2. Trauma Analysis
(1) the timing of the trauma
(i.e., antemortem, postmortem
or perimortem)
(2) the mechanism that produced
the trauma (i.e., projectile,
blunt, sharp, thermal).
5. Black, S. M. (2015). Anthropology: Bone Pathology and
Antemortem Trauma. Encyclopedia of Forensic and Legal
Medicine, 169–176. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800034-2.00023-9
6. Cunha, E., & Pinheiro, J. (2013). Bone Pathology and Antemortem Trauma.
Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, 76–82. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-
382165-2.00014-3
8. lack of healing
Pattern of
damage
the break
lacking evidence
of a plastic
component
Lack of healing
Postmortem
Damage
terms such as “damage” or “breakage” are
preferred when describing postmortem
incidents; the term “fracture” should be
reserved for viable bon
10. The presence of a projectile in association
with the bone
Projectile entrance and/or exit wound
characteristics
presence of residue, wipe or remnants
of the projectile
Fracture pattern indicating a high velocity
impact
Beveling of concentric fractures in bones of
the cranial vault that indicate an internal to
external force
High-velocity projectile
trauma is produced by
impact from a projectile
(typically gunshot or
explosive-related) traveling
at a high rate of speed.
11.
12. Quatrehomme, G., & Alunni, V. (2013). Bone Trauma.
Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, 89–
96. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-382165-2.00016-7
Black, S. M. (2015). Anthropology: Bone Pathology and
Antemortem Trauma. Encyclopedia of Forensic and Legal
Medicine, 169–176. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800034-2.00023-9
13. Black, S. M. (2015). Anthropology: Bone Pathology and
Antemortem Trauma. Encyclopedia of Forensic and Legal
Medicine, 169–176. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800034-2.00023-9
14. Plastic deformation
Delamination
Fracture pattern indicating a low-velocity
impact
Tool marks or tool impressions indicating an
impact site
Beveling of concentric fractures in the cranial
vault that indicate an external to internal force
Blunt force trauma is
produced by low-velocity
impact from a blunt
object (e.g., being struck
by an object or concussive
wave) or the low-velocity
impact of a body with a
blunt surface (e.g., motor
vehicle accident or fall).
17. Straight-line incised alterations
Punctures or gouges
Chop or hack marks (clefts)
Kerfs (a slit or notch)
Sharp force trauma is
produced by a tool that is
edged, pointed or beveled.
Features indicating sharp
force trauma include:
18. Quatrehomme, G., & Alunni, V. (2013). Bone Trauma.
Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, 89–
96. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-382165-2.00016-7
Black, S. M. (2015). Anthropology: Bone Pathology and
Antemortem Trauma. Encyclopedia of Forensic and Legal
Medicine, 169–176. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800034-2.00023-9
19. Quatrehomme, G., & Alunni, V. (2013). Bone Trauma.
Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, 89–
96. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-382165-2.00016-7
20.
21. Color changes (e.g., yellow, black,
white)
Delamination
Shrinkage
Charring or calcination
Thermal fractures
Thermal trauma is produced
by exposure to high
temperature or direct
contact with flame.
Features indicating thermal
trauma include:
22. Labelled radius shaft
(A) differentially
burned and
fractured due to
fire and labelled
colour changes in a
mid-humerus shaft
fragment
Symes, S. A., Rainwater, C. W., Chapman, E. N., Gipson, D. R., & Piper, A. L.
(2015). Patterned Thermal Destruction in a Forensic Setting. The Analysis of
Burned Human Remains, 17–59. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800451-7.00002-4
23. Notice the colour
changes from the top
of the skull to the
lower sides of the
skull. Skull base is
unburned.
Notice the
grey
calcined
bone and
the black
charred
bone.
Symes, S. A., Rainwater, C. W., Chapman, E. N., Gipson, D. R., & Piper, A. L. (2015). Patterned Thermal Destruction in
a Forensic Setting. The Analysis of Burned Human Remains, 17–59. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800451-7.00002-4
24. Posterior view of a distal femur, calcined
from cabin fire. The ‘bulls-eye pattern’
is a reflection of the tissues shrinking.
Symes, S. A., Rainwater, C. W., Chapman, E. N., Gipson, D. R., & Piper, A. L.
(2015). Patterned Thermal Destruction in a Forensic Setting. The Analysis of Burned
Human Remains, 17–59. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800451-7.00002-4
25. Symes, S. A., Rainwater, C. W., Chapman, E. N., Gipson, D. R., & Piper, A. L. (2015). Patterned Thermal Destruction in
a Forensic Setting. The Analysis of Burned Human Remains, 17–59. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800451-7.00002-4
Tissue shrinkage of the
nuchal muscle lines of a
burned occipital bone on the
back of a skull
26.
27. As often used in anthropology and
medicine, a pathological condition
represents an abnormal change
in the normal anatomy, often
the result of a disease, as
recognized grossly,
radiographically, or
histologically. Common types of
pathological conditions and lesions
that may be diagnosed include:
Chronic infectious disease (e.g., tuberculosis)
Metabolic disorders (e.g., porotic hyperostosis,
osteoporosis).
Neoplastic diseases (e.g., tumors)
Congenital anomalies (e.g., spina bifida).
Degenerative joint disease (e.g., osteoarthritis).
Trauma (e.g., healed or healing fracture).
28. Black, S. M.
(2015). Anthropology: Bone
Pathology and Antemortem
Trauma. Encyclopedia of
Forensic and Legal
Medicine, 169–
176. doi:10.1016/b978-0-
12-800034-2.00023-9
29.
30. Anomalies are recognized skeletal
variants and are usually
congenital or epigenetic in origin.
They may or may not have clinical
significance:
Accessory bones (e.g., wormian bones, Os japonicum).
Bipartite bones (e.g., bipartite patella).
supernumerary ribs (C7 or a lumbar rib arising from
L1)
Prominent features (e.g., everted gonia, bilobed chin,
unusually large or small facial features).
Cranial asymmetry not attributed to cultural
modification (e.g., scaphocephaly).
Dental anomalies (e.g., supernumerary teeth, extra
roots, dental agenesis).
Polydactyly
33. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA
Editor's Notes
Fracture type (e.g., simple, spiral) and the degree of healing to the fractured edges/margins The age of (time since) the trauma, which may affect the ability to identify the mechanism of trauma Biological factors such as age, sex, pathology and nutrition, which may affect healing rate Whether the trauma may present evidence for identification and cause and/or manner of death Whether re-injury may have occurred, interrupting the healing process
Cautious use of the term perimortem, since it is used with varied temporal precisions within the forensic community; thus, an explanation of the term should be provided with clear reasons for a perimortem classification The inability to distinguish between antemortem, perimortem and postmortem damage should be clearly stated Classification of trauma as perimortem is strengthened when the mechanism can be identified Other indicators that may establish trauma as perimortem (e.g., hair entrapped in bone with associated blunt trauma injuries, the presence of blood staining
Terminology used to describe the alteration - terms such as “damage” or “breakage” are preferred when describing postmortem incidents; the term “fracture” should be reserved for viable bone Possible confusion with perimortem trauma
