This document contains summaries of chapters 1, 2 and 3 from motivation notes. Chapter 1 discusses the importance of motivation for both individuals and organizations. It defines motivation and the key elements and types of human behavior. Chapter 2 covers fundamental concepts in motivation including dualism and various determinants of behavior such as knowledge, will, hedonism and instinct. It also discusses the evolutionary theory. Chapter 3 focuses on Darwin's theory of evolution, which proposed that species evolve and adapt through natural selection and the transmission of survivors' characteristics to offspring, leading to modifications within a species.

1. Motivation Notes
Chapter 1, 2, and 3
Created by Badar-e-Alam
10/13/2012
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2. Motivation Notes
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Chapter: 1
MOTIVATION: Motivation is an internal process that activates guides and maintains goal-
oriented behavior.
IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION:
For Individuals
1. Motivation is central to individuals’ work life and creates goal-oriented energy.
2. Motivation supports career development.
3. Employee productivity depends on ability and motivation.
4. Improving ability requires learning which in turn depends on motivation
IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION:
For Organizations:
 Motivation improves employee performance thereby enhancing organizational
productivity.
 Authority and financial rewards alone are not enough for enhancing motivation.
 Creating internal motives is one of the strongest approaches to enhancing productivity.
 “Performance-leading-to-rewards” is a powerful approach for employee motivation.
ELEMENTS OF MOTIVATION:
 Aroused Need which is a state of deprivation.
 Motive which is the inner drive that activates and guides behavior.
 Goal is the incentive or gratification.
TYPES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR:
 Physiological Reflexes: automatic response to external stimuli
 Frustrated Behavior: arises when actions or results are interrupted
 Motivated Behavior: goal-oriented behavior guided by a drive or motive
CLASSIFICATION OF INCENTIVES:
 Substantive: financial, job security, working conditions etc.
 Interactive: social, work group, leadership, supervision, structural factors etc
 Effectance: Job content, growth, opportunity, responsibility etc.
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PROCESS OF MOTIVATION:
 INPUTS: a. Needs (Internal Stimuli)
b. Incentives (External Stimuli)
c. Perception (E-P, P-I, I-N)
E-P: Expectancy of Performance (Task Performance)
P-I: Performance-incentive relationship (Instrumentality)
I-N: Perceived value of incentives (Valence)
 MOTIVATION: Behavioral process
 OUTPUTS: Productivity, Performance, Reward, Satisfaction.
EXTRINSIC AND INTRINSIC MOTIVATION:
 Extrinsic Motivation is caused by external stimuli
 Intrinsic Motivation is the result of an individual’s inner urge or internal stimuli
Chapter: 2
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN MOTIVATION:
 Dualism
 Determinants of Conduct:
a. Knowledge
b. Will and Free Will
c. Hedonism
d. Instinct
e. Active Unconscious Factors
 Theory of Evolution
DUALISM
The First Dimension (Russell):
Primitive man was aware of two distinctions:
a. Humans and animals had self- induced motion, while inanimate objects did
not.
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b. Humans were better than animals in terms of the use of tools, foresight and
rudimentary moral values
The Second Dimension (Murphy):
 Dreams form a foundation for self- concept.
 In a dream, humans have motion and activity, while the body is immobile.
 Leads to the concept of soul and body being different (difference between animate and
inanimate bodies).
 Soul is not dependent on body.
The Third Dimension (Plato):
 Human beings have perceptions about things around them that are imperfect impression
of reality, resulting in two different “worlds”:
a. Ultimate reality b. Perceptions
 Perceptions lead to reasoning and ideas so that, again, there are two notions:
a. Ideas based on Reasoning
b. Perceptions of Material Objects
The Fourth Dimension (Aristotle):
 Doctrine of universal distinction of the form from the soul for all living things.
 All living things have two entities:
a. Body (which is in material form, and is mortal)
b. Soul and Mind (which is non-material, has no form and is immortal)
DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR
 Determinants of Behavior:
1. Knowledge
2. Will and Free Will
3. Hedonism
4. Instinct
5. Active Unconscious Factors
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KNOWLEDGE:
Socrates: Knowledge equals virtue, right knowing leads to right actions.
 Plato: “Ultimate Good” can be achieved by virtue of balancing the wisdom, will power
and self-control.
 Aristotle: The highest goal of human life is happiness, that can be achieved through a
balance between virtue and reason.
WILL AND FREE WILL:
 Will is the strength to believe in an act.
 Free Will is the will to choose freely without any pressure.
 Aristotle: Reason+ Will+ Free Will = Balanced Action
 Will and Instinct compete to rule the body.
 Will compels a course of action based on feelings of duty and a sense of ethical and moral
law.
 Will controls passion and instinctive behavior.
 Will generates intellect, consciousness and knowledge.
 Will is used to practice meditation or nirvana to detach from life (evil).
HEDONISM:
Hedonism means the act of seeking pleasure and avoiding pain.
 Pleasure and pain are determinants of behavior.
 Seeking pleasure is the purpose of life and it leads to the good. Virtue is the ability to
enjoy.
 Cyrenaic Conception: The perfect man creates a balance between animal satisfaction,
spiritual joy, riches and honor.
 Life is a continuous struggle of seeking pleasure and avoiding pain.
 Troland (1928): Identified three Hedonisms:
a. Pleasure of the present
b. Pleasure of the future (religion)
c. Pleasure of the past.
 Hedonism is a major foundation of the Modern Theory of Motivation.
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INSTINCT:
Instinct is a natural impulse triggering a specific behavior.
 Instinct is inherited through genes.
 Instinct almost entirely controls animal behavior.
 Instinct plays a partial role in determining human behavior.
 Instincts have survival value and have evolved over long periods of time.
 There are a variety of instincts in the mind.
ACTIVE UNCONSCIOUS FACTORS:
 Ideas compete for space in the conscious, failing which these become unconscious and
continue to influence behavior.
 Most humans are not rational. They construct reasons in the conscious to justify
unconscious factors leading to actions.
 Hypnotism and Psychoneurosis: are based on the concept that unconscious factors
determine behavior.
 Hypnotism: Hypnotist’s control of subject’s body through rational reasons so that the
subject gives up will in favor of the hypnotist.
EVOLUTIONARTY THEORY:
 Charles Darwin (1859): All life forms compete for survival and continuation of their
species; those that adapt to the changing environment survive; while others become
extinct. Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection was supported by massive scientific data.
 Empedocles (500-430 BC): Life emerged form inert mater and evolved by adapting to the
environment.
 Charles Lyell (1797-1857): Earth must have existed for a long period of time for
evolutionary process to take place.
 Alfred Russell Wallace (contemporary of Darwin): Postulated evolution through
adaptation of species to the encironment, without support of any data.
 Outcomes of Evolutionary Theory:
1. There is continuity in development from lowest life forms to the highest.
2. Survival requires adaptation to the prevailing environment.
3. Above factors trigger motivation that leads to animal and human behavior.
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Chapter #3
DARWINIAN THEORY OF EVOLUTION
“In competition among and within species for the earth’s limited resources, in a given
environment, there will be modifications in a species based on the transmission of
characteristics of survivors to their offspring, and extinction of characteristics of non-
survivors. Species that are best able to adapt to the changing environment are able to
survive and evolve.”
The two factors affecting process of evolution are:
a. Genetic Variation
Genes carry information that determines the characteristics of a species as well as
the growth and decline of its members. Occasionally, some genes get mutated (changed)
so there is variation in the characteristics of the offspring.
Such variation happens rarely but regularly in every new generation of a species.
b. Selection Pressure (Environment Pressure)
Changes in environment are favorable for some characteristics of a species while
unfavorable for others. Favorable characteristics survive and are passed on to future
generations. Unfavorable characteristics become extinct.
Thus over several generations, a species may change significantly. This is evolution
and was termed by Darwin as natural selection.
Implications of Darwin’s Theory
a. Adaptation to environment is critical for survival.
b. Through mutations, there are changes in physical, physiological and behavioral
characteristics of species; such that some changes promote survival while others
defeat survival.
c. Various animal species are not entirely separate but there is continuity among
species.
d. Continuity in species means if we go back several generations in time, we will
come across a common ancestor of two or more apparently different species.
e. This concept of continuity and evolution leads to a common ancestor of all life species and
to a common origin of life.
f. Humans are not totally separate from animals; there is continuity between humans and
animal species, leading to a common ancestor several million years ago.
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g. Since evolutionary process is very slow, the origin of life must be hundreds of millions of
years ago; thus, the life of earth must be in billions of years, and not just a few thousand
years.
IMMEDIATE IMPACT OF DARWIN’S THEORY
In the late nineteenth century, Darwin’s Theory caused an intellectual revolution with
major consequences in the following disciplines:
 Biological sciences
 Social sciences
 Humanities and Theology
 Philosophy
 Psychology
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
 Darwin’s Theory led to the development of comparative psychology emphasizing
continuity between humans & animals.
 Prior to Darwin’s Theory, it was believed that:
- Humans have minds - Animals have instincts
 Darwin’s Theory led to the following dimensions in Comparative Psychology:
1. Study of animal behavior involving human characteristics (reason, intelligence)
2. Study of human behavior involving animal characteristics (instinct, irrational
behavior)
3. Comparative study of emotions in humans and animals. (Darwin established this
discipline, 1872)
4. Theories of instinct evolved in the field of psychology.
 Thus, Evolution led to developments that became central to the study of
Motivation.
A. Animals Having Minds
 Research showed that animals have human characteristics (e.g. Learning)
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 Law of Effect (Thorndike): The effect of an animal’s actions determines what the
animal will learn to do. If a behavior is rewarded it will be reinforced, while
behavior leading to punishment will be weakened.
 Thus, animals show learning (human trait).
B. Humans Having Instincts
 Research showed (William James) that humans depicted behavior that was
unlearnt and innate (inherited).
 James proved that instinctive behavior was close in nature to reflex action and
that humans had a lareg variety of instincts.
 These conclusions explained certain negative behaviors of humans
(destructiveness, cruelty, etc.)
 This aspect has serious consequences for the study of human behavior and
motivation.
INSTINCT
 Instinct is a natural tendency that triggers a specific kind of behavior.
 Instincts are always innate (inherited).
 Instinctive behavior is unlearnt.
 There are a very large number of instincts that humans inherit from their parents.
 Instincts play a strong role in survival.
 The effect of many instincts is subdued due to social development and learning.
VITALISM
 Definition: Vitalism implies that the life in living organisms is caused and sustained
by a vital force distinct from physical and chemical forces and that life is self-
determining and self-evolving.
 Vitalism as an inherent force determines the growth, propogation and decline of
the organism.
 Vitalism refers to the existence of a force or entity beyond physical or material
properties that governs the life of organisms.
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 Islamic Definition: Life in all organisms (including humans and animals) is
dependent on the existence of a non-physical entity (spirit or soul) and a divine will
(that of Allah).
 Modern Concept : Life in organisms and their development, growth and decline is
controlled by a non-physical determinant (highly sophisticated information)
present in the organism’s genes (DNA).
TELEOLOGY
 Definition: Teleology means that all behaviors have a purpose and that the
knowledge of this purpose determines course of actions and behavior. Teleology
implies that there is an overall design or purpose in nature and all developments
lead to it.
 Islamic Concept: Allah has created this universe with an overall design and
purpose.
 Psychology uses Teleology to explain role of instinct and its consequences for
motivation.
 Darwin’s Theory is an embodiment of teleology.
 Concepts of Evolution and Teleology propose the strong role of instincts in
determining behavior.
McDougall’s Theory of Instincts and Teleology
Premises of McDougall’s Theory:
1. Instincts and their associated emotions are the prime movers of conduct.
2. Instincts are inherited or innate psychophysical dispositions that determine man’s
perception of certain objects or ideas, cause an emotional excitement, and trigger a
certain action, or at least generate an impulse for such action.
3. All behaviors have purpose, direction and striving.
4. Instincts are not just a combination of reflexes but are innate action tendencies with
specific goals.
McDougall gave a list of ten instincts of which seven had their corresponding associated
emotions.
Many common emotional experiences (pleasure, pain,) are a combination of these
primary emotions.
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Instincts
1. Flight
2. Repulsion
3. Curiosity
4. Pugnacity
5. Self-abasement
6. Self-assertion
7. Reproduction
8. Gregariousness
9. Acquisition
10. Construction
Associated Emotions
1. Fear
2. Disgust
3. Wonder
4. Anger
5. Subjection(-ve self-feeling)
6. Elation (+ve self-feeling)
7. Tender emotion
8. -
9. -
10. -
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Further Implications of McDougall’s Theory
 Sentiments: Sentiments are clusters of several instincts and associated
emotions around specific objects, persons, ideas or events.
 Control of Instincts: The control of instinct is accomplished through
sentiments, such as self-regard.
Sentiments about values and beliefs of culture or religion prevent negative
behaviors.
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