IU: primary teeth begin to calcify
Lower deciduous teeth erupt first thus initiating the
deciduous dentition
2 to 2 ½ years of age: deciduous second molars
completes the deciduous dentition
The root of a deciduous tooth is completely formed in
just about one year after eruption
The mixed dentition exists from approx. age 6 -12 years.

TEMPORARY
TEETH
ERUPTION TIME Complete Root
Calcification
Central Incisors
(lower)
6-8 Months 1 ½- 2 Years
Central Incisors
(Upper)
7-9 Months 1 ½ -2 Years
Lateral Incisor
(Upper)
Lateral Incisor
(lower)
First molars 12-14 Months 2 -2½ Years
Canines 17-18 Months 2 -2½ Years
Second Molar 20- 30 Months 3 Years

PERMANENT TEETH ERUPTION TIME Complete Root
Calcification
First molar 6-7 Years 9-10 Years
Central Incisors 6-8 Years 10 Years
Lateral Incisors 8-9 Years 11 Years
First Premolar 9-11 Years 12-13 Years
Second Premolar 10-12 Years 13-14 Years
Canines 11-12 Years 13-14 Years
Second Molar 12-14 Years 14-16 Years
Third Molar 17-21 Years 18-25 Years

Human dentition and age estimation
(1) the difference between the two
sets of teeth
(2) the time of their eruption
3) the period when their root
calcification is complete ( x-ray
examination)
4) Teeth Type : (1) temporary,
deciduous or milk teeth and (2)
permanent teet
For age estimation from
teeth, it is necessary to
know

Age estimation from dentition can be categories into three
prenatal,
neonatal and
postnatal periods
Estimation of age
in children and
adolescents
Age estimation in
adults

Age estimation during prenatal, neonatal and postnatal periods
Development Timeframe
primary tooth germ begins to form seventh week of the
intrauterine life (IU)
germ formation for the first molar begin 4 months IU
development of enamel of all temporary
teeth complete
first year

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4xdAFJBabhY

Neonatal lines
The trauma of childbirth induces
metabolic stress on the tooth-
forming cells. This cellular
disruption results in a thin band of
altered enamel and dentin called
the neonatal line.
neonatal could take up to three
weeks after birth to fully appear.
Therefore the absence of the
neonatal line does not indicate that
the child was ‘stillborn’. However,
the presence of neonatal line
positively indicates a live birth

Forensic experts need to estimate the age
from skeletal remains.
In such cases, radiography and histological
study is not effective.
Alternatively, measuring the weight of the
mineralized tooth cusps could help.
At six months of IU life a teeth weighs about
60 mg,
0.5 g in a new born baby
1.8 g at six months after the birth

Methods of age estimation
Dental age estimation in Children and adolescent
 Atlas method (radiographic method)
 Schour and Massler
 Demirjan method
Dental age estimation in Adults
 Gustafson’s method (Morphological techniques)
 Radiographic method
 Other methods : Visual method and Amino acid
racemization

Dental age estimation in Children and adolescent
(a) Atlas approach

Schour and Massler method
Schour and Massler in 1941 introduced a
chart explaining the development and
eruption of human dentition.
They studied the development of deciduous
and permanent teeth in seven stages, i.e.,
prenatal (4.5–5 months utero), neonatal (at
birth), infancy (birth to 6 months), childhood
(2–6 years), early grade school (6–10
years), prepubertal period (10–12 years),
and adulthood (12–21 years) using
histological and radiographical method.

key aspects of the Schour and Massler method:
Developmental
Stages of Teeth
Radiographic
Evaluation
Staging Criteria
(degree of root
formation, crown
development, and
eruption status)
Age Estimation
(assessing the
stages of tooth
development and
comparing them
to the established
criteria)
Limitations:
 variations in tooth development
among individuals and
populations
 as potential differences in
radiographic interpretations

Demirjian method
It was developed by Mustafa Demirjian and colleagues and was first
introduced in 1973. This method involves evaluating the development of
seven left mandibular permanent teeth to estimate a person's dental age.
Selection of Teeth: mandibular left central incisor, lateral
incisor, canine, first and second premolars, and first and
second molars.
Developmental Stages: Each tooth is categorized into
eight developmental stages (A to H) based on panoramic
radiographs.
Assessment Criteria: formation and calcification of the
tooth crown and root.

Lewis, J. M., & Senn, D. R.
(2010). Dental age estimation
utilizing third molar
development: A review of
principles, methods, and
population studies used in the
United States. Forensic science
international, 201(1-3), 79-83.

(a)Gustafson method
Gustafson (1950) studied the changes
occurring in individual teeth The following 6
dental changes were studied for age
estimation.
(i) Attrition: The occlusal aspect of the
tooth is worn out gradually with age. enamel
is worn out first ,then dentin and lastly the
pulp is exposed
(ii)Periodontosis: recession occurs in the
gums and the surrounding periodontal
tissues with advancing age.
(iii)Secondary dentin: The secondary
dentin develops within the walls of the pulp
cavity and decreases the size of the pulp
cavity which could be due to ageing

(iv)Cementum apposition: The age
can be calculated by counting the
incremental lines of the cementum (
formed due to the deposition of
secondary cementum)
(v) Root resorption: It usually occurs
late in the age the cementum and
dentin show characteristically sharp
grooves.
(vi)Transparency of the root: With
age the dentinal tubules are filled
with minerals and turn opaque. This is
the most reliable criteria of the all

The grade value of each of the age change is then added which gives a total
score (Y).
The error of estimation in this method was ±3.6 years as calculated by
Gustafson (1947).
An + Pn + Sn + Cn + Rn + Tn = total score (Y) (n = score of individual
criteria)
An increase in total score (Y) corresponded linearly with increase in age.
Age was estimated using the following equation:
Age = 11.43 + 4.56 × Y (total score)

(b) Amino Acid Racemization
dates of biological materials such as
bone, shell and teeth
At present, based on accuracy,
simplicity, and the time required, teeth
are the best organ for the estimating
age.
This method is exclusively used in the
age estimation of unidentified corpses.
The level of proteins are high in dentine
than enamel hence dentin is preferred
over enamel for age estimation. The
procedure is as follows:

Sample handling
(Fixatives such as
ethanol, formalin and
formaldehyde )
Bleach treatment
(sodium hypochlorite )
Washing solution
(acetone followed by 0.2
N HCl)
Pulverization (Proteins
are extracted by EDTA)
Demineralization (by
mineral acid (HCl or
EDTA) to isolate a
fraction of the total
dentine protein)
Hydrolysis (100-110°C
from 6-20 hrs)
High pressure gas
chromatography (HPGC)
and gas chromatography
(GC)

Where: D & l are integrated peak areas of the respective enantiomer
a: rate constant of racemization of asp in dentin
b: y-intercept

Racial Characteristics of the Skull
Trait Mongoloid Caucasoid Negroid
Skull Length Long Short Long
Skull Breadth Broad Broad Narrow
Skull Height Middle High Low
Sagittal Contour Arched Arched Flat
Face Breadth Very wide Wide Narrow
Face Height High High Low
Orbital Opening Rounded Rounded Rectangular

Racial Characteristics of the Skull
Trait Mongoloid Caucasoid Negroid
Nasal Opening Narrow Moderately Wide Wide
Nasal Bones Wide Flat Narrow
Arched
Narrow
Lower Nasal Margin Sharp Sharp Troughed
Facial Profile Straight Straight Downward
slant
Palate Shape Broad U-shaped V-shaped U-shaped
Shovel-shaped
incisors
90% Less than 5 % Less than 5%

Trauma Analysis
(1) the timing of the trauma
(i.e., antemortem, postmortem
or perimortem)
(2) the mechanism that produced
the trauma (i.e., projectile,
blunt, sharp, thermal).

Antemortem Trauma
pseudarthrosis
Trauma-
induced
degenerative
joint disease
Infectious
response
healing or
healed
fractures
Surgically
implanted
devices
Dental
fractures
with worn
edges
Age, sex, nutritional
status, pathology, time
since injury, type of
injury,site of injury,
reinjury

Black, S. M. (2015). Anthropology: Bone Pathology and
Antemortem Trauma. Encyclopedia of Forensic and Legal
Medicine, 169–176. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800034-2.00023-9

Cunha, E., & Pinheiro, J. (2013). Bone Pathology and Antemortem Trauma.
Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, 76–82. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-
382165-2.00014-3

Perimortem
Trauma
lack of
osteological
activity
presence of fresh
bone fracture
characteristics
absence of dry
bone fracture
characteristics

lack of healing
Pattern of
damage
the break
lacking evidence
of a plastic
component
Lack of healing
Postmortem
Damage
terms such as “damage” or “breakage” are
preferred when describing postmortem
incidents; the term “fracture” should be
reserved for viable bon

High-Velocity Projectile
Trauma
Blunt Force Trauma
Sharp Force Trauma
Thermal Trauma
Trauma Mechanism

The presence of a projectile in association
with the bone
Projectile entrance and/or exit wound
characteristics
presence of residue, wipe or remnants
of the projectile
Fracture pattern indicating a high velocity
impact
Beveling of concentric fractures in bones of
the cranial vault that indicate an internal to
external force
High-velocity projectile
trauma is produced by
impact from a projectile
(typically gunshot or
explosive-related) traveling
at a high rate of speed.

Quatrehomme, G., & Alunni, V. (2013). Bone Trauma.
Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, 89–
96. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-382165-2.00016-7
Black, S. M. (2015). Anthropology: Bone Pathology and
Antemortem Trauma. Encyclopedia of Forensic and Legal
Medicine, 169–176. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800034-2.00023-9

Plastic deformation
Delamination
Fracture pattern indicating a low-velocity
impact
Tool marks or tool impressions indicating an
impact site
Beveling of concentric fractures in the cranial
vault that indicate an external to internal force
Blunt force trauma is
produced by low-velocity
impact from a blunt
object (e.g., being struck
by an object or concussive
wave) or the low-velocity
impact of a body with a
blunt surface (e.g., motor
vehicle accident or fall).

Plastic deformation
Delamination
Quatrehomme, G., & Alunni, V. (2013). Bone Trauma. Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, 89–96. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-382165-2.00016-7

a low-velocity impact fracture

Straight-line incised alterations
Punctures or gouges
Chop or hack marks (clefts)
Kerfs (a slit or notch)
Sharp force trauma is
produced by a tool that is
edged, pointed or beveled.
Features indicating sharp
force trauma include:

Quatrehomme, G., & Alunni, V. (2013). Bone Trauma.
Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, 89–
96. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-382165-2.00016-7

Color changes (e.g., yellow, black,
white)
Delamination
Shrinkage
Charring or calcination
Thermal fractures
Thermal trauma is produced
by exposure to high
temperature or direct
contact with flame.
Features indicating thermal
trauma include:

Labelled radius shaft
(A) differentially
burned and
fractured due to
fire and labelled
colour changes in a
mid-humerus shaft
fragment
Symes, S. A., Rainwater, C. W., Chapman, E. N., Gipson, D. R., & Piper, A. L.
(2015). Patterned Thermal Destruction in a Forensic Setting. The Analysis of
Burned Human Remains, 17–59. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800451-7.00002-4

Notice the colour
changes from the top
of the skull to the
lower sides of the
skull. Skull base is
unburned.
Notice the
grey
calcined
bone and
the black
charred
bone.
Symes, S. A., Rainwater, C. W., Chapman, E. N., Gipson, D. R., & Piper, A. L. (2015). Patterned Thermal Destruction in
a Forensic Setting. The Analysis of Burned Human Remains, 17–59. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800451-7.00002-4

Posterior view of a distal femur, calcined
from cabin fire. The ‘bulls-eye pattern’
is a reflection of the tissues shrinking.
Symes, S. A., Rainwater, C. W., Chapman, E. N., Gipson, D. R., & Piper, A. L.
(2015). Patterned Thermal Destruction in a Forensic Setting. The Analysis of Burned
Human Remains, 17–59. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800451-7.00002-4

Symes, S. A., Rainwater, C. W., Chapman, E. N., Gipson, D. R., & Piper, A. L. (2015). Patterned Thermal Destruction in
a Forensic Setting. The Analysis of Burned Human Remains, 17–59. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800451-7.00002-4
Tissue shrinkage of the
nuchal muscle lines of a
burned occipital bone on the
back of a skull

As often used in anthropology and
medicine, a pathological condition
represents an abnormal change
in the normal anatomy, often
the result of a disease, as
recognized grossly,
radiographically, or
histologically. Common types of
pathological conditions and lesions
that may be diagnosed include:
Chronic infectious disease (e.g., tuberculosis)
Metabolic disorders (e.g., porotic hyperostosis,
osteoporosis).
Neoplastic diseases (e.g., tumors)
Congenital anomalies (e.g., spina bifida).
Degenerative joint disease (e.g., osteoarthritis).
Trauma (e.g., healed or healing fracture).

Black, S. M.
(2015). Anthropology: Bone
Pathology and Antemortem
Trauma. Encyclopedia of
Forensic and Legal
Medicine, 169–
176. doi:10.1016/b978-0-
12-800034-2.00023-9

Anomalies are recognized skeletal
variants and are usually
congenital or epigenetic in origin.
They may or may not have clinical
significance:
Accessory bones (e.g., wormian bones, Os japonicum).
Bipartite bones (e.g., bipartite patella).
supernumerary ribs (C7 or a lumbar rib arising from
L1)
Prominent features (e.g., everted gonia, bilobed chin,
unusually large or small facial features).
Cranial asymmetry not attributed to cultural
modification (e.g., scaphocephaly).
Dental anomalies (e.g., supernumerary teeth, extra
roots, dental agenesis).
Polydactyly

Accessory bones (e.g.,
wormian bones)

The Incredibly Elongated Head Culture
of the Mangbetu People

measuring all bones constituting the components of
stature, summing those measurements and correcting
for the missing soft tissue
employing a regression formula with the
measurement of a complete bone.
employing incomplete limb bones, non-limb bones
and alternative statistical methods
Alternate statistical approaches (e.g., maximum
likelihood estimation) exist to estimate stature.

Method Do’s
Anatomical
Method
(Complete Skeleton
Method)
 skeletal elements constituting
stature minimally damaged.
 ancestry and sex of the
individual cannot be estimated
 anomalous number of
vertebrae
 individual’s limb bones appear
to be atypical in length.

 Bones typically measured in these methods are the
 height of the skull
 the heights of each of the vertebrae (a missing vertebra estimate the height by
averaging the heights of the vertebra immediately above and below)
 the lengths of the femur and tibia
 and the height of the ankle

Christensen, A. M., Passalacqua, N. V., & Bartelink, E. J. (2019). Stature estimation and other skeletal
metrics. Forensic Anthropology, 351–368. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815734-3.00011-7

Method Do’s
Complete Limb
Bones
(Mathematical
Method or
Regression
Approach)
 limb bone length or bone lengths
 selecting the most appropriate
regression formula by sex and
ancestry, inserting the
measurement into the formula, and
calculating the estimated stature
 limb bone measurements are
usually maximum lengths
 he formula with the smallest
prediction interval should be the
most accurate and precise, and
should be employed in the
stature estimation

Method Do’s
Fragmentary Limb
Bones
 Some of these methods require
estimating bone length and then
estimating stature based on the
estimated bone length, thus
compounding the error present in the
estimation.
 fragmentary remains estimate stature
directly from the fragment, without
requiring the second step of the
previous method.

Method Do’s
Non-Limb Bones  Non-limb bones (e.g., skulls,
innominates, and bones of the
hands or feet) may also be
used to estimate stature

https://fac.utk.edu/fordisc-3-1-personal-computer-forensic-discriminant-functions/

Imaging modalities known to capture osseous
tissue include transmissive and reflective imaging
modalities
Reflective imaging modalities require remains to
be macerated for osseous tissue to be detected.
Eg. surface scanning and photogrammetry
Transmissive imaging modalities depict osseous
tissue while soft tissue is still attached eg.
sonography, Computed Tomography (CT),
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), X-rays and
low-dose X-ray
Reflective imaging modalities, unlike transmissive
imaging modalities, are not often used in medico-
legal procedures . This is mainly due to the fact
that the actual skeletal remains are present and
available for physical examination

Reflective Imaging Modalities
Methods Strength Limitations
Surface Scanning Three-dimensional (3D)
surface scanners make use of
lasers or structured light
patterns to capture the
morphometry, geometry, and
color of the surfaces of an
object
can capture both the texture
and color of bones (surface
modifications, taphonomy,
trauma identification record
fractures and ballistic trauma)
 only document the visible
parts of the bone and
making it difficult for
grooves and crevices
 Data collection disrupted
by external light and
require a controlled
environment
 Furthermore, surface
scanning requires high
computational power to
process the scanned data
while data processing is
also difficult and advanced
training is required

Reflective Imaging Modalities
Photogrammetry  use of a digital camera to
document the size, shape,
position, and orientation
of objects by taking
multiple overlapping images
of an object, at different
angles, from which a 3D
model is produced
 Useful for bone trauma
(size, shape, and angle of
the injury), morphological
assessments
 forensic facial
reconstruction
 sensitive to the presence
of hair which may cause
artifacts in the
reconstructed image
 Details may also be lost
when thin bones, thin
sharp fracture margins,
shiny, wet, dark, and
translucent concavities are
present on the bone
 The alignment, fusion, and
scaling of the images are
done manually and as such
the resultant image is
subjective, which can
introduce error

Transmissive Imaging Modalities
Sonography  uses ultrasound waves
that pass through an
object of interest and
subsequently produce an
image in two-dimensions
 inexpensive, easy to use
 estimation of age in the
living
Due to its limited penetration
power, especially where bone
is located deep to the soft
tissue

Computed Tomography (CT)  utilizes collimated X-ray
beams that pass through
an object which is
detected using a circular
array of photomultiplier
tubes.
 osteological
measurements collected
from CT scans are similar
to dry bone specimens
 sex estimation (sacrum,
scapula sternum , cranium
[and lower limb bones)
 The estimation of age-at-
death and stature
estimation
 in situ trauma analysis
 affected by metal
artifacts such as
projectiles
 collecting and analyzing CT
scans require extensive
and specific training

Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI)
 This imaging modality
relies on the nuclear
magnetic resonance
(NMR) of excited protons
in association with a
strong magnetic field and
magnetic field gradients
to produce images of
both soft tissue and
bone
 biological profile ( Stature
estimation, age
estimation, craniometric
measurements)
 not the preferred imaging
modality to visualize bone,
as it records skeletal
elements based on the
NMR of excited protons
found mainly in soft tissue
 does not provide
sufficient bone detail, it
is expensive
 has a long acquisition time

X-Rays  X-rays involve the
emission of
electromagnetic radiation
by an X-ray beam, with
the remaining un-
absorbed particles
passing through a
radiation-sensitive film
to produce an image
 locate projectiles and
other foreign objects
lodged within the body
and to identify bone
fractures.
 multiple scans are
required to obtain a full-
body image, which makes it
time-consuming and
labor-intensive
 Moreover, X-ray does
not produce images that
represent the true
dimensions of bone and
structures, as the images
are often magnified and or
distorted

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

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