This document provides information about minerals and crystals, including their properties and classification. It discusses how minerals are composed of elements or chemicals and can form in crystalline shapes or shapeless masses. It also describes the eight main mineral groups based on their chemical composition, including native elements, silicates, oxides, sulfides, sulfates, halides, carbonates, and phosphates. The rest of the document discusses the properties of different birthstones for each month.

1. Prepared By:
Arianne Cano & Anne Bautista
TVL-2

2. MINERALS
 Minerals are made of elements. Elements
are simple substances that cannot be broken
down into any other substance. The name of
an element is written down as a combination
of letters called a symbol.
 A mineral is composed of the same
substance throughout.
 Minerals are made of chemicals either a
single chemical or a combination of
chemicals.

3.  People value and search for minerals
for many different reasons. Most are
useful as they are the raw materials of
the metals we manufacture into goods.
 Minerals are either found in shapeless
lumps which we call massive or they
can form into the special shapes we
recognize a crystals.
 Most minerals form within the spaces
between other minerals and grow into
rough shapeless masses.

4. CRYSTALS
 Crystals are minerals that have the chance
to grow in the shape that they were meant to
be.
 Crystals form when the liquid rock from
inside the earth cool and harden.
 Sometimes crystal form when liquids
underground find their way into cracks and
slowly deposit minerals.
 Crystals do not have to be clear, but those
are the kinds you will usually see in the
stores.

6. PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 Colors- Most minerals have a distinctive color
that can be used for identification.
 Streak is the color of the mineral in powdered
form. Streak shows the true color of the mineral.
 Hardness is a measure of the mineral’s
resistance to scratching.
 Cleavage: if a mineral breaks or splits apart
with smooth surfaces in certain directions.
 Fracture: if a mineral breaks with a rough or
jagged surfaces
 Luster: The way a mineral reflects light.
 Density: Weight of a mineral

8. CLASSIFICATION
OF MINERALS

9. NATIVE ELEMENTS
 This is the category of
the pure. Most minrals
are made up of
combinations of
chemical elements. In
this group a single
element like the copper
shown here are found
in a naturally pure form.

10. SILICATES
 This is the largest group
of minerals. Silicates
are made from metals
combined with silicon
and oxygen. There are
more silicates than all
other minerals put
together. The mica on
the left is a member of
this group.

11. OXIDES
 Oxides form from the
combination of a metal
with oxygen. This group
ranges from dull ores
like bauxite to gems like
rubies and sapphires.
The magnetic pictured
to the left is a member
of this group.

12. SULFIDES
 Sulfides are made of
compounds of sulfur
usually with a metal.
They tend to be heavy
and brittle. Several
important metal ores
come from this group
like the pyrite pictured
here that is an iron ore.

13. SLUFATES
 Are made of
compounds of sulfur
combined with metals
and oxygen. It is a large
group of minerals that
tend to be soft, and
translucent like this
barite.

14. HALIDES
 Halides form from
halogen elements like
chlorine, bromine,
fluorine, and iodine
combined with metallic
elements. They are very
soft and easily dissolved
in water. Halite is a well-
known example of this
group. Its chemical
formula is NaCl or sodium
chloride commonly known
table salt.

15. CARBONATES
 Carbonates are a group
of minerals made of
carbon, oxygen and a
metallic element. This
calcite known as
calcium carbonate is
the most common of
the carbonate group.

16. PHOSPHATES
 Phosphates are not as
common in occurrence
as the other families of
minerals are broken
down by weathering.
They are often brightly
colored.

17. MINERALOIDS
 Is a term used for those
substances that do not
fit neatly into one of
these eight classes:
opal, jet, amber, and
mother of pearl all
belong to the
mineraloids.

18. BIRTHSTONES

20. JANUARY: GARNET
 The word “garnet” comes from the 14th Century
Middle English word “gernet” meaning dark red.
 The garnet is very durable gemstone found all
over the world.
 The folklore on garnet is very extensive. Legend
has it that can bring peace, prosperity and good
health to the home. Some even called it “Gem of
Faith” and it’s believed that to those who wear it
and do good, more good will come.
 The garnet also symbolized deep and
everlasting friendship. With that legend in mind,
give you garnet to someone whose friendship
you deeply value.

22. FEBRUARY: AMETHYST
 Some historical accounts say that Saint
Valentine had an amethyst ring carved with an
image of Cupid. And for those familiar with Old
testament history, amethyst was one of the
twelve gemstones that represented twelve tribes
of Israel.
 One of the most precious gemstones, often
favored by royalty or the clergy as symbol for
the diety of Christ.
 Leonard Da Vinci once said that amethyst helps
to quicken intelligence and get rid of evil
thought. Other qualities like peace, stability,

24. MARCH: AQUAMARINE AND BLOODSTONE
 The name aquamarine is derived from the
Latin word aqua, meaning water, and marina,
meaning the sea. It’s also used to celebrate
19th wedding anniversaries.
 Bloodstone is also called heliotrope, a word
from the ancient Greek that means “to turn
the sun” and also known as Blood
Jasper.Today, many still cherish bloodstone
as a lucky charm or amulet and is prized by
athletes or those who wish to increase their
personal strength.

26. APRIL: DIAMOND
 The hardest gemstone and is made of just one
just element: carbon. It’s unique physical
properties means it has the best possible luster
of any gemstone when cut and polished.
 Throughout history, however, the diamond has
nearly always symbolized eternal and lasting
love. So whether you’re getting engaged, or
simply want to give yourself a truly meaningful
gift, the diamond has both beauty and enduring
symbolism.
 Many thought the diamond could cure brain
disease, alleviate pituitary gland disorders and
draw toxins from the blood.

28. MAY: EMERALD
 The emerald, a symbol of rebirth, is believed to grant
the owner foresight, good fortune and youth. Emerald,
derived from the word “smaragdus”, means, quite
literally, “green” in Greek.
 Cleopatra is perhaps the most famous historical figure
to cherish emeralds.She even claimed ownership of all
emerald mines in Egypt during her reign.
 Today, emerald is a symbol of loyalty, new beginnings,
peace and security, making it not only a beautiful gift to
be treasured by the receiver.
 There were those who thought the emerald could cure
stomach problems, control epilepsy and stop bleeding.
Maybe, due to its soothing green color, it was also
thought to be able to ward offpanic and keep the
wearer relaxed and serene.

30. JUNE: PEARL, MOONSTONE & ALEXANDRITE
 The name “pearl” comes from the Old French
perle, from the Latin perna meaning “leg”,
referencing the leg-of-mutton shape of an open
mollusk shell. Because perfectly round, smooth
natural pearls are so uncommon, the word
“pearl” can refer to anything rare and valuable.
Pearls symbolize purity and innocence , which
is why it’s tradition for a bride to wear pearls on
her wedding day.

31.  Legends claim that it was discovered in 1834
on the same day that future Russian Czar
Alexander II came of age, hence the name
honoring him. “emerald by day,ruby by night”.
Associated with concentration and learning,
alexandrite is believed to strengthen intuition,
aid creativity and inspire imagination.
 As its name implies, moonstones is closely
associated with lunar mystery and magic.
Moonstones acts as the ultimate fertility
crystal by sparking passion in new lovers and
reuniting old ones. Moonstones is used to
treat insomnia, sleepwalking, encourage
sound sleep and create beneficial dreams.

33. JULY: RUBY
 Accordingly, the name “ruby” comes from
rubeus, the Latin word for red. In ancient
Sanskrit, ruby translated to ratnaraj, which
meant “king of precious stones”. These fiery
gems have been treasured throughout
history for their vitality.
 Due to its deep red color, ruby has long been
associated with the life force and vitality of
blood. It is believed to amplify energy,
heighten awareness, promote courage and
bring success in wealth, love and battle.

35. AUGUST: PERIDOT, SARDONYX, SPINEL
 Most scholars agree that the word “peridot” is
derived from the Arabic faridat which means
“gem”, but some believe it’s rooted in the
Greek word peridona, meaning “giving
plenty”. Perhaps that’s why peridot is
associated with prosperity and good fortune.
Also known as “the evening emerald”.
Peridot is said to possess healing properties
that protect against nightmares and evil,
ensuring peace and happiness.

36.  Sardonyx combines alternating layers of
sand and onyx. Its name similarly, combines
sard with onyx. Used as a stone of strength
and protection since ancient times, sardonyx
is associated with courage, happiness and
clear communication.
 The spinel is often assumed to be other
gemstones because it tends to resemble
either ruby or sapphire.

38. SEPTEMBER: SAPPHIRE
 A precious gem of wisdom, loyalty and nobility,
sincerity and integrity. This stone is said to focus
the mind, encourage self-discipline and the
channel higher power.
 Sapphire come in every color except red, which
earn the classification of rubies instead.
 The name “sapphire” comes from the Latin
sapphirus and Greek sappheiros meaning “blue
stone”, though those words may have originally
reffered to lapis lazuli. Some believe it
originated from the Sanskrit word sanipriya
which meant “dear to Saturn”.

40. OCTOBER: TOURMALINE & OPAL
 The name “tourmaline” comes from the
Sinhalese words tura mali, which mean “stone
of mixed colors”. As its name implies, tourmaline
stands apart from other gems with is broas
spectrum of colors in every shade of the
rainbow.Today, many still elieve that it can shield
against radiation, pollutants, toxins and negative
thoughts.
 The name “opal” originates from the Greek word
opallios, which meant “to see a change in color”.
Opal’s characteristics “play-of-color” in the
1960’s. For centuries, people have associated
this gem with good luck, the opal can be bad

42. NOVEMBER: TOPAZ & CITRINE
 The name topaz derives from Topazios, the
ancient Greek name for Saint John’s Island in the
Red Sea. Although the yellow stones famously
mine there probably weren’t topaz, it soon
bacame the name for most yellowish stone.
Topaz is a soothing stone that has been said to
calm tempers, cure madness, and eliminate
nightmares.
 It takes its name from the citron fruit because of
these lemon-inspired shades. Citrine is
sometimes known as the “healing quartz” for its
ability to comfort, soothe and calm. It can release
negative feelings, spark imagination and
manifest fresh beginnings. It’s even called the
“merchant’s stone” for its tendency to attract

44. DECEMBER:TANZANITE, ZIRCON, TURQUOISE
 These gems range from the oldest on Earth (zircon), to
one of the first mined and used in jewelry (turquoise), to
one of the most recently discovered (tanzanite).
 Tanzanite is only found on Tanzania
 The name zircon likely comes from the Persian word
zargun, meaning “gold-colored”. Others trace it to the
Arabic zarkun, meaning “vermillion”. Since the Middle
Ages, people believe that zircon can induce sleep, ward
off evil and prosperity.
 The word turquoise dates back to the 13th century,
drawing from the French expression pierre tourques,
which referenced the “Turkish Stone” brought to Europe
from Turkey. It adorned everything from jewelry to
ceremonial masks to weapons and bridles- granting
power and protection, particularly falls.

46. ROCKS

47.  In rock or stone is a naturally occuring solid
aggregate of one or more minerals or
mineraloids.
 For example, the common rock granite is a
combination of the quartz, feldspar, and
biotite minerals. The Earth’s outer solid layer,
the lithosphere, is made of rock.
 Rocks have been used by mankind
throughout history. From the stone age, rocks
have been used for tools. The minerals and
metals found in rocks have been essential to
human civilization.

48.  Three major groups of rocks are defined:
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
 The scientific study of rocks is called
petrology, which is an essential component of
geology.

49. IGNEOUS ROCK
 Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word
igneus meaning of fire, from ignis meaning
fire) forms through the cooling and
solidification of magma or lava.
 This magma can be derived from partial
melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planet’s
mantle or crust. Typically, the melting of
rocks is caused by one or more of three
processes: an increase in temperature, a
decrease in pressure or a change in
composition.

50. IGNEOUS ROCK
 Igneous Rock are divided into two main
categories: plutonic or intrusive rocks result
when magma cools and crystallizes slowly
within the Earth’s crust. A common example of
this type is granite. Volcanic or extrusive rocks
result from magma reaching the surface either
as lave or fragmental ejecta , forming minerals
such as pumice or basalt. The chemical
abundance and the rate of cooling of magma
typically forms a sequence known as Bowen’s
reaction series. Most major igneous rock are
found along this scale.

52. KINDS OF IGNEOUS ROCK
 GRANITE contains quartz, feldspar & mica.
 DIORITE contains feldspar& one or more
dark mineral. Feldspar is dominant.
 GABBRO contains feldspar & one or more
dark mineral. The dark minerals are
dominant.
 PERIODOTITE contains iron and is black or
dark.
 PEGMATITE is a coarse-grained granite with
large crystals of quartz, feldspar & mica.

54. SEDIMENTARY ROCK
 Sedimentary Rocks are formed at the earth’s
surface by the accumulation and cementation of
fragments of earlier rocks, minerals, and
organisms or as chemical precipitates and
organic growths in water (sedimentation). This
process causes clastic sediments (pieces of
rock) or organic particles (detritus) to settle and
accumulate, or for minerals to chemically
precipitate (evaporite) from a solution. The
particulate matter the undergoes compaction
and cementation during at moderate
temperatures and pressures (diagenesis).

56. KINDS OF SEDIMENTARY ROCK
 CONGLOMERATE rock has rounded rocks (pebbles,
boulders) cemented together in a matrix
 SANDSTONE is a soft stone that is made when sand
grains cement together. Sometimes the sandstone is
deposited in layers of different color sand.
 SHALE is clay that has been hardened and turned
into rock. It often breaks apart in large flat sections.
 LIMESTONE is a rock that contains many fossils and
is made of calcium carbonate and/or microscopic
shells.
 GYPSUM, common salt s the water evaporates.
 BRECCIA has jagged bits of rock cemented together
in a matrix.

58. METAMORPHIC ROCK
 Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting
any rock type – sedimentary rock, igneous rock
or another older metamorphic rock – to different
temperature and pressure conditions than those
in which the original rock was formed. This
process is called metamorphism; meaning “to
change in form”. The result is a profound
change in physical properties and chemistry of
the stone. The original rock, known as the
protolith, transforms into other mineral types or
other forms of the same minerals, by
recrystallization.

59. The temperatures and pressures
requied for this process are always
higher than those found at the
Earth’s surface: temperature greater
than 150 to 200 degrees celsius
and pressures of 1500 bars.
Metamorphic rocks compose 27.4%
of the crust by the volume.

61. KINDS OF METAMORPHIC ROCK
 SLATE is transformed shale. It splits into
smooth slabs.
 SCHIST is the most common metamorphic
rock. Mica is the most common mineral.
 GNEISS has a streaky look because of
alternating layers of minerals.
 MARBLE is transformed limestone.
 QUARTZITE is very hard.

62.  The use of rocks has had a huge impact
on the cultural and technological
development of the human race. Rocks
have been used by humans and other
hominids for atleast 2.5 million years.
Lithic technology marks some of the oldest
and continuously used technologies.
 The mining of rocks for their metal are
content has been one of the most
important factors of human advancement,
which has progressed at different rates in
different places in part because of the kind
of metals available from the rocks of a
region.

64. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCK
 TEXTURE has to do with the sizes and
shapes of mineral grains and other
constituents in a rock, and how these sizes
and shapes relate to each other.
 The kinds of minerals and their proportions
or mineralogy are taken as the natural
expression of COMPOSITION.

65. ROCK CYCLE
 Is a group of changes. Igneous rock can change
into sedimentary rock or into metamorphic rock.
Sedimentary rock can change into metamorphic
rock or into igneous rock. Metamorphic rock can
change into change into igneous or sedimentary
rock.
 Rock come from magma, which is the molten
material found within the earth. When magma
cools, either above or below the earth’s surface,
it crystallizes and forms the igneous rocks that
can later be changed into metamorphic or
sedimentary rock.