Mitochondria and ATP production
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Menjelaskan peran mitokondria dalam proses metabolisme dan menguraikan tentang ATP (Adenosine triphosphate).
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How cells harvest or extract energy - Cell respiration
Cellular respiration uses a series of metabolic pathways to extract energy from glucose and other food molecules in the form of ATP. It occurs in three main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle in the mitochondria, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate and generates a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate then enters the Krebs cycle where more ATP is produced. Electrons extracted from glucose are passed through protein complexes in the electron transport chain, powering ATP synthesis via oxidative phosphorylation. The overall process oxidizes glucose and other fuels completely to carbon dioxide and water, capturing their energy to make approximately 36 ATP molecules per glucose molecule.
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This document discusses how organisms obtain energy and the role of ATP in energy transfer. It describes different types of phosphate compounds, with low-energy phosphates like ester phosphates and high-energy phosphates that have bonds with greater energy than ATP. These high-energy bonds in compounds like pyrophosphate, acetyl phosphate, and phosphocreatine are referred to as group transfer potentials and allow the storage and transfer of free energy in metabolic pathways like glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation. ATP plays a central role using its high-energy phosphate bonds to drive energy-requiring processes in the cell like muscle contraction, transport, and chemical reactions.
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Cell respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose into pyruvate or acetyl-CoA and use it to produce ATP through glycolysis in the cytoplasm or aerobic respiration in the mitochondria. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP whether or not oxygen is present. In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate undergoes further reactions in the mitochondria through the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain to produce significantly more ATP. During aerobic respiration, the electron transport chain creates a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane that is used by ATP synthase to produce ATP through chemiosmosis.
section 1, chapter 4
Cellular metabolism involves anabolic and catabolic reactions. Anabolism uses energy to synthesize larger molecules from smaller ones for growth and repair. Catabolism breaks down large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy for cellular use. Dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis are important reaction types. Dehydration synthesis uses the removal of a water molecule to join smaller molecules into larger ones like proteins, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids. Hydrolysis is the reverse reaction that breaks these molecules back down. Enzymes are protein catalysts that greatly reduce the activation energy needed for metabolic reactions and increase their rate. They are specific to substrates and aid in metabolic pathways that break down fuels to produce energy molecules like ATP through cellular respiration.
Atp
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The document summarizes the process of aerobic cellular respiration which occurs in the mitochondria. It describes how pyruvic acid is converted to acetyl CoA which enters the citric acid cycle in the mitochondrial matrix. The citric acid cycle generates NADH, FADH2, and ATP. These products then feed into the electron transport chain located on the inner mitochondrial membrane. As electrons are passed through protein complexes in the electron transport chain, hydrogen ions are pumped across the inner membrane generating a proton gradient. ATP synthase uses this proton gradient to produce most of the cell's ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain.
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Metabolic functions provide cells with chemical energy in the form of ATP. ATP is used to power various cellular processes through the transfer of its high-energy phosphate bonds. Cells generate ATP through two main types of respiration - anaerobic respiration which occurs without oxygen and produces a small amount of ATP, and aerobic respiration which uses oxygen to fully break down glucose and produce much more ATP. The stages of aerobic respiration include glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain in which ATP is produced.
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Cellular respiration uses a series of metabolic pathways to extract energy from glucose and other food molecules in the form of ATP. It occurs in three main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle in the mitochondria, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate and generates a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate then enters the Krebs cycle where more ATP is produced. Electrons extracted from glucose are passed through protein complexes in the electron transport chain, powering ATP synthesis via oxidative phosphorylation. The overall process oxidizes glucose and other fuels completely to carbon dioxide and water, capturing their energy to make approximately 36 ATP molecules per glucose molecule.
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Cell respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose into pyruvate or acetyl-CoA and use it to produce ATP through glycolysis in the cytoplasm or aerobic respiration in the mitochondria. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP whether or not oxygen is present. In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate undergoes further reactions in the mitochondria through the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain to produce significantly more ATP. During aerobic respiration, the electron transport chain creates a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane that is used by ATP synthase to produce ATP through chemiosmosis.
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Cellular metabolism involves anabolic and catabolic reactions. Anabolism uses energy to synthesize larger molecules from smaller ones for growth and repair. Catabolism breaks down large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy for cellular use. Dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis are important reaction types. Dehydration synthesis uses the removal of a water molecule to join smaller molecules into larger ones like proteins, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids. Hydrolysis is the reverse reaction that breaks these molecules back down. Enzymes are protein catalysts that greatly reduce the activation energy needed for metabolic reactions and increase their rate. They are specific to substrates and aid in metabolic pathways that break down fuels to produce energy molecules like ATP through cellular respiration.
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The document summarizes the process of aerobic cellular respiration which occurs in the mitochondria. It describes how pyruvic acid is converted to acetyl CoA which enters the citric acid cycle in the mitochondrial matrix. The citric acid cycle generates NADH, FADH2, and ATP. These products then feed into the electron transport chain located on the inner mitochondrial membrane. As electrons are passed through protein complexes in the electron transport chain, hydrogen ions are pumped across the inner membrane generating a proton gradient. ATP synthase uses this proton gradient to produce most of the cell's ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain.
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Cellular respiration is the process by which glucose and oxygen are broken down to release energy in the form of ATP. It occurs in three main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvic acid, producing a small amount of ATP. In the Krebs cycle, pyruvic acid is further broken down, producing more ATP and electron carriers. Finally, the electron transport chain uses oxygen to produce the most ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Aerobic cellular respiration is more efficient, producing 36 ATP per glucose molecule, while anaerobic fermentation only produces 2 ATP.
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1. The document provides an overview of key concepts in biology including cellular transport mechanisms, cellular respiration, photosynthesis, enzymes, and ATP.
2. It defines different types of cellular transport such as diffusion, osmosis, active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis. Active transport requires energy and uses carrier proteins to move materials against a concentration gradient.
3. Cellular respiration and photosynthesis are described as processes by which cells generate energy. Cellular respiration breaks down glucose to produce ATP through pathways like glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. Photosynthesis uses light to produce oxygen, ATP, and NADPH through light-dependent and light-independent reactions.
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The document summarizes key concepts about cellular metabolism and energy production. Metabolism provides energy through catabolic processes and synthesizes molecules through anabolic processes. Autotrophs like plants produce organic compounds from CO2 using solar energy, while heterotrophs obtain carbon from these organic compounds. Living cells are open systems that maintain homeostasis through metabolic pathways. ATP is the main energy currency molecule, generated primarily through oxidative phosphorylation as nutrients are oxidized to produce proton gradients that drive ATP synthesis.
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Energy is the ability to do work and comes in various forms like kinetic energy from movement and potential energy stored as chemical energy. All organisms obtain energy from different sources but ultimately convert it to ATP through a two-step process. Cells are constantly converting energy from food into ATP, which is then used to power biological processes by providing energy when it breaks down into ADP and phosphate. ATP consists of an adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups, and releases energy when it breaks down.
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Photosynthesis and respiration are chemical reactions that are interrelated and essential for life. Photosynthesis occurs in plants and algae and uses carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce oxygen and energy in the form of glucose. The glucose is then used as fuel for cellular respiration, which takes place in all living cells and uses glucose and oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy to power cellular functions. These two processes are vital as they provide organisms with energy and oxygen while removing carbon dioxide from the environment.
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Cells obtain energy through respiration, which breaks down glucose and releases energy. Glucose comes from foods a person eats, which are broken down through digestion and absorbed into the bloodstream. Glucose then enters cells, where it undergoes two stages of respiration - stage one in the cytoplasm releases a small amount of energy, while stage two in the mitochondria fully breaks down glucose using oxygen to release much more energy. Respiration and photosynthesis are opposite but interconnected processes that allow energy transfer between organisms.
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Cellular respiration is the process by which cells harvest chemical energy from glucose or other organic compounds. It occurs in three main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate then enters the mitochondria, where it is converted to acetyl-CoA and feeds into the Krebs cycle. The Krebs cycle produces more ATP, as well as NADH and FADH2. These electron carriers then feed electrons into the electron transport chain, where oxygen is the final electron acceptor. This powers ATP synthase to produce the majority of the cell's ATP through che
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Explain how cellular respiration (O2 consumption and CO2 production) is linked to ATP
production. Is the coupling of these two processes perfect? Why or why not?
Solution
The primary function of cellular respiration is to generate ATP, which traps some of the
chemical energy of food molecules in its high- energy bonds (adenosine triphosphate). The
process of generation of ATP is via glycolysis and Krebs’s cycle finally through oxidative
phosphorylation.
The overall balanced reaction of cellular respiration is:
CHO + 6O 6CO + 6HO + ATP
Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
In this reaction, glucose oxidized and oxygen reduced.
Cellular respiration (O2 consumption and CO2 production) is linked to ATP production because
it is different from cellular respiration as it involves metabolic activities using molecular oxygen
such as Citric acid cycle and electron transport to synthesize energy in the form of ATP to
perform respiration. CO2 is the output of the cellular respiration from mitochondria and expelled
out of the body by carrying through hemoglobin in the form of carboxy- hemoglobin to the
alveoli of lungs.
The coupling of these two processes such as O2 consumption and CO2 production inked to ATP
production is perfect. Mitochondrial chemiosmosis –cellular respiration (through Fernadez
Moran inner mitochondrial oxysomes particles) during cellular respiration obtain energy from
chemical enzymatic breakdown of the organic food molecules (glucose, pyruvate, acetylcoA) to
produce ATP in the presence of O2 consumption. During electron transport, the final electron
acceptor is oxygen for oxidative phosphorylation via energy producing molecules such as NADH
(3 ATP), FADH2 (2ATP) and ATP. Therefore, it is going to \"oxygen\" that accepting electrons
at the end of the electron transport chain to generate ATP via mitochondrial respiratory complex-
I to V. Every 3 protons used to produce one ATP molecule. Inner membrane possess small
protein channels known as porins in mitochondria & these channels promote the movement of
any small molecules such as ATP through them
However, the coupling is perfect between the O2 consumption and CO2 production for ATP
production but whole-organism oxygen consumption is mainly related to rate of substrate
oxidation & it cannot be accurate measurement for ATP production due to variable P/O ratio
occurs..
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Cellular respiration occurs in four stages to produce ATP from glucose:
1. Glycolysis breaks down glucose in the cytoplasm, producing 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate molecules.
2. Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA, producing more NADH.
3. Acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle in the mitochondria, producing 2 ATP, 2 FADH2, and 6 NADH as carbons are removed and oxidized.
4. Oxidative phosphorylation uses the electron transport chain to produce ATP from NADH and FADH2, yielding up to 34 additional ATP molecules.
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Bioinorganic chemistry
1. Bioinorganic chemistry studies inorganic elements in living systems. Important elements include sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, copper, zinc, and cobalt which play regulatory, structural, electron transfer, and metalloenzyme roles.
2. Metalloproteins contain metal complexes called prosthetic groups positioned in protein crevices. The geometry and bonding of the metal complex is determined by the protein. Examples include heme in myoglobin and cytochromes.
3. Photosynthesis converts solar energy, carbon dioxide, and water into glucose and oxygen using the light-dependent reactions in thylakoid membranes and light-independent Calvin cycle in chloroplasts.
number 18 please explain thanks the membrane they enable mechan.pdf
number 18 please explain
thanks the membrane they enable mechanicol work such as bacterial bacteria flagel rotating this
reaction? ATP Yield 16. What is a by-product of Events/ Products electrons and protons that
They were used to donate oxidation of glucose ATP into water and created the turned oxygen
molecules molecule molecules inder of the 32 ATP Production of 2 reduced process by which
ATP is 17, Chemiasmosis is the produced es hydrogen ions Production of 2 reduced move down
their concentration enzyme is involved in this coenzyme gradient. What protein process? ATP
synthase Release of 2 molecules summary of ATP synthesis Phosphorylation of 2 ADP
molecules 18 Complete the following summary of cellular respiration l I Release of 4 molecules
of CO2 Production of 8 reduced Up to ATP maximum
Solution
Ques-18:
Summary of ATP synthesis during cellular respiration:
Cellular respiration is the utilization of oxygen by the cell for the synthesis of metabolic products
such as sugars, fats, proteins etc. In humans, cellular respiration takes place in cytosol & in the
mitochondria (power hoses of the cell), in which the most of the metabolic processes takes place.
Blood carries the oxygen to each cell in the body and again collects the carbon dioxide.
C6H12O6 (glucose as substrate) + 6 O2 (g) 6 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (liq) + heat
In this reaction, glucose oxidized and oxygen reduced.
Glucose ----> 686 kcal/mol of free energy
One ATP ----> produce 7.3 kcal/mol
Now 7.3 x 36 (ATP produced from one mole of glucose via glycolysis, Kreb\'s cycle, oxidative
posphorylation) = 262.8 kcal/mol for all ATP\'s produced
262.8 / 686 = 38.3% energy efficiency & it is recovered from aerobic respiration of one mole of
glucose
The remaining 423.2 kcal/mole is the energy used for the other cellular miscellaneous activities
such as some of the phosphorylation processes are mediated by ATP in both glycolysis, Krebs’s
cycle as well as during electron transport. Therefore, remaining 61.6% energy utilized during
enzymatic reaction mediated by substrate level phosphorylation reactions of cellular respiration.
The first step in cellular respiration is glycolysis.
Total per one glucose molecule ---> 4 CO2 generated
Two citric acid cycles
Two glycolysis cycles
Glycolysis is an anaerobic process & takes place in cytosol, through which one glucose
molecules is breakdown into two molecules of three-carbon pyruvate. The glycolysis of each
glucose molecule generates 2 ATP molecules. ATP synthesis from anaerobic process is via
glycolysis of glucose in the presence of various enzymes.
Glucose + 2 NAD+ (oxidized) + 2 Pi + 2 ADP 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH (reduced) + 2 ATP + 2 H+
+ 2 H2O + heat
Citric acid cycle:
The pyruvate generated by the glycolysis is converted into acetyl-CoA that enters into the citric
acid cycle. Citric acid cycle involves a series of reactions that occur in the presence of oxygen.
Citric acid cycle generates NADH, which enters into the oxidative phosphorylation process. This
.
Unit 4 Chemical Energy And Atp
1) Cellular respiration converts sugar into ATP using oxygen in mitochondria. It has two main stages - glycolysis and the Krebs cycle/electron transport chain.
2) Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide, water and sunlight to produce glucose and oxygen. It occurs in chloroplasts and has two stages - the light-dependent reactions which capture energy from sunlight, and the light-independent reactions which use that energy to produce sugars.
3) Fermentation allows glycolysis to continue and produce a small amount of ATP without oxygen by converting pyruvate into other molecules like lactic acid or alcohol. It is important for processes like muscle movement and alcohol production.
carbohyrates
This document summarizes the metabolism and roles of carbohydrates and proteins. It discusses how carbohydrates like glucose are broken down through glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation to generate ATP as an energy source. The three main stages of glucose metabolism and the specific reactions in glycolysis are described. It also outlines the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain, explaining how NADH and FADH2 are used to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The roles of carbohydrates in energy provision, sparing protein use, flavor, and biological processes are summarized. Finally, it provides an introduction to protein structure and function, the biochemistry of proteins including their amino acid composition and peptide bonds.
BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION L3
This document discusses electron transport chain and biological oxidation. It begins by listing topics students should understand, including stages of oxidation, redox potentials, enzymes/co-enzymes in oxidation, electron transport chain organization, inhibitors, oxidative phosphorylation, chemiosmosis theory, and ATP synthesis/inhibitors. It then discusses NADH generation, ATP-ADP cycle, mitochondrial structure, and the four complexes of the electron transport chain located in the inner mitochondrial membrane, being complex I-IV. Specific inhibitors of the electron transport chain are also mentioned.
Unit nine
POST RN BSCN completed notes prepared by sir niamat ullah integrated science II
PHONE NO 03412858609
RESPIRATION!!!
Respiration is the process by which cells use oxygen to break down glucose and other food molecules, and use the energy from these reactions to produce ATP, which cells use as energy currency. It occurs in three main stages - glycolysis, the Krebs cycle in the mitochondria, and oxidative phosphorylation. During these stages, electrons are transferred through electron carriers and coenzymes like NADH and FADH2, building up a proton gradient across the mitochondrial inner membrane. ATP is then produced as protons flow back through ATP synthase enzymes. The overall process converts glucose and oxygen into carbon dioxide, water, and ATP to power cellular work.
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are important biological processes. Photosynthesis occurs in plant leaves and uses carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce glucose and oxygen. It has two stages - the light dependent reactions where ATP and NADPH are produced, and the light independent reactions where carbon is fixed and sugars are assembled. Cellular respiration uses oxygen and glucose to produce ATP through three stages - glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation which takes place in mitochondria.
Micobial metabolism
Microbes are microorganisms which means they cannot be seen with the naked eye and we use a microscope to see and observe them.
Types of Metabolism
1) Mitochondria are known as power houses of cell. The mitochondria .pdf
1) Mitochondria are known as power houses of cell. The mitochondria are the double membrane
structure that can grow, fuse with one another and capable of dividing. During the replication of
mitochondrial DNA the mitochondria become double in size. They are oval in structure with
plain outer membrane and the inner membrane exhibits folding known as cristae. The inner
membrane encloses mitochondrial matrix. The matrix contains the DNA and enzymes involved
in citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle.
The cristae lodge the enzymes required in the electron transport chain to carry out the process of
oxidative phosphorylation. The energy is produced through a series of steps in which the
electrons are transported and the protons are pumped out of the matrix into the inner space
between the two membranes creating the electron potential gradient across the membranes. The
protons flow back to the matrix through an enzyme complex known as ATP synthase that is
found in cristae and utilizes the energy produced by the flow of protons to phosphorylate the
ADP forming the ATP.
2) uncoupler or uncoupling protein (UCP) is a mitochondrial protein located in the inner
membrane. These are involved in inhibition of the coupling between the electron transport and
phosphorylation reactions. As a result, synthesis of ATP is inhibited without affecting the
respiratory chain and ATP synthase (H+ -ATPase).
3) Under availability of oxygen the cell is more efficient in the energy. Under anaerobic
conditions the process of glucose breakdown cannot proceed further after glycolysis. The
glycolysis takes place in the cytosol producing 2 ATP molecules per each glucose molecule.
In presence of oxygen or under aerobic conditions the process of glycolysis further proceeds for
mitochondrial processing including the citric acid cycle and the electron transport system. This
process supplies enough energy to produce 30 more ATP molecules comprising to the total yield
of 32 ATP molecules per glucose molecule at the end of aerobic respiration. Thus, the ATP
molecules produced are 2 by glycolysis 2 by citric acid cycle and 28 by oxidative
phosphorylation. Hence, aerobic respiration is an energy efficient process than anaerobic
respiration.
Solution
1) Mitochondria are known as power houses of cell. The mitochondria are the double membrane
structure that can grow, fuse with one another and capable of dividing. During the replication of
mitochondrial DNA the mitochondria become double in size. They are oval in structure with
plain outer membrane and the inner membrane exhibits folding known as cristae. The inner
membrane encloses mitochondrial matrix. The matrix contains the DNA and enzymes involved
in citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle.
The cristae lodge the enzymes required in the electron transport chain to carry out the process of
oxidative phosphorylation. The energy is produced through a series of steps in which the
electrons are transported and the protons are pumped out of the matrix into .
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Bioenergetics
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and energy in the form of glucose. It occurs in two stages - the light-dependent reactions where solar energy is captured and converted to ATP and NADPH, and the light-independent Calvin cycle where carbon is fixed into sugars like glucose. Chloroplasts are the organelles where photosynthesis takes place, containing chlorophyll and an internal membrane system where the light reactions occur. The sugars produced through photosynthesis provide the main source of food and energy throughout the biosphere.
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Mitochondria and ATP production
- 1. MITOCHONDRIA and ATP PRODUCTION Susaldi, M.Biomed.
- 2. Mitochondria Mitochondria are the energy organelles, or “power plants,” of the cell; they extract energy from the nutrients in food and transform it into a usable form for cell activities. A single cell may contain as few as a hundred or as many as several thousand mitochondria.
- 3. The electron transport proteins embedded in the cristae are ultimately responsible for converting much of the energy of food into a usable form.
- 4. MITOCHONDRIA PLAY A MAJOR ROLE IN GENERATING ATP Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Which consists of adenosine with three phosphate groups attached (tri means “three”) Adenosine Nukleotida Purin 3 fosfat Ion Poliatomik (turunan Fosfor) Pembentukan Energi mitochondria
- 5. MITOCHONDRIA PLAY A MAJOR ROLE IN GENERATING ATP The source of energy for the body is the chemical energy stored in the carbon bonds of ingested food. Body cells are not equipped to use this energy directly. Instead, the cells must extract energy from food nutrients and convert it into a form they can use—namely, the high-energy phosphate bond.
- 6. ATP ADP Pi Energy for use by the cell splitting + + In this energy scheme, food can be thought of as the “crude fuel” and ATP as the “refined fuel” for operating the body’s machinery.
- 7. Citric Acid Cycle The pyruvate produced by glycolysis in the cytosol is selectively transported into the mitochondrial matrix. Glycolysis Among the thousands of enzymes in the cytosol are the those responsible for glycolysis, a chemical process involving 10 sequential reactions that break down a six-carbon sugar molecule, glucose, into two pyruvate molecules, each with three carbons (glyc means “sweet”; lysis means “break- down”). Oxidative Phosphorylation Considerable untapped energy is still stored in the released hydrogens, which contain electrons at high energy levels. Oxidative phosphorylation refers to the process by which ATP is synthesized using the energy released by electrons as they are transferred to O2. This process involves two groups of proteins, both located at the inner mitochondrial membrane: the electron transport system and ATP synthase.
- 9. SUMMARY OF ATP PRODUCTION FROM THE COMPLETE OXIDATION OF ONE MOLECULE OF GLUCOSE The total of 32 ATP assumes that electrons carried by each NADH yield 2.5 ATP and those carried by each FADH2 yield 1.5 ATP during oxidative phosphorylation.
- 10. COMPARISON OF ENERGY YIELD AND PRODUCTS UNDER ANAEROBIC AND AEROBIC CONDITIONS In anaerobic conditions, only 2 ATP are produced for every glucose molecule processed, but in aerobic conditions a total of 32 ATP are produced per glucose molecule.
- 11. TERIMA KASIH