The document discusses probability distributions and their natural parameters. It provides examples of several common distributions including the Bernoulli, multinomial, Gaussian, and gamma distributions. For each distribution, it derives the natural parameter representation and shows how to write the distribution in the form p(x|η) = h(x)g(η)exp{η^T μ(x)}. Maximum likelihood estimation for these distributions is also briefly discussed.
Martin Roth: A spatial peaks-over-threshold model in a nonstationary climateJiří Šmída
1. The document proposes a spatial peaks-over-threshold model for estimating quantiles and trends in daily precipitation in a nonstationary climate.
2. It uses a generalized Pareto distribution fitted to precipitation extremes above a threshold to model peaks over threshold, with the threshold and distribution parameters allowed to vary over time in a nonstationary manner.
3. Spatial dependence is incorporated through an index flood approach where distribution parameters are constant across sites after scaling by a site-specific index flood value.
Ian.petrow【transcendental number theory】.Tong Leung
This document provides an introduction and overview of the course "Math 249A Fall 2010: Transcendental Number Theory" taught by Kannan Soundararajan. It discusses topics that will be covered, including proving that specific numbers like e, π, and combinations of them are transcendental. Theorems are presented on approximating algebraic numbers and showing linear independence of exponential functions of algebraic numbers. Examples are given of using an integral technique to derive contradictions and prove transcendence.
This document discusses key concepts in probability theory, including:
1) Markov's inequality and Chebyshev's inequality, which relate the probability that a random variable exceeds a value to its expected value and variance.
2) The weak law of large numbers and central limit theorem, which describe how the means of independent random variables converge to the expected value and follow a normal distribution as the number of variables increases.
3) Stochastic processes, which are collections of random variables indexed by time or another parameter and can model evolving systems. Examples of stochastic processes and their properties are provided.
1. The document discusses maximum likelihood estimation and Bayesian parameter estimation for machine learning problems involving parametric densities like the Gaussian.
2. Maximum likelihood estimation finds the parameter values that maximize the probability of obtaining the observed training data. For Gaussian distributions with unknown mean and variance, MLE returns the sample mean and variance.
3. Bayesian parameter estimation treats the parameters as random variables and uses prior distributions and observed data to obtain posterior distributions over the parameters. This allows incorporation of prior knowledge with the training data.
The document presents the cooperative-Lasso, a regularization method for variable selection in regression that assumes sign-coherent group structure. It begins by introducing generalized linear models and the group Lasso estimator. It then notes two limitations of the group Lasso: it does not allow for single zeros within groups, and it does not enforce sign coherence within groups. The cooperative-Lasso is introduced as a penalty that assumes groups will have either all non-positive, non-negative, or null parameters. Examples of applications that could benefit from sign coherence between variables within groups are given.
The document discusses probabilistic reasoning in intelligent systems using Bayesian networks. It covers the following topics:
1. Updating beliefs in a network by propagating probabilities between connected nodes using conditional probability tables.
2. Computing the posterior probability at a node given evidence elsewhere in the network by multiplying the prior at the node by the likelihood of the evidence.
3. Updating beliefs in chains, trees, and polytrees by propagating probabilities along the edges of the graph structure.
The document discusses key concepts in hypothesis testing including:
1) A telescope manufacturer wants to test if a new telescope's standard deviation in resolution is below 2 when focusing on objects 500 light-years away based on a sample of 30 measurements with a standard deviation of 1.46.
2) Hypothesis testing involves a null hypothesis (H0) and alternative hypothesis (H1), and the two types of possible errors - Type I and Type II.
3) The probabilities of Type I and Type II errors depend on the critical region used to determine whether to reject the null hypothesis.
The document discusses probability distributions and their natural parameters. It provides examples of several common distributions including the Bernoulli, multinomial, Gaussian, and gamma distributions. For each distribution, it derives the natural parameter representation and shows how to write the distribution in the form p(x|η) = h(x)g(η)exp{η^T μ(x)}. Maximum likelihood estimation for these distributions is also briefly discussed.
Martin Roth: A spatial peaks-over-threshold model in a nonstationary climateJiří Šmída
1. The document proposes a spatial peaks-over-threshold model for estimating quantiles and trends in daily precipitation in a nonstationary climate.
2. It uses a generalized Pareto distribution fitted to precipitation extremes above a threshold to model peaks over threshold, with the threshold and distribution parameters allowed to vary over time in a nonstationary manner.
3. Spatial dependence is incorporated through an index flood approach where distribution parameters are constant across sites after scaling by a site-specific index flood value.
Ian.petrow【transcendental number theory】.Tong Leung
This document provides an introduction and overview of the course "Math 249A Fall 2010: Transcendental Number Theory" taught by Kannan Soundararajan. It discusses topics that will be covered, including proving that specific numbers like e, π, and combinations of them are transcendental. Theorems are presented on approximating algebraic numbers and showing linear independence of exponential functions of algebraic numbers. Examples are given of using an integral technique to derive contradictions and prove transcendence.
This document discusses key concepts in probability theory, including:
1) Markov's inequality and Chebyshev's inequality, which relate the probability that a random variable exceeds a value to its expected value and variance.
2) The weak law of large numbers and central limit theorem, which describe how the means of independent random variables converge to the expected value and follow a normal distribution as the number of variables increases.
3) Stochastic processes, which are collections of random variables indexed by time or another parameter and can model evolving systems. Examples of stochastic processes and their properties are provided.
1. The document discusses maximum likelihood estimation and Bayesian parameter estimation for machine learning problems involving parametric densities like the Gaussian.
2. Maximum likelihood estimation finds the parameter values that maximize the probability of obtaining the observed training data. For Gaussian distributions with unknown mean and variance, MLE returns the sample mean and variance.
3. Bayesian parameter estimation treats the parameters as random variables and uses prior distributions and observed data to obtain posterior distributions over the parameters. This allows incorporation of prior knowledge with the training data.
The document presents the cooperative-Lasso, a regularization method for variable selection in regression that assumes sign-coherent group structure. It begins by introducing generalized linear models and the group Lasso estimator. It then notes two limitations of the group Lasso: it does not allow for single zeros within groups, and it does not enforce sign coherence within groups. The cooperative-Lasso is introduced as a penalty that assumes groups will have either all non-positive, non-negative, or null parameters. Examples of applications that could benefit from sign coherence between variables within groups are given.
The document discusses probabilistic reasoning in intelligent systems using Bayesian networks. It covers the following topics:
1. Updating beliefs in a network by propagating probabilities between connected nodes using conditional probability tables.
2. Computing the posterior probability at a node given evidence elsewhere in the network by multiplying the prior at the node by the likelihood of the evidence.
3. Updating beliefs in chains, trees, and polytrees by propagating probabilities along the edges of the graph structure.
The document discusses key concepts in hypothesis testing including:
1) A telescope manufacturer wants to test if a new telescope's standard deviation in resolution is below 2 when focusing on objects 500 light-years away based on a sample of 30 measurements with a standard deviation of 1.46.
2) Hypothesis testing involves a null hypothesis (H0) and alternative hypothesis (H1), and the two types of possible errors - Type I and Type II.
3) The probabilities of Type I and Type II errors depend on the critical region used to determine whether to reject the null hypothesis.
The document provides a summary of Semi-Markov Decision Processes (SMDPs) in 10 points:
1. It describes the basic components of an SMDP including states, actions, rewards, policies, and value functions.
2. It discusses the concepts of optimal policies, average reward models, and discount factors in SMDPs.
3. It introduces the idea of transition times in SMDPs, which allows actions to take varying amounts of time. This makes SMDPs a generalization of Markov Decision Processes.
4. It notes that algorithms for solving SMDPs typically involve estimating the average reward per action to find an optimal policy.
This document discusses quantum modes and the correspondence between classical and quantum mechanics. It provides three key principles of quantum mechanics: (1) quantum states are represented by ket vectors, (2) quantum observables are hermitian operators, and (3) the Schrodinger equation governs the causal evolution of quantum systems. It also outlines how classical quantities like position and momentum correspond to quantum operators and how they form Lie algebras through commutation relations. Representations of quantum mechanics are discussed through examples like the energy basis of the harmonic oscillator.
The document provides an overview of probability theory and random variables including:
1) It defines probability as a measure of the chance of obtaining a particular outcome from an event. Common properties of probability such as mutually exclusive events and conditional probability are also covered.
2) Random variables are introduced as rules that assign real numbers to possible outcomes of an experiment. Both discrete and continuous random variables are defined.
3) Key concepts related to random variables are summarized including the cumulative distribution function, probability density function, expected value, variance, and common distributions like the uniform, binomial, and Gaussian distributions.
4) Finally, random processes are defined as sets of random variables indexed by time, with properties like the mean
This document discusses various importance sampling methods for approximating marginal likelihoods, including regular importance sampling, bridge sampling, and harmonic means. It compares these methods on a probit model example using data on diabetes in Pima Indian women. Regular importance sampling uses the MLE distribution as an importance function. Bridge sampling introduces a pseudo-posterior to handle models with different parameter dimensions. Harmonic means directly uses the posterior sample but requires a proposal distribution with lighter tails than the posterior.
次数制限モデルにおける全てのCSPに対する最適な定数時間近似アルゴリズムと近似困難性Yuichi Yoshida
1. The document discusses the maximum constraint satisfaction problem (Max CSP) and how to approximate its optimal value. It presents a basic linear programming (LP) relaxation called BasicLP that provides an (αΛ-ε, ε)-approximation for any CSP Λ, where αΛ is the integrality gap.
2. For some CSPs like Max Cut, BasicLP can be implemented as a packing LP and solved in polynomial time to give an (αΛ+ε, δ)-approximation in √n time, improving on the Ω(n) time needed for general CSPs.
3. The document outlines how to derive the (αΛ+
IJCER (www.ijceronline.com) International Journal of computational Engineerin...ijceronline
This document summarizes several theorems regarding the location of zeros of polynomials:
Theorem 1 generalizes previous results (Theorems C and E) by proving bounds on the location of zeros of polynomials of the form P(z) = a0 + a1z + ... + aμzμ + zn, where 0 ≤ μ ≤ n-1.
Theorem 2 further generalizes Theorem E by providing bounds on the location of zeros of polynomials of the same form as in Theorem 1, under the additional condition that 0 < aj-1 ≤ kaj, where k > 0.
The proofs of Theorems 1 and 2 apply Holder's inequality and results from previous theorems
Scientific Computing with Python Webinar 9/18/2009:Curve FittingEnthought, Inc.
This webinar will provide an overview of the tools that SciPy and NumPy provide for regression analysis including linear and non-linear least-squares and a brief look at handling other error metrics. We will also demonstrate simple GUI tools that can make some problems easier and provide a quick overview of the new Scikits package statsmodels whose API is maturing in a separate package but should be incorporated into SciPy in the future.
Runtime Analysis of Population-based Evolutionary AlgorithmsPK Lehre
Populations are at the heart of evolutionary algorithms (EAs). They provide the genetic variation which selection acts upon. A complete picture of EAs can only be obtained if we understand their population dynamics. A rich theory on runtime analysis (also called time-complexity analysis) of EAs has been developed over the last 20 years. The goal of this theory is to show, via rigorous mathematical means, how the performance of EAs depends on their parameter settings and the characteristics of the underlying fitness landscapes. Initially, runtime analysis of EAs was mostly restricted to simplified EAs that do not employ large populations, such as the (1+1) EA. This tutorial introduces more recent techniques that enable runtime analysis of EAs with realistic population sizes.
The tutorial begins with a brief overview of the population‐based EAs that are covered by the techniques. We recall the common stochastic selection mechanisms and how to measure the selection pressure they induce. The main part of the tutorial covers in detail widely applicable techniques tailored to the analysis of populations. We discuss random family trees and branching processes, drift and concentration of measure in populations, and level‐based analyses.
To illustrate how these techniques can be applied, we consider several fundamental questions: When are populations necessary for efficient optimisation with EAs? What is the appropriate balance between exploration and exploitation and how does this depend on relationships between mutation and selection rates? What determines an EA's tolerance for uncertainty, e.g. in form of noisy or partially available fitness?
This tutorial was presented at the 2015 IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation at Sendai, Japan, May 25th 2015.
The document discusses histograms and histogram equalization for digital image processing. It defines a histogram as estimating the probability distribution function of gray values in an image and providing insight into an image's contrast. Histogram equalization is introduced as a technique that transforms an image's gray values such that the transformed values are uniformly distributed, improving contrast by spreading out the most frequent intensities. The key steps of histogram equalization are outlined.
The document discusses Euler's generalization of Fermat's Little Theorem to composite moduli called the Theorem of Euler-Fermat. It explains that for any integer a coprime to a composite number m, a raised to the totient function of m (φ(m)) is congruent to 1 modulo m. It also provides formulas for calculating the totient function for prime powers and products of coprime integers. The Chinese Remainder Theorem, which states that a system of congruences with coprime moduli always has a solution, is introduced as well.
This document discusses rank-aware algorithms for joint sparse recovery from multiple measurement vectors (MMV). It begins by introducing the MMV problem and showing that when the rank of the signal matrix is r, the necessary and sufficient conditions for unique recovery are less restrictive than in the single measurement vector case. Classical MMV algorithms like SOMP and l1/lq minimization are not rank-aware. The document then proposes two rank-aware pursuit algorithms:
1) Rank-Aware OMP, which modifies the atom selection step of SOMP but still suffers from rank degeneration over iterations.
2) Rank-Aware Order Recursive Matching Pursuit (RA-ORMP), which forces the sparsity
This document provides an overview of probability theory concepts related to random variables. It defines random variables and their probability mass functions and cumulative distribution functions. It describes different types of random variables including discrete, continuous, Bernoulli, binomial, geometric, Poisson, uniform, exponential, gamma, and normal random variables. It also covers concepts of joint and marginal distributions as well as independent and conditional random variables. The document uses mathematical notation to formally define these concepts.
Bregman divergences from comparative convexityFrank Nielsen
This document discusses generalized divergences and comparative convexity. It introduces Jensen divergences, Bregman divergences, and their generalizations to quasi-arithmetic and weighted means. Quasi-arithmetic Bregman divergences are defined for strictly (ρ,τ)-convex functions using two strictly monotone functions ρ and τ. Power mean Bregman divergences are obtained as a subfamily when ρ(x)=xδ1 and τ(x)=xδ2. A criterion is given to check (ρ,τ)-convexity by testing the ordinary convexity of the transformed function G=Fρ,τ.
The document discusses methods for solving dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) models. It outlines perturbation and projection methods for approximating the solution to DSGE models using linearization. Perturbation methods use Taylor series approximations around a steady state to derive linear approximations. Projection methods find parametric functions that best satisfy the model equations. The document provides examples applying these methods to solve a simple neoclassical growth model.
EM algorithm and its application in probabilistic latent semantic analysiszukun
The document discusses the EM algorithm and its application in Probabilistic Latent Semantic Analysis (pLSA). It begins by introducing the parameter estimation problem and comparing frequentist and Bayesian approaches. It then describes the EM algorithm, which iteratively computes lower bounds to the log-likelihood function. Finally, it applies the EM algorithm to pLSA by modeling documents and words as arising from a mixture of latent topics.
1. The document discusses using the binomial expansion and Stirling's formula to estimate the value of r that maximizes a binomial coefficient expression as n becomes large. Taking the limit as n approaches infinity, the optimal value of r is shown to be nq.
2. A example is given of estimating the probability of winning $40 or more by betting $1 on number 8 in roulette 500 times. Using the normal approximation, this probability is estimated to be about 25.8%.
This document describes the equations of state used to model the phases and phase transitions in neutron stars. It summarizes the relativistic mean field theory used to model the nucleonic phase and parametric equations of state. It also discusses the Maxwell and Glendenning constructions used to model first-order phase transitions from hadronic to quark matter, including the mixed phase region. Key parameters like the bag constant are specified to generate example equations of state with phase transitions.
This document discusses the design of finite impulse response (FIR) filters. It begins by describing the basic FIR filter model and properties such as filter order and length. It then covers topics such as linear phase response, different filter types (low-pass, high-pass, etc.), deriving the ideal impulse response, and filter specification in terms of passband/stopband edges and ripple levels. The document concludes by outlining the common FIR design method of windowing the ideal impulse response, describing popular window functions, and providing a step-by-step example of designing a low-pass FIR filter using the Hamming window.
This document presents a method for estimating the eigenvalues of a covariance matrix when there are few samples. It involves shifting the sampled eigenvalues toward the population values based on theoretical distributions, and balancing the energy across eigenvalues. This simple 3-matrix approach improves estimation and detection performance compared to using the sampled eigenvalues alone. Simulations and hyperspectral data experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of the method.
The document provides a summary of Semi-Markov Decision Processes (SMDPs) in 10 points:
1. It describes the basic components of an SMDP including states, actions, rewards, policies, and value functions.
2. It discusses the concepts of optimal policies, average reward models, and discount factors in SMDPs.
3. It introduces the idea of transition times in SMDPs, which allows actions to take varying amounts of time. This makes SMDPs a generalization of Markov Decision Processes.
4. It notes that algorithms for solving SMDPs typically involve estimating the average reward per action to find an optimal policy.
This document discusses quantum modes and the correspondence between classical and quantum mechanics. It provides three key principles of quantum mechanics: (1) quantum states are represented by ket vectors, (2) quantum observables are hermitian operators, and (3) the Schrodinger equation governs the causal evolution of quantum systems. It also outlines how classical quantities like position and momentum correspond to quantum operators and how they form Lie algebras through commutation relations. Representations of quantum mechanics are discussed through examples like the energy basis of the harmonic oscillator.
The document provides an overview of probability theory and random variables including:
1) It defines probability as a measure of the chance of obtaining a particular outcome from an event. Common properties of probability such as mutually exclusive events and conditional probability are also covered.
2) Random variables are introduced as rules that assign real numbers to possible outcomes of an experiment. Both discrete and continuous random variables are defined.
3) Key concepts related to random variables are summarized including the cumulative distribution function, probability density function, expected value, variance, and common distributions like the uniform, binomial, and Gaussian distributions.
4) Finally, random processes are defined as sets of random variables indexed by time, with properties like the mean
This document discusses various importance sampling methods for approximating marginal likelihoods, including regular importance sampling, bridge sampling, and harmonic means. It compares these methods on a probit model example using data on diabetes in Pima Indian women. Regular importance sampling uses the MLE distribution as an importance function. Bridge sampling introduces a pseudo-posterior to handle models with different parameter dimensions. Harmonic means directly uses the posterior sample but requires a proposal distribution with lighter tails than the posterior.
次数制限モデルにおける全てのCSPに対する最適な定数時間近似アルゴリズムと近似困難性Yuichi Yoshida
1. The document discusses the maximum constraint satisfaction problem (Max CSP) and how to approximate its optimal value. It presents a basic linear programming (LP) relaxation called BasicLP that provides an (αΛ-ε, ε)-approximation for any CSP Λ, where αΛ is the integrality gap.
2. For some CSPs like Max Cut, BasicLP can be implemented as a packing LP and solved in polynomial time to give an (αΛ+ε, δ)-approximation in √n time, improving on the Ω(n) time needed for general CSPs.
3. The document outlines how to derive the (αΛ+
IJCER (www.ijceronline.com) International Journal of computational Engineerin...ijceronline
This document summarizes several theorems regarding the location of zeros of polynomials:
Theorem 1 generalizes previous results (Theorems C and E) by proving bounds on the location of zeros of polynomials of the form P(z) = a0 + a1z + ... + aμzμ + zn, where 0 ≤ μ ≤ n-1.
Theorem 2 further generalizes Theorem E by providing bounds on the location of zeros of polynomials of the same form as in Theorem 1, under the additional condition that 0 < aj-1 ≤ kaj, where k > 0.
The proofs of Theorems 1 and 2 apply Holder's inequality and results from previous theorems
Scientific Computing with Python Webinar 9/18/2009:Curve FittingEnthought, Inc.
This webinar will provide an overview of the tools that SciPy and NumPy provide for regression analysis including linear and non-linear least-squares and a brief look at handling other error metrics. We will also demonstrate simple GUI tools that can make some problems easier and provide a quick overview of the new Scikits package statsmodels whose API is maturing in a separate package but should be incorporated into SciPy in the future.
Runtime Analysis of Population-based Evolutionary AlgorithmsPK Lehre
Populations are at the heart of evolutionary algorithms (EAs). They provide the genetic variation which selection acts upon. A complete picture of EAs can only be obtained if we understand their population dynamics. A rich theory on runtime analysis (also called time-complexity analysis) of EAs has been developed over the last 20 years. The goal of this theory is to show, via rigorous mathematical means, how the performance of EAs depends on their parameter settings and the characteristics of the underlying fitness landscapes. Initially, runtime analysis of EAs was mostly restricted to simplified EAs that do not employ large populations, such as the (1+1) EA. This tutorial introduces more recent techniques that enable runtime analysis of EAs with realistic population sizes.
The tutorial begins with a brief overview of the population‐based EAs that are covered by the techniques. We recall the common stochastic selection mechanisms and how to measure the selection pressure they induce. The main part of the tutorial covers in detail widely applicable techniques tailored to the analysis of populations. We discuss random family trees and branching processes, drift and concentration of measure in populations, and level‐based analyses.
To illustrate how these techniques can be applied, we consider several fundamental questions: When are populations necessary for efficient optimisation with EAs? What is the appropriate balance between exploration and exploitation and how does this depend on relationships between mutation and selection rates? What determines an EA's tolerance for uncertainty, e.g. in form of noisy or partially available fitness?
This tutorial was presented at the 2015 IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation at Sendai, Japan, May 25th 2015.
The document discusses histograms and histogram equalization for digital image processing. It defines a histogram as estimating the probability distribution function of gray values in an image and providing insight into an image's contrast. Histogram equalization is introduced as a technique that transforms an image's gray values such that the transformed values are uniformly distributed, improving contrast by spreading out the most frequent intensities. The key steps of histogram equalization are outlined.
The document discusses Euler's generalization of Fermat's Little Theorem to composite moduli called the Theorem of Euler-Fermat. It explains that for any integer a coprime to a composite number m, a raised to the totient function of m (φ(m)) is congruent to 1 modulo m. It also provides formulas for calculating the totient function for prime powers and products of coprime integers. The Chinese Remainder Theorem, which states that a system of congruences with coprime moduli always has a solution, is introduced as well.
This document discusses rank-aware algorithms for joint sparse recovery from multiple measurement vectors (MMV). It begins by introducing the MMV problem and showing that when the rank of the signal matrix is r, the necessary and sufficient conditions for unique recovery are less restrictive than in the single measurement vector case. Classical MMV algorithms like SOMP and l1/lq minimization are not rank-aware. The document then proposes two rank-aware pursuit algorithms:
1) Rank-Aware OMP, which modifies the atom selection step of SOMP but still suffers from rank degeneration over iterations.
2) Rank-Aware Order Recursive Matching Pursuit (RA-ORMP), which forces the sparsity
This document provides an overview of probability theory concepts related to random variables. It defines random variables and their probability mass functions and cumulative distribution functions. It describes different types of random variables including discrete, continuous, Bernoulli, binomial, geometric, Poisson, uniform, exponential, gamma, and normal random variables. It also covers concepts of joint and marginal distributions as well as independent and conditional random variables. The document uses mathematical notation to formally define these concepts.
Bregman divergences from comparative convexityFrank Nielsen
This document discusses generalized divergences and comparative convexity. It introduces Jensen divergences, Bregman divergences, and their generalizations to quasi-arithmetic and weighted means. Quasi-arithmetic Bregman divergences are defined for strictly (ρ,τ)-convex functions using two strictly monotone functions ρ and τ. Power mean Bregman divergences are obtained as a subfamily when ρ(x)=xδ1 and τ(x)=xδ2. A criterion is given to check (ρ,τ)-convexity by testing the ordinary convexity of the transformed function G=Fρ,τ.
The document discusses methods for solving dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) models. It outlines perturbation and projection methods for approximating the solution to DSGE models using linearization. Perturbation methods use Taylor series approximations around a steady state to derive linear approximations. Projection methods find parametric functions that best satisfy the model equations. The document provides examples applying these methods to solve a simple neoclassical growth model.
EM algorithm and its application in probabilistic latent semantic analysiszukun
The document discusses the EM algorithm and its application in Probabilistic Latent Semantic Analysis (pLSA). It begins by introducing the parameter estimation problem and comparing frequentist and Bayesian approaches. It then describes the EM algorithm, which iteratively computes lower bounds to the log-likelihood function. Finally, it applies the EM algorithm to pLSA by modeling documents and words as arising from a mixture of latent topics.
1. The document discusses using the binomial expansion and Stirling's formula to estimate the value of r that maximizes a binomial coefficient expression as n becomes large. Taking the limit as n approaches infinity, the optimal value of r is shown to be nq.
2. A example is given of estimating the probability of winning $40 or more by betting $1 on number 8 in roulette 500 times. Using the normal approximation, this probability is estimated to be about 25.8%.
This document describes the equations of state used to model the phases and phase transitions in neutron stars. It summarizes the relativistic mean field theory used to model the nucleonic phase and parametric equations of state. It also discusses the Maxwell and Glendenning constructions used to model first-order phase transitions from hadronic to quark matter, including the mixed phase region. Key parameters like the bag constant are specified to generate example equations of state with phase transitions.
This document discusses the design of finite impulse response (FIR) filters. It begins by describing the basic FIR filter model and properties such as filter order and length. It then covers topics such as linear phase response, different filter types (low-pass, high-pass, etc.), deriving the ideal impulse response, and filter specification in terms of passband/stopband edges and ripple levels. The document concludes by outlining the common FIR design method of windowing the ideal impulse response, describing popular window functions, and providing a step-by-step example of designing a low-pass FIR filter using the Hamming window.
This document presents a method for estimating the eigenvalues of a covariance matrix when there are few samples. It involves shifting the sampled eigenvalues toward the population values based on theoretical distributions, and balancing the energy across eigenvalues. This simple 3-matrix approach improves estimation and detection performance compared to using the sampled eigenvalues alone. Simulations and hyperspectral data experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of the method.
A note on arithmetic progressions in sets of integersLukas Nabergall
This document presents a new upper bound on r3(n), the maximum size of a set of integers between 1 and n that contains no three elements in arithmetic progression. The author proves that r3(n) = O(n/log^h n) for any arbitrarily large h, improving on previous bounds. The proof uses the fundamental theorem of discrete calculus and the pigeonhole principle to show that any sufficiently dense set of integers must contain arbitrarily long arithmetic progressions. This verifies a 1936 conjecture of Erdos and improves understanding of a major problem in combinatorics.
This document provides formulas and notation for key concepts in statistics. It includes formulas for descriptive statistics like mean, standard deviation, and quartiles. It also includes formulas for probability, random variables, sampling distributions, confidence intervals, hypothesis tests, ANOVA, regression, and correlation. The document defines notation, formulas, and assumptions for inference on one and two population means and proportions, chi-square tests, ANOVA, and regression analysis.
Correspondence analysis is a technique for approximating a contingency table with lower rank tables to analyze the relationship between two categorical variables. It works by finding pairs of correspondence factors that have unit variance with respect to the marginal distributions and are maximally correlated. The correspondence factors and their correlations are obtained from the singular value decomposition of a normalized contingency table. Hypothesis tests can then be conducted to test the independence of the categorical variables and how well a lower rank approximation fits the data. The analysis also provides a spatial representation of the row and column categories in lower dimensions.
WAVELET-PACKET-BASED ADAPTIVE ALGORITHM FOR SPARSE IMPULSE RESPONSE IDENTIFI...bermudez_jcm
Presented at IEEE ICASSP-2007:
This paper proposes a wavelet-packet-based (WPB) algorithm for efficient identification of sparse impulse responses with arbitrary frequency spectra. The discrete wavelet packet transform (DWPT) is adaptively tailored to the energy distribution of the unknown system\'s response spectrum. The new algorithm leads to a reduced number of active coefficients and to a reduced computational complexity, when compared to competing wavelet-based algorithms. Simulation results illustrate the applicability of the proposed algorithm.
The hypergeometric distribution models sampling without replacement from a finite population. It gives the probability of getting x successes in n draws from a population of size N that contains a number of successes. The mean is equal to n(a/N) and the variance is equal to n(a/N)(1-a/N)(N-n)/(N-1). When the sample size n is small compared to the population N, the binomial distribution is a good approximation to the hypergeometric.
The hypergeometric distribution models sampling without replacement from a finite population. It gives the probability of getting x successes in n draws from a population of size N that contains a number of successes. The mean is equal to n(a/N) and the variance is equal to n(a/N)(1-a/N)(N-n)/(N-1). When the sample size n is small compared to the population N, the binomial distribution is a good approximation to the hypergeometric.
This document discusses quantiles and quantile regression. It begins by defining quantiles for the standard normal distribution and shows how to calculate probabilities based on quantiles. It then discusses how to estimate quantiles from sample data and different methods for calculating empirical quantiles. The document introduces quantile regression as a way to model relationships between variables at different quantile levels. It explains how quantile regression is formulated as an optimization problem and compares it to ordinary least squares regression.
1) The document describes digital signal detection techniques at the receiver of a digital communication system.
2) It discusses the maximum a posteriori probability (MAP) and maximum likelihood (ML) detection criteria. The ML criterion reduces to choosing the signal that minimizes the Euclidean distance between the received signal vector and possible transmitted signals.
3) Detection errors occur when the received signal, distorted by noise, falls inside the decision region of another signal. The probability of error depends on the noise distribution around the actual transmitted signal.
This document discusses using the Wasserstein distance for inference in generative models. It begins by introducing ABC methods that use a distance between samples to compare observed and simulated data. It then discusses using the Wasserstein distance as an alternative distance metric that has lower variance than the Euclidean distance. The document covers computational aspects of calculating the Wasserstein distance, asymptotic properties of minimum Wasserstein estimators, and applications to time series data.
The document provides 14 formulae across 4 topics:
1) Algebra - includes formulae for roots of quadratic equations, logarithms, sequences, etc.
2) Calculus - includes formulae for derivatives, integrals, areas under curves, volumes of revolution.
3) Statistics - includes formulae for means, standard deviation, probability, binomial distribution.
4) Geometry - includes formulae for distances, midpoints, areas of triangles, circles, trigonometry ratios.
The document provides 14 formulae across 4 topics:
1) Algebra - includes formulae for roots of quadratic equations, logarithms, sequences, etc.
2) Calculus - includes formulae for derivatives, integrals, areas under curves, volumes of revolution.
3) Statistics - includes formulae for means, standard deviation, probability, binomial distribution.
4) Geometry - includes formulae for distances, midpoints, areas of triangles, circles, trigonometry ratios.
The document summarizes a meeting of the 3rd Thematic Network on photometric stereo estimation from spectral systems. It discusses using photometric stereo techniques to simultaneously recover spectral reflectance and surface relief from images. Specifically, it presents using an RGB digital camera to do this and recover 3D shape and albedo from surfaces under different lighting conditions. Results show good color recovery with around 2% total error between original and simulated images under the same illuminant but different geometries.
Game theory is the study of mathematical models of conflict and cooperation between rational decision-makers. It analyzes strategic decision-making through modeling games with several players under conditions of both cooperation and conflict. Game theory looks at solution concepts such as Nash equilibria, which are strategy profiles where each player's strategy is a best response to the other players' strategies. It is used to understand outcomes in strategic interactions in economics, political science, and other fields.
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1. Model for Estimating Population Diversity as the
Prediction of Sample needed for full Coverage
with Applications in Bioinformatics
Torres, David A., Pericchi, Luis R.
Department of Mathematics
University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras.
2. Abstract
There exist several methods for estimating
community diversity using coverage (Bunge and
Fitzpatrick 1993). The biologist and
environmental scientist challenge the
statisticians in order to solve such problem.
Here we present an approach for the estimation
using coverage model (Good, I. G, 1953) and a
population estimator (Good, I. G. and G. H.
Toulmin, 1956). We apply the method to a data
given from microbial diversity presented in the
crop of the hoatzin by molecular analysis of
cloned 16S RNA genes.
3. Introduction
• Estimating the number of species in a community is
a classical problem in Ecology, biogeography, and
conservation biology, and parallel problems arise in
many other disciplines. This research topic has been
extensively discussed in the literature; see Bunge
and Fitzpatrick (1993), Seber (1982, 1986, 1992) for a
review of the historical and theoretical development.
• Ecologists and other biologists have long
recognized that there are undiscovered species in
almost every survey or species inventory. A parallel
problem is tried to answer how many words did a
particular author know. Efron, B., Twisted, R. (1975).
4. • A random sample is taken from a Community. We
will refer to this sample as the basic sample.
• Our intention is calculate an estimator for coverage
of the community using the information provided in
the basic sample and then estimate the number of
species in the community.
• Moreover, we pretend to describe a method that
present an estimator of the number of additional
data needed to get a total coverage of the
community .
• An example will be presented in order to apply the
theory.
5. Methods
• A random sample of size N is drawn from a
community and let be the n r
numbers of
distinct species represented exactly r times in
the sample, then
∞
∑rn
i=1
i =N
6. • We shall be concerned with, qr , the community
frequency of an arbitrary species that is
represented r times in the basic sample.
• Let, Ε(q ) , be the expected value of q . A main
r r
result used by Good (1953) is that
* (2)
r
Ε (qr ) =
N
where ( r + 1) nr + 1 .
r =
*
nr
7. • This can be generalized to give a higher
moment of qr . As a matter of fact
m
r + m nr + m
Ε ( qr ) = (3)
N nr
where
r = 1,2,3; m = 1,2,3
and t .
t =
m
∏i
i = m+1
8. • Recursively, we can rewrite (3) as
r + m −1
Ε (q ) ≈
m
r ∏ Ε (q )
i=r
i .
• Moreover, the variance of qr is approximately:
(r + 1)(r + 2) nr + 2 (r + 1)nr + 1
V (qr ) = 2
−
N nr Nnr
∞
• Note that, then we have that
nr ≤∑ =
rnr N
i=
( r + 1) nr
1
r *
≤
N
9. As an estimator of the expected total change of all species that
are each r
represented times
( )
r ≤ 1in the basic sample is
( r + 1) nr
N
Also the expected total chance of all species that are represented
times or more in the sample is approximately
∞
1
∑+1 ini
N i= r
In particular note that the expected total change in the sample is
1 ∞ Ε (n1 )
approximately
∑2 knk = 1 − N
N k= (4)
10. • Hence, the total coverage of the sample (i.e.
the proportion of community represented in the
sample, which is the sum of the population
frequencies of the species represented) is
approximately.
Ε (n1 ) n1 (5)
1− = 1−
N N
11. The change that the next member of the community will
belong to a new species is estimated as, n1 .
N
Lets write the total number of distinct species in the
sample as ∞
d = ∑ nx
x =1
and suppose that the total number of distinct species
in the community is a known finite number s. Then the
number of non-represented species in the sample is
given by n .=0 s − d
12. • Then let pµ ( µ = 1, 2,3,) the
be
population frequencies of the species. As in
Good (1953), equation (10),
(6)
s N! r
Ε (nr ) = ∑ p (1 − pµ ) N −r
r !( N − r ) ! µ
µ =1
13. Ε nr (λ =∑
( ))
µ
s
s
2
λN !
µ= r !( λ
1
r
N −r ) !
λ !
N
µ
For the population, we have similarly,
assuming p ≤ 1 for all .
pµ(1 − pµ)
λN −r
pµ
− ( λ 1)
N −
=∑!( λ − )! pµ(1 −pµ)
r N r
r N−r
+
1
1− µ p
µ1=
s
λ !
N ∞
−λ 1) N !
( −
=∑!( λ − )! pµ(1 −pµ)
µ1 r
= N r
r N−r
∑( −λ 1) N − )! p
i= i !
0 ( − i
∞
λ !
N −λ 1) N !
( − s
=∑!( λ − )! i !( −λ 1) N − )! ∑µ i (1 −pµ) N −
i= r
0 N r ( − i µ1 =
pr+ (
( λ ) ( − λ 1) N ) ( r + )!
( −
r i
N 1
= r+i
Ε nr + )
( i
r !i ! N
i
∞
( r + )!
i
λ
≈ ∑ 1)
(−
r
( λ 1) Ε nr + )
−
i
( i
i=0 r !i !
14. • For the case r = 0, we not need to assume the value of s,
since this assumption is not required to write
∞
d ∑
ˆ ( λ ) − d = ( − 1) i ( 1 − λ ) i n = s − n (λ )
i =1
i 0
(8)
• We may be particularly interested in the coverage of the
community, then using equation (5) and (7) with r=1 we
have the expected coverage is approximately
n1 1 (9)
1 − ≈ 1 − [n1 − 2(λ − 1)n2 + 3(λ − 1) n3 − ]
2
N N
15. • The expected number of distinct species
represented is approximately
d + ( λ − 1) n1 − ( λ − 1) n2 +
2
• We use the coverage to estimate the value of
and straightforward the population size needed
to get 100% coverage. The equation (9) is the
one that is called Good-Toulmin model by the
fact that is a merge between the two models
proposed by them.
16. Application
• The hoatzin is a South American leaf-eating bird and the
its uniqueness lies in its particular foregut (crop), the only
known for the avian class.
• Forestomach compartmentalization allows mammal
herbivores to be nourished on microbial fermentation
products and microbial biomass. Bacteria are largely
responsible for fermentation of dietary components, and
bacterial cells are themselves subject to digestion by
gastric lysozyme expressed in the abomasum of
ruminants.
17. • The evolutionary pressure towards foregut specialization
in herbivores was presumably exerted by indigestible
plant polymers (cellulose), so that production of
microbial biomass at expenses of these indigestible
materials has clear advantages.
• In the hoatzin, a preliminary characterization of the crop
microflora was done by culture (Domínguez-Bello et al.,
1993). In this study we aim to characterize the bacterial
diversity in the crop of the hoatzin by a molecular
analysis of cloned 16S rRNA genes.
18. Results
• For the 69 O.T.U’s obtained, Good’s method left side of
equation (9)) indicated a coverage of diversity of 77%
• This means that 100% diversity will correspond to 90
O.T.U. Given that, applying the Good and Toulmin’s
model (figure 2), we estimate a λ=1.5 which means that
we need 98 (300-202) additional clones to obtain the 31
O.T.U’s needed to cover 100% diversity.
19. Conclusions (Application)
• The estimate indicates 300 clones are needed to
represent 100% of sample diversity 99% of the clones
and 88% of OTU analyzed are unidentified species.
• Based on 202 sequences yielding 69 O.T.U, Good and
Toulmin estimator indicates a coverage of 77% of the
total diversity.
20.
21.
22. Future Research
• There are many models and procedure try to calculate
coverage, instead of using the Good’s estimator of
coverage it will be interesting try another approach.
Perhaps, using Poisson process or an Multinomial
approach it’s possible to get better estimators. Another
approach could be the use of Bayesian inference in the
assumption of a no known distribution in a Metropolis
Hasting procedure.
• The importance of this type of problem is based on the
experimental designs.
• Good stated once that “I don’t believe it is usually
possible to estimate the number of unseen species …
but only an approximate lower bound to that number.”.
We will keep on the road.
23. Literature cited
• Godoy Filipa1, Gao, Z. 2, Pei Z.2, Zhou M.2 ,Garcia-Amado,
M.A.3,Pericchi, L.R. 4 ,Torres, D. 4 Michelangeli F.3, Blaser M.J 2 ,
Domínguez-Bello, M.G.1High bacterial diversity in the forestomach of
the Hoatzin is revealed by molecular analysis of 16S rRNA Genes.
1Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras, San Juan,
PR 00931. 2 Departments of Medicine, Pathology and Microbiology, New
York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016 3Venezuelan
Institute of Scientific Research, CBB, Caracas, Venezuela. 4 Department of
Mathematics University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras, San Juan, PR 00931.
• Chao,A.,Lee,S.,1992. Estimating the Number of Classes via Sample
Coverage. Journal of the American Statistical Association,87: 210-217.
• Domínguez-Bello, M. G.M. Lovera, P. Suarez and F. Michelangeli, 1993,
Microbial inhabitants in the crop of the hoatzin (Opisthocomus
hoazin): the only foregut fermented avian. Physiol. Zool. 66: 374-383.
• Good, I. G. and G. H. Toulmin, 1956. The number of new species and the
increase in population coverage when the sample is increase.
Biometrika 43: 45-63.
• Good,I., 1953. The Population Frequencies of Species and the
Estimation of Population Parameters. Biometrika,40: 237-264.